SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTIST

HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL

HARIPURA, AHMEDABAD.

IX
Biology
Mr. Sam Rathod.
 Unit-1
Chapter-2
The Cell
 TOPICS COVERED IN THIS CHAPTER
 The cell
 Cell theory
 Cell size, shape and composition
 Cell structure
 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell
 Animal and Plant cell
 The Cell
• A cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
• A cell is the basic unit of life.
• Cells are tiny building blocks that make up all living things.
 History of discovery
• In 17th century with the invention of microscope, the discovery of cell took place
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632 - 1723), a Dutch lens maker and microscopist, was the first
to observe and describe about some minute microscopic organisms in rainwater.
• But he was not the one who called it ‘cell’. He called these organisms “animalcules”.
• The term ‘cell’ (from Latin word cella meaning hollow space) was given by an English
scientist, Robert Hooke in 1665
• He observed a thin slice of cork which composed of hollow compartments, forming a
honeycomb structure.
• He named this compartments as cells.
 Cell Theory
• It was proposed by three different scientist in Germany at different time, but there findings
were related and this findings formed the Cell Theory.
 M.J. Schleiden, 1838 a German botanist.
 Theodor Schwann, 1839 a German zoologist.
 Rudolf Virchow, 1858 a German pathologist.
• Schleiden, proposed that all plants are made up of cell.
• Schwann, made a similar observation about animals and said that all living beings are made
up of cell.
• Virchow, stated (in Latin) ‘Omnis cellula e cellula” (means ‘Every cell of the cell’) i.e. All
cell arise from pre-existing cell.
• From this three observations the three points of cell theory were derived which are stated as:
 All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
 A cell is the unit of structure and function of all living beings.
 New cells arise from pre-existing cells.
• Viruses are an exception to cell theory.
 Microscope
• It is an instrument used to magnify (enlarge) objects, that are too small to be seen by the
unaided (naked) eye.
• There are basic three types of microscope:
1) Simple Microscope: Single lens, 10x
2) Compound/Light Microscope: Double lenses (eye piece and objective lens), uses
visible light and have 1500x
3) Electron Microscope: Its development took place between 1930 to 1946, uses beam
od electron instead of visible light to illuminate the object and achieves 2,00,000x
 • Cell organelles like ER, mitochondria, chloroplast, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes
and centrosomes were known only after using an electron microscope.
 Cell Size, Shape and Composition
• Cells vary in shape and size in different organisms, and also in different parts of the same
organism.
• The shape and size of cells are in fact related to the function they perform.
• For example, nerve cells are very long and branched so that an efficient communication
system is established with in the entire body.
 Cell Size
• Cells are extremely small, and can only be seen when magnified.
• Cells are measured in micrometers (mm); also known as microns (m).
• The smallest cell is a mycoplasma cell (a bacterium about 0.1m in diameter).
• The longest are nerve cells, about a meter in length.
• The largest cells are represented by eggs of birds; ostrich eggs measured about 170 x 135mm.
• 1 mm (10-3m) = 1000 (mm)
 Cell Shape
• The shape of cells are more variable than their size.
• Cells may be spherical, oval, elliptical, spindle shaped, cuboidal, polygonal, columnar, or flat
plate like.
• The cell shape is often related to the function it performs. For example:
• Xylem and phloem elements are elongated tubular structures so, as to help in
conduction of water and minerals.
• The muscle cells are elongated and contractile, which helps in the movement of
bones.
• Guard cells in leaves are kidney shaped, so that stomata can open or close.
 Cell Number
• Based on the number of cells present we divide the living organisms into two types;
Unicellular and Multicellular organisms
• Unicellular Organisms: Made of only one cell. Example; Bacteria, Amoeba,
Paramecium, Euglena.
• Multicellular Organisms: A majority of the organisms are multicellular i.e. they
consist of millions of cells. Example; Most fungi, plants and animals.
 Cell Composition
• The cell is composed of a ‘life giving substance’, which is referred as ‘protoplasm’ which is
present in the cell.
• The term ‘protoplasm’ was given by J.E. Purkinje, in 1839. Where (Protos = first, plasma
= form).
• Chemically, it is an aggregate of various organic and inorganic molecules – about 75% water,
10 – 15% carbohydrates, 2 – 10% proteins, 1 – 10% fats and about 1% minerals. Nucleic
acids are also present.
 Relation between Cell Structure and Function
• To illustrate let us study some examples;
 Root hair cell
• Being long and narrow, the root hair increases the surface area to volume ratio of the cell for
efficient absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil.
 Xylem vessel
• The xylem vessel is a narrow, cylindrical tube enclosing a continuous space (due to absence
of cross walls) called the lumen. The vessel is dead because there is no protoplasm, which
enables water to move easily through the lumen. Deposited on its wall is a hard substance
called lignin, which prevents collapse of the vessel.
 Red blood cell
• The red blood cells help in the transport of oxygen from lungs to all parts of body. Its circular,
biconcave shape increases surface to volume ratio. As a result oxygen can diffuse into and out
of the whole cell at a faster rate.
