CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS
INTRODUCTION
The part of electromagnetic spectrum (with
wavelength range from 4000Å to 7500Å)
which causes the sensation of sight is called
light. Light exhibits dual nature. It behaves as
a particle and also as a wave. The particle and
wave behaviour of light are observed in
different phenomena. As the wavelength of
light is too small compared to the size of the
bodies under consideration, light is considered
to travel along a straight line. The straight line
path of light is called ray of light. A bundle of
rays is called the beam of light. Ray optics
deals with rectilinear propagation of light.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
i r
Laws of reflection
(i) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal drawn
at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. (i = r)
The angle between incident ray and normal is called the
angle of incidence (i) and the angle between reflected ray
and normal is called the angle of reflection (r).
REFLECTION OF LIGHT BY A SPHERICAL
MIRROR
A curved surface which forms a part of an imaginary
sphere is called the spherical surface. A spherical
surface with one of its faces silvered is called spherical
mirror.
C P
R
Pole (P): The geometric centre of a spherical surface is
called the pole.
Centre of curvature (C): The centre of an imaginary
sphere of which the given spherical surface forms a part,
is called the centre of curvature.
Principal axis: The line that joins the pole and centre of
curvature of a spherical surface is called the principal
axis.
Radius of curvature (R): The radius of an imaginary
sphere of which the given spherical surface forma a part
is called the radius of curvature. Or it is the distance
between the pole and centre of curvature of a spherical
surface.
SPUC (Main)
BY PRASHANTH R
Aperture: The area of the spherical surface available for
reflection of light is called the aperture of the spherical
surface.
Normal: The line drawn from the centre of curvature to
any point on the spherical surface is called the normal to
the surface at that point.
Paraxial rays: The rays of light which are parallel and
close to the principal axis are called the paraxial rays. Or
the rays of light which make smaller angles with the
principal axis are called the paraxial rays.
Assumptions
(i) A spherical mirror with smaller aperture is considered.
(ii) Only paraxial rays of light are considered to show the
image formation.
(iii) Point object and point image are considered lying on
the principal axis.
Cartesian sign convention
Direction of
incident ray
(i) All the distances (u, v, f and R) are measured from
pole along the principal axis of the spherical surface.
(ii) Distances measured in the direction of incident ray
are taken as positive.
(iii) Distances measured in the direction opposite to the
direction of incident ray are taken as negative.
(iv) Heights (height of the object or image) measured
upwards with respect to x – axis are taken as positive.
(v) Height (height of the object or image) measured
downwards with respect to x – axis is taken as negative.
Principal focus and focal length of spherical mirrors
F
P
(i) Principal focus of a concave mirror
P F
(ii) Principal focus of a convex mirror
1
CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

(i) The principal focus of a concave mirror is the point on As  is small, the point N lies very close to the pole P.
the principal axis at which the paraxial rays after Hence we get, CN = CP = R and FN = FP = f .
reflection the mirror converge.
(i) The principal focus of a convex mirror is the point on R
Finally, eq. (3) becomes R = 2 f or f =
the principal axis from which the paraxial rays after 2
reflection the mirror appear to diverge. IMAGE
Focal length (f): The focal length of the spherical mirror An image is a point on the principal axis at which the
is defined as the distance between the pole and the incident rays after reflection at the mirror converge or
principal focus of the mirror. the incident rays after reflection appear to diverge from.
Focal plane: An imaginary plane which is perpendicular
to the principal axis and passes through the principal An image is said to real, if the incident rays after
focus of a spherical mirror is called the focal plane. In reflection at the mirror actually converge at a point. An
case of paraxial rays which smaller angles with the image is said to be virtual, if the incident rays after
principal axis, the rays after reflection at the mirror reflection at the mirror appear to diverge from a point on
converge at or appear to diverge from a point on the focal the axis.
plane. O – Real object
I – Real image
Relation between focal length and radius of curvature
of a spherical mirror (To show that f = R/2) O I P

M

 O – Real object
C  F 2 P I - Virtual image
N O I´

Figure (i): Concave mirror


 M
A point object is said to be real, if the incident rays
diverge from the object. An object is said to be virtual,
if the rays incident on a surface appear to meet at point.
2 
P N F C
O- Virtual object
Figure (ii): Convex mirror I - Real image
I O
Consider a concave (or convex) mirror of focal length f
and radius of curvature R. Let a paraxial ray be incident
on the mirror at M as shown, which after reflection
passes through the principal focus F. Let  be the angle
of incidence and CM be the normal to the surface at M. Formation of image by mirrors
Draw MN perpendicular to the principal axis. To show the formation of image by a mirror, we consider
From the figure, MCP =  and MFP = 2 two rays of light. Of the following, we can consider any
Now, from the triangles MCN and MFN, two rays to show the image formation.
MN MN A
tan  = ---- (1) and tan 2 = ----- (2)
CN FN
As paraxial ray are considered ( is small), we get tan  B´
  and tan 2  2. Then equations (1) and (2) become B C F
MN MN
 = and 2 = A´
CN FN
MN MN (i) A paraxial ray of light (ray parallel and close to
Or =2 or CN = 2FN ------ (3) principal axis), after reflection at the mirror, passes
FN CN
through the principal focus.

