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Neuroimaging in Intracerebral Hemorrhage: Topical Reviews
Neuroimaging in Intracerebral Hemorrhage: Topical Reviews
Section Editors: Larry Goldstein, MD, FAAN, FANA, FAHA, and Anne Abbott, PhD, MBBS, FRACP
Received September 30, 2013; final revision received November 28, 2013; accepted December 3, 2013.
From the Stroke Unit and Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy.
Correspondence to Valeria Caso, PhD, MD, Stroke Unit and Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Perugia, Santa Maria della Misericordia
Hospital, Sant’ Andrea delle Fratte, 06126 Perugia, Italy. E-mail vcaso@hotmail.com
(Stroke. 2014;45:903-908.)
© 2014 American Heart Association, Inc.
Stroke is available at http://stroke.ahajournals.org DOI: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.003701
903
904 Stroke March 2014
Table 1. Intracerebral Hemorrhage (ICH) Classification the lesion area tends to shrink and become less intense, los-
According to Causes ing ≈1.5 Houndsfield units per day. The periphery of the lesion
tends to take on an uneven profile, which acquires a pseudoab-
Primary Causes Secondary Causes
scess (ring-like) appearance, as seen on contrast. Reductions in
● Hypertension ● Hemorrhage conversion of ischemic stroke edema and mass effect can also occur up until the ninth week,
● Cerebral amyloid angiopathy ● Stimulant drugs when only a confined region of modest hypodensity can be
● Vascular malformation
observed on CT.23
○ Aneurysms
○ Arteriovenous malformation Contrast-enhanced CTA is able to identify patients at high
○ Venous angioma risk of hemorrhage enlargement (HE), by revealing a spot
○ Cavernoma sign, which is a contrast medium extravasation within the
○ Dural arteriovenous fistula hematoma.24 Spot sign is highly predictive of HE and has been
● Coagulopathy
reported to have a positive predictive value of 73%, a negative
○ Hereditary
predictive value of 84%, sensitivity of 63%, and specificity of
○ Acquired
○ Iatrogenic (anticoagulants, antiplatelets) 90%.25 HE usually occurs in 30% of patients with ICH <3 hours
● Neoplasms of symptom onset,26 and the frequency of spot sign is highest
● Trauma in patients presenting <3 hours, but its accuracy in predicting
● Vasculitis HE remains high, regardless of time from symptom onset.27
● Moyamoya disease
Furthermore, spot sign is associated with poor prognosis, high
● Sinus venous thrombosis
rates of early clinical deterioration, high mortality, more severe
clinical presentation, and decompression of the hemorrhage into
and its characteristics should be incorporated into the CT scan- the intraventricular space.25,28–33 ICH volume ≥30 cm3 together
ner consoles, because this can allow the operator to obtain such with Glasgow Coma Scale score, presence of intraventricular
information accurately in a timely manner.14 CT scan is also blood, and age ≥80 years have been included as independent
able to determine the approximate age of hematomas, by eval- variables for 30-day mortality in the ICH score developed by
uating for the density of the lesions measured in Houndsfield Hemphill et al.34 The utility of detecting the spot sign on clinical
units, according to the value of x-ray attenuation corrected for decision making and outcome improvement remains question-
the attenuation coefficient of water. The Houndsfield units for able. So, patients with spot sign are amenable to other studies,35
water is equal to 0, blood is between 30 and 45, gray substance with the purpose of demonstrating the feasibility of CTA in
is between 37 and 45, white substance is between 20 and 30, the hyperacute phase and the reliability of spot sign in emer-
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whereas bone is between 700 and 3000.18,19 At onset, hematoma gency setting for guiding the therapy with factor VII or other
is commonly seen as uniform and smooth hyperintense signals prothrombotic to avoid HE and, therefore, a worse outcome.36
on CT. Over the course of the first 48 hours, large hematomas CTAs performed <96 hours from symptom onset have a
tend to show fluid levels, indicating that they are not solidified high accuracy for predicting underlying vascular anoma-
yet.20 To this regard, fluid blood levels have been defined as a lies, with sensitivities ≥95% and specificities approaching
horizontal interface between hypodense bloody serum layered 100%. Positive and negative predictive values have also been
above hyperdense settled blood. Fluid blood levels in acute ICH reported to be in excess of 97%.37,38 Even so, CTA exposes
are moderately sensitive (59%) to the presence of coagulopa- patients to the risks of radiation, as well as risks associated
thy (ie, abnormal prothrombin time and partial thromboplas- with contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN) and allergic reac-
tin time) and highly specific (98%) for this condition.21 Blood/ tion, which can lead to death. Furthermore, the risk of contrast
fluid levels are also frequent in thrombolysis-related ICH and on blood–brain barrier permeability has unknown effects on
associated with higher hemorrhage volumes.22 Over the first 72 bleeding risks and the worsening of vasogenic edema.39–43
hours, a hypodense region can be detected around lesions, as a CIN is defined as a 25% elevation from baseline serum
result of the edema that surrounds the brain tissue; a noteworthy creatinine levels or an absolute increase of 0.5 mg/dL <48 to
mass effect can be detected as well. Three to 20 days after onset, 72 hours of contrast administration.44 CIN is associated with
a blood degradation product with paramagnetic properties, dot-like lesions having a hypointense appearance on GE
because of its unpaired electrons. On GE images, a few areas sequences and are usually smaller than 5 to 10 mm (Figure 2).