 Cell Structure
• Cells, whether of plants or animals, consist of three regions as shown in the figure below.
1) Cell or plasma membrane – an extremely thin outer boundary of cytoplasm,
2) Cytoplasm – a fluid jelly, transparent, often appearing granular, and
3) Nucleus – surrounded by its own double walled nuclear membrane and always surrounded by
cytoplasm.
• Cytosol = Jelly like fluid of cell.
• Cytoplasm = Cytosol + Cell organelles + Inclusions.
• Protoplasm = Cytosol + Cell organelles + Inclusions + Nucleus.
 Cell or Plasma membrane
• It forms the outer covering of each cell.
• It consist of lipids and proteins.
• It encloses nucleus and cytoplasm.
• It is a living delicate semi-permeable (also called selectively or partially permeable)
membrane.
• In animal cell it forms the outermost boundary of the cell
• In plant cell it is present between the cytoplasm and the cell wall.
 Functions
• It acts as a mechanical barrier and protects the inner cell contents.
• It has fine pores which regulates the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.
 Cell wall
• It is present in bacteria, blue green algae, fungi and plant cell.
• It is a rigid, non-living boundary wall out side the cell membrane.
• It is freely permeable.
• In plant cell it is made up of cellulose.
• In fungi it is made up of chitin.
 • In bacteria and blue green algae it is made up of a complex compound made of muramic acid
and peptidoglycan.
 Functions
• Provides rigidity, structural strength and definite shape to the cell.
 Nucleus
• It was discovered by Robert Brown in 1831, and he named it ‘areola’.
• It is the most important part of the cell, it controls all the cell activities.
• It is found as a spherical or oval structure, usually located in the center of the cell.
• Some cells like the sieve tube cells of vascular plants and the red blood cells of mammals,
lack nuclei at maturity(i.e. the nuclei is present in their early stages only). This cells cannot
survive for long.
• It comprises of the following components; Nuclear membrane, Nuclear sap (nucleoplasm),
Nucleolus and Chromatin material. Which can be seen in the following figure.
i. Nuclear membrane
• It separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
• It is a double membrane structure, the outer and inner membrane has space between them.
• It has many pores, which are referred as Nuclear pores.
• This pores allow exchange of material between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
ii. Nuclear sap (nucleoplasm)
• It is the cytoplasm within nuclear membrane.
• Chromatin and nucleoli are suspended in this fluid.
iii. Nucleolus (plural nucleoli)
• It is a spherical body inside the nucleus.
• It lacks a membrane
• It is rich in proteins and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
• It is responsible for formation of ribosomes and protein synthesis.
iv. Chromatin material
• It is a thread like structure.
• It mainly consist of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
• Its main function is to store and transmit heredity information from one generation to another.
• During cell division, chromatin forms rod-like bodies called chromosomes, which are definite
in number.
• Chromosomes bear many extremely minute particles called the genes.
• Chemically, genes are segments of DNA.
 Functions of Nucleus
• It is the chief controlling center of the cell.
• It contain chromosomes which carry the genes.
• Genes are responsible for transmission of hereditary characters from one generation to
another.
 • It controls the metabolic activities of the cell.
• It also plays an important role in synthesis and regulation of the activity of enzymes for the
various metabolic activities.
 Cytoplasm
• It is the living component of the cell.
• It is surrounded by the cell membrane.
• It is transparent, semifluid granular substance.
• Its main component is water (up to 90%).
• It also contain proteins, fats, carbohydrates and inorganic materials.
• A number of cell organelles such as mitochondria, ER, Golgi apparatus, plastids, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, ribosomes and centrosomes are also present in it.
 Cell Organelles
• This are very small components present inside the cell.
• Their structure and function were understood only after the invention of the electron
microscope.
• This are; mitochondria, ER, Golgi apparatus, plastids, lysosomes, peroxisomes, ribosomes,
centrosomes and vacuole.
 Mitochondria (The power house)
• Singular ‘Mitochondrion’ is a cytoplasmic organelle.
• It is found in plants and animal cells.
• It is a double membrane, rod shaped structure.
• Its outer membrane is smooth.
• On other hand its inner membrane is folded into a large number of finger like structure called
‘cristae’.
• Since, it is involved in production of energy, it is generally referred as “powerhouse of the
cell”.
• Functionally it forms the site of cellular respiration and are involved in the formation of
energy rich molecules called ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• It is an irregular network of membranes (double walled) enclosing a fluid filled lumen.
• Depending on the presence or absence of ribosomes on the surface of ER, these are of two
types –
a) Rough ER (ER with ribosomes), and
b) Smooth ER (ER without ribosomes).
• At its one end it is connected to cell membrane whereas at the other end it joins internuclear
membrane.
• Functionally, ER is the site of protein and fat synthesis, which are used for production of new
cell membrane during cell division.
• As it is a membranous network, it also provides mechanical support to the cytoplasm.
• It also acts as a pathway for the distribution of materials.