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CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

(ii) A ray of light passing through the centre of curvature With sign conventions, AB = +ho, A´B´ = - hi, PB´ = - v
makes normal incidence on the mirror and retraces its and PB = - u. Then eq. (5) becomes
path. − hi − v hi v
(iii) A ray of light passing through the principal focus, = Or m= =− ------ (6)
after reflection at the mirror, travels parallel to the ho −u ho u
principal axis.
(iv) A ray of light that incidents at the pole of the mirror,
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
suffers reflection according to the laws of reflection.
MIRROR EQUATION When a ray of light passes from one optical
medium to another optical medium of different
A M
density, a part incident light gets reflected
back to the first medium and the remaining
B´ P light enters the second medium (neglecting the
B C F
A´ f absorption of light by the second medium).
When a ray of light is incident on the interface
(the surface that separates the two media)
v
u obliquely, the incident ray suffers a change in
its direction when it enters the second medium.
Figure (i)
Consider a concave mirror of focal length f. AB is an This phenomenon is known as refraction of
extended object placed on the principal axis beyond light.
centre of curvature C. Two rays AM and AP incident on Definition: The bending of light when light
the mirror, after reflection, intersect each other producing
travels from one optical medium to another
the image A´B´ between F and C.
From the similar triangles A´B´ F and FPM, we get
optical medium of different density is called
AB FB refraction of light.
= When light travels from an optically rarer
MP FP
medium to a denser medium, the speed of light
AB FB
Or = ( MP = AB ) ------- (1) decreases and the light bends towards the
AB FP
From the similar triangles ABP and A´B´P, we get
normal as shown in fig (i).
AB PB The bending of light is due to the fact that
= ------ (2) when light goes from one medium to another,
AB PB
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get its speed changes.
FB PB PB − PF PB
= Or = ----- (3) i r d
FP PB FP PB
Applying sign convention, we get P´B = - v, PF = - f, PB i
= - u. Then eq.(3) becomes
r d
−v+ f −v v− f v
= or =
− f −u f u
Figure (i) Figure (ii)
Or uv − uf = vf
When light travels from an optically rarer
Dividing the above equation by uvf through out and
1 1 1 medium to a denser medium, the speed of light
rearranging, we get = + --- (4) decreases and the light bends towards the
f u v
Linear magnification
normal as shown in fig (i). The angle between
Linear magnification is defined as the ratio of height of incident ray and the normal is called the angle
the image to height of the object. of incidence (i) and the angle between
hi
i.e, m= refracted ray and the normal is called the angle
ho of refraction (r). The angle through which the
In the fig (A), from the similar triangles ABP and A´B´P, light bends is called the angle of deviation (d).
AB PB The angle of deviation in this case is given by
we get = ------- (5)
AB PB d = i−r .

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CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

When light travels from an optically denser The refractive index of a medium w.r.t another
medium to a rarer medium, the speed of light medium other than vacuum is called relative
increases and the light bends away from the refractive index. The refractive index of
normal as shown in fig (ii). The deviation medium-2 w.r.t medium-1 is defined as the
suffered by the ray is given by d = r − i . ratio of speed of light in medium-1(v1) to the
LAWS OF REFRACTION speed of light in medium-2 (v2).
(i) The incident ray, refracted ray and the v1
i.e, n21 = --------- (3)
normal drawn to the interface at the point of v2
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
Using equations (2) and (3), it can be shown
(ii) The ratio of angle of incidence to the angle
that
of refraction is a constant for a given pair of
Absolute RI of medium − 2 n2
media and for a given wavelength of incident n21 = = ------ (4)
Absolute RI of medium − 1 n1
light.
Suppose a ray of light travels from medium-1 In terms of wavelength of light: if λ1 is the
to medium-2. If i is the angle of incidence and wavelength of light in medium-1 and λ2 is the
r is the angle of refraction, then 1
wavelength in medium-2, then n21 = --- (5)
sin i 2
= n21 ---------- (1)
sin r From equations (1) and (4), Snell’s law can be
where n21 is a constant called refractive index generalised as n1 sin i = n2 sin r -------- (6)
of medium-2 with respect to medium-1. Note (i): The absolute refractive index of a medium is
The second law of refraction is also called B
Snell’s law. related with wavelength of light as n = A+ 2 --------