of hyperintensity can be detected in the lesion core, and of Pathological studies have proven that MBs correspond to
these, most are usually surrounded by hypointense bound- hemosiderin-laden macrophages adjacent to small vessels,
aries. Hyperintense signals are commonly found bordering suggesting previous extravasations of blood. MBs can have
the central lesion on T2-weighted and GE images, whereas numerous types of mimics, such as the calcification of the
a hypointense signal is commonly observed on T1-weighted basal ganglia, diffused axonal injury, metastatic melanoma,
images, thereby indicating perifocal vasogenic edema.50 cavernous malformation, and small perforating arteries.65
There is strong evidence supporting the diagnostic accuracy MBs are considered markers of vascular pathology, includ-
of MR in the hyperacute setting51,52 even after only 20 min- ing hypertensive vasculopathy and CAA, as identified from
utes of symptom onset.53 A randomized trial investigating the histopathologic analyses of the vessels surrounding MBs.
role of MR in detecting ICH54 has reported that hyperacute Furthermore, MBs have been reported to be predictors of
ICH is detectable with excellent accuracy even when the rat- ICH in prospective observational studies on both ICH66,67 and
ers had only limited experience. Moreover, GE is as sensitive IS.68,69 MBs can indicate bleeding-prone angiopathy and a high
as NCCT in the detection of acute ICH, whereas a complete rate of hemorrhagic transformation in patients on anticoagu-
MR in patients with acute stroke has higher sensitivities for IS lation, antithrombotic, or thrombolytic therapies.70 However,
(diffusion-weighted imaging sequences) and chronic hemor-
rhage.55,56 However, in the case of minor bleeding, GE MR
may not be sufficient to distinguish acute bleeding from
chronic bleeding (ie, microbleeds [MBs]), and for this, NCCT
should be performed.56 Furthermore, patient factors (ie, clini-
cal instability, presence of pacemaker, claustrophobia) and
hospital factors (availability of MR) may cause obtaining an
MR impossible or impractical in the acute setting, and there-
fore, NCCT remains the neuroimaging modality of choice for
the diagnosis of acute stroke.57,58
MR is also a neuroradiological tool for distinguishing
between hemorrhagic transformation and primary ICH.
In fact, most HTs are smaller than their fields of ischemic Figure 2. Intracerebral hemorrhage evidenced on gradient echo
infarct; thus, MR can provide information on nonhemorrhagic MR in patients with deep microbleeds (black arrows).
906 Stroke March 2014
MBs are thought to be more than markers for minor episodes MR angiogram/venogram along with CT angiogram/veno-
of cerebrovascular extravasation. In fact, a recent pathologi- gram are reliable tools for confirming secondary causes of
cal study by Janaway et al71 has reported that a large putamen hemorrhage. Thus, these are reliable substitutes for catheter
haemosiderin, correlated with more MBs, was significantly angiogram, which is an invasive procedure that is not always
associated with putaminal indices of small-vessel ischemia readily available. In fact, catheter angiogram is associated
(microinfarcts, arteriolosclerosis, perivascular attenuation), with the risks of transient and permanent neurological deficits,
as well as lacunes in each examined brain region but neither 0.9% and 0.5%, respectively.79 It is expensive and time- and
with large-vessel disease nor whole-brain neurodegenerative labor-intensive, as well as requires patient cooperation, a sta-
pathologies. These findings suggest that basal ganglia MR ble patient condition, and continuous monitoring. Radiation
MBs are a surrogate for ischemic small-vessel disease rather doses of catheter angiography (5 times higher than CTA)80 are
than exclusively a hemorrhagic diathesis. delivered to both patients and operators. For this reason, CTA
Lobar localization of MBs and their associations with lobar should be considered the better initial screening approach for
ICH, especially in the elderly patients, render MBs possible identifying secondary vascular lesions, compared with cathe-
indicators of CAA. To this regard, the Boston criteria for prob- ter angiogram.81 Nonetheless, catheter angiogram remains the
able CAA specify that this diagnosis should not be made when diagnostic tool of choice for the treatment of aneurysms and
MBs are located in the basal ganglia, thalamus, or brain stem, arteriovenous malformation (Figure 3).