 Golgi body
• It consist of smooth, flattened, membrane-bound (double walled), sac like tubular structure.
• These tubular structure are frequently associated with vesicles and vacuoles.
• The smaller Golgi apparatus (vesicles) in plants is called dictyosome.
• Functionally, it is a secretory organelle of the cell and it secretes enzymes and hormones, etc.
 Ribosome
• They are tiny, non-membranous granules present in the cytoplasm.
• They are found attached to the surface of ER as well as free in the cytoplasm.
• They are rich in RNA (ribonucleic acid) and proteins.
• Functionally, it is the site of protein synthesis in the cell.
 Lysosome
• These are small spherical bodies surrounded by a single walled membrane.
• Contains powerful enzymes used for digesting organic material, it act as an intracellular
digestive system; hence called, digestive bags.
• They are even capable of digesting or lysing the entire cell. For this reason, it is also called
suicidal bags.
• Functionally, it can destroy foreign bodies such as bacteria or damaged cells and etc.
• During prolonged starvation lysosomes digest the stored food to provide energy for cellular
metabolism.
 Centrosome and Centriole
• Centrosome is a small structure situated close to the nucleus only in animal cells.
• In plant cells, centrosome is absent and polar caps perform the function of centrosome.
• During cell division, the centrioles develop a number of radiating threads or rays. The whole
structure (centriole and rays) is then called an aster.
• Functionally, centrosome forms spindle fibres during cell division.
• Centriole takes part in the formation of cilia and flagella.
 Plastids
• They are the largest cytoplasmic organelles found only in plant cells and photosynthetic
microorganisms.
• They are absent in animal cells.
• They are easily visible under a light microscope.
• Based on the pigments present in the plastids they are of three types:
a) Leucoplasts (colourless plastids). They store starch.
b) Chloroplasts (green plastids), and
c) Chromoplasts (coloured plastids, other than green). They can be orange, yellow or
red. They possess xanthophyll, carotene and anthocyanin.
  Chloroplast – Kitchen of the cell.
• It contains the pigment chlorophyll.
• Chlorophyll traps the solar energy and uses it for food manufacturing, this process is called
photosynthesis.
• Thus, chloroplast forms the site of photosynthesis and hence, it is called ‘kitchen of the cell’.
• It is large, spherical, ovoid or disc shaped organelle surrounded by a double walled
membrane.
• Inner content of chloroplast is clearly marked into a colourless ground matrix called stroma,
and a membranous system called grana (singular granum).
• They possess a DNA and are able to divide.
 General functions of Plastids.
• Leucoplasts are meant for storage of starch grains and oil.
• Chromoplasts are responsible for the characteristic colour found in flowers and fruits.
• Chloroplasts are responsible for food manufacturing, i.e., photosynthesis is the most
important function of this organelle.
 Vacuole
• Vacuoles are fluid filled cavities present in the cytoplasm.
• The watery fluid of the vacuoles is called cell sap.
• It is surrounded by a single membrane called tonoplast.
• In a mature plant cell, a large permanent central vacuole is present, it occupies up to 90% of
the cell volume.
• In animal cells, vacuoles are generally absent. But if present they are usually much smaller
and temporary.
• Functionally, it helps to provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
• It also acts as a storehouse of pigments, waste products, useful minerals and salts.
 Cell Inclusions – apart from all the cell organelles, a number of non-living substances are present
in the cytoplasm which are formed as a result of cell metabolism. This includes reserve storage
materials, like starch and oil, inorganic crystals like those of silica, calcium carbonate and calcium
oxalate and secretory granules.

 Protoplasm: The living substance – It is the total living substance present in a cell, i.e.,
everything with in the cell membrane.
 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell
 Prokaryotic cell
• A well organised nucleus is absent. Nuclear region called nucleoid is not surrounded by
nuclear membrane. This type of nucleus is also referred to as incipient nucleus.
• The chromatin material is represented by a single circular (double stranded) DNA molecule
(chromosome).
• Nucleolus is absent.
• Membrane bound organelles like ER, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus are absent.
• Organisms possessing prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes.
• E.g.: bacteria and blue green algae.
  Eukaryotic cell
• Nucleus is well organised i.e., nuclear material is surrounded by nuclear membrane.
• It contains many chromosomes.
• Nucleolus is present.
• All the membrane bound organelles are present.
• Organisms possessing eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes.
• E.g.: plants and animals.
 Animal and Plant Cell
 Animal cell
• Cells are usually small in size.
• Cell wall is absent.
• Plastids are absent.
• Vacuoles are generally absent, if present they are more in number and smaller in size.
• Prominent Golgi bodies are present.
• Lysosomes are more in number.
• Centrosomes and centrioles are present.
 Plant cell
• Cells are comparatively larger in size.
• Cell wall is present.
• Plastids are present.
• Vacuoles are generally present but only one or two large vacuoles present.
• Dictyosomes (subunit of Golgi body) are present.
• Lysosomes are either absent or very few in number.
• Centrosomes and centrioles are absent, instead polar bodies are present.