the regions atypical for CAA pathology.72
Catheter Angiogram
Subarachnoid hemorrhage, atypical (noncircular) hematoma
configuration, edema out of proportion seen on CT at admis-
sion, unusual hemorrhage location, or the presence of other
abnormal structures in the brain, including masses, are all dis-
tinctive radiological features of secondary causes of ICH.10 In
these cases, a catheter angiogram is necessary to best reveal
underlying conditions, including arteriovenous malforma-
tions, Moyamoya disease, tumors, vasculitis, reversible cere-
bral vasoconstriction syndrome, and cerebral vein thromboses.
Angiography may also be indicated in patients with no
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Figure 3. Catheter angiogram: Left temporal arteriovenous mal- Figure 4. Diagnostic work-up flowchart of intracerebral
formation before and after treatment (black arrows). hemorrhage.
Macellari et al Neuroimaging in ICH 907
Conclusions 14. Divani AA, Majidi S, Luo X, Souslian FG, Zhang J, Abosch A, et al.
The ABCs of accurate volumetric measurement of cerebral hematoma.
An optimal neuroradiological diagnosis and management Stroke. 2011;42:1569–1574.
of ICH requires more than defining the size, location, and 15. Pedraza S, Puig J, Blasco G, Daunis-I-Estadella J, Boada I, Bardera A,
presence of intraventricular blood. In fact, knowing the et al. Reliability of the ABC/2 method in determining acute infarct vol-
ume. J Neuroimaging. 2012;22:155–159.
causes of ICH will allow us to better diagnose and treat ICH.
16. Kosior JC, Idris S, Dowlatshahi D, Alzawahmah M, Eesa M, Sharma
Specifically, the pathogenesis provides more accurate infor- P, et al; PREDICT/Sunnybrook CTA ICH Study Investigators.
mation on predictive factors that can influence the clinical out- Quantomo: validation of a computer-assisted methodology for the
come and mortality: risk of hematoma expansion, presence of volumetric analysis of intracerebral haemorrhage. Int J Stroke. 2011;
6:302–305.
underlying diseases, and previous lesions such as MBs. 17. Broderick JP, Brott TG, Duldner JE, Tomsick T, Huster G. Volume of
Here, we propose a diagnostic flowchart that incorporates intracerebral hemorrhage. A powerful and easy-to-use predictor of
size, location, clinical risk factors, and pathogenesis that, when 30-day mortality. Stroke. 1993;24:987–993.
considered together, can lead to a more accurate diagnosis 18. Feeman TG. The Mathematics of Medical Imaging: A Beginner’s Guide.
New York: Springer; 2010.
and, thus, a better management of ICH (Figure 4). Regarding 19. Mosby. Mosby’s Medical Dictionary. 9th ed. Elsevier; 2009.
those who may do without further imaging w ork-up, this deci- 20. Zilkha A. Intraparenchymal fluid-blood level: a CT sign of recent intra-
sion, according to the authors, should be based on a careful cerebral hemorrhage. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1983;7:301–305.
21. Pfleger MJ, Hardee EP, Contant CF Jr, Hayman LA. Sensitivity and
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22. Gebel JM, Sila CA, Sloan MA, Granger CB, Mahaffey KW, Weisenberger
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Disclosures analysis of 244 cases from the GUSTO-1 trial with clinical correlation.
Dr Caso received honoraria as a member of the speaker bureau and Global Utilization of Streptokinase and Tissue Plasminogen Activator
advisory board of Boehringer Ingelheim. The other authors have no for Occluded Coronary Arteries. Stroke. 1998;29:563–569.
conflicts to report. 23. Herold S, von Kummer R, Jaeger C. Follow-up of spontaneous
intracerebral haemorrhage by computed tomography. J Neurol.
1982;228:267–276.
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