If n21>1, then r < i which means the ray bends
(7), where this equation is called Cauchy’s equation and
towards the normal. In this case, the light is A and B are called Cauchy’s constant. From this
travelling form optically rarer medium 1
(medium-1) to a denser medium (medium-2). equation, we get n  .
2
If n21<1, then r > i which means the ray bends
1
away from the normal. In this case, the light is Note (ii): It can be shown that n21 =
travelling form optically denser medium n12
(medium-1) to a rarer medium (medium-2). Note (iii):It can be shown that n21  n32 = n31
Limitation of Snell’s law
Snell’s law is not valid for normal incidence. LATERAL SHIFT (Ls)
P
If i = 0 and r = 0, then n21 is undetermined
i1 (Air)
which is not true. Q
Absolute refractive index (n)
The refractive index of a medium w.r.t air is
called absolute refractive index which is t Glass r1
(n) i2
defined as the ratio of speed of light in
vacuum(c) to the speed of light in the given R Ls
c r2
medium (v). i.e, n = ---------- (2) S
v Suppose a ray of light PQ incidents from air
Refractive index has no units. As c > v, the on the surface of glass. The ray passes through
absolute refractive index of a medium is glass getting refracted along QR and finally
always greater than unity. emerges along RS so that RS is parallel to PQ.
This means the incident ray suffers no
Relative refractive index (n21) deviation and just gets shifted laterally. The
perpendicular distance between incident ray

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CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

and emergent ray, when a ray of light passes Note (ii): If the rarer medium is air (n1 = 1), then
through a parallel sided glass slab is called  1
N s = RD 1 −  -------- (3)
lateral shift.  n
It can be shown that i1 = r2 andr1 = i2 . Note (iii): Normal shift increases with the increase in
t sin(i − r ) refractive index of the medium.
Lateral shift is given by Ls = Note (iv): Normal shift is inversely proportional to
cos r square of wavelength of light.
where t is thickness of the slab. Note (v): The normal shift does not depend on the
Note (i): The lateral shift suffered by the ray is maximum position of the object below the denser medium.
when the ray makes grazing incidence (i = 90o) which is
equal to thickness of the slab (Ls = t).
EFFECT OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Note (ii): The lateral shift is zero, when the ray makes
normal incidence on the glass surface. ON SUNRISE AND SUNSET
t Due to refraction of light through atmosphere,
Note (iii): QR = is called the path length of light the sun appears to the observer a little before
cos r
which is the distance travelled by the light inside the the actual sunrise and also a little after the
glass slab. actual sunset. Apparent position
of the sun
NORMAL SHIFT (Ns)
Observer Horizon
(Rarer medium) RD - Real depth
AD – Apparent depth Actual position
Ns – Normal shift of the sun
AD Earth
RD I
Ns
O Denser (n)
Atmosphere
The apparent shift in the position of an object
along the normal placed in one medium and The refractive index of air with respect to
viewed from another medium is called normal vacuum is 1.00029. Due to this difference RI,
shift. the light from the sun suffers atmospheric
An object placed in a denser medium appears refraction. As a result, the sun appears to rise
to be nearer to the observer when viewed from by half a degree. This results in a time
a rarer medium. This apparent shift is due to difference of about 2 minutes between actual
normal refraction of light. sunset and apparent sunset.
If an object placed in a denser medium of
TOTAL INETRNAL REFLECTION
refractive index n is observed from air (of Rarer medium (Air)
refractive index n = 1), it can be shown that r P´ r = 90o
Re al depth x P Q R S y
n= ------- (1)
Apparent depth
i i=C
Further, the normal shift Ns suffered by the T´
object is given by T
O Denser medium (n)
Ns = Real depth – Apparent depth
Note (i): The normal shift suffered by an object placed in
denser medium of RI n1 and viewed from a rarer medium When a ray of light passes from an optically
 n  denser medium to a rarer medium, the
of RI n2 is given by N s = RD 1 − 1  ------ (2)
refracted ray always bends away from the
 n2 
normal so that the angle of refraction is greater
than the angle of incidence (r > i). As the

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CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS
angle of incidence increases, the angle of
refraction also increases.
Consider a ray of light travelling from a denser
medium of refractive index n to air medium.
Let a ray of light OP incident on the interface
xy at an angle i which gets refracted along OP´
at an angle of refraction r. If the angle of
incidence i increases, the angle of refraction r
also increases. Suppose ray OQ incidents at a
particular angle called critical angle (C), the
refracted ray just grazes the interface along
OR so that the angle of refraction becomes
equal to 90o.
Critical angle: The angle of incidence in the
denser medium for which the angle of
incidence becomes equal to 90o or the
refracted ray just grazes the interface is called
critical angle. The critical angle depends on
the pair of media and the wavelength of
incident light.
If the angle of incidence is increased further
(i > C), the ray does not undergo refraction.
Instead, the incident ray is totally reflected
back to the denser medium. This phenomenon
is called total internal reflection.
Conditions for TIR
(i) The ray of light must travel from optically
denser medium to a rarer medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence in the denser
medium must be greater than the critical angle
for a given pair of media and for a given
wavelength of light.
Relation between refractive index and critical angle
Suppose a ray of light travelling from a denser medium
of refractive index n to air, incidents at an angle equal to
critical angle C on the interface. Then the refracted ray
just grazes the interface and the angle of refraction will
be 90o. From Snell’s law, we have
n1 sin i = n2 sin r --------- (1)
Here n1 = n, n2 = 1 (air), i = C and r = 90o
Then eq. (1) becomes n sin C = sin 90o
1 quivers. This makes the person feel the
Or sin C = ---------- (2)
n
In general, if ray travels from a denser medium of
refractive index n1 to a rarer medium of refractive index
n2
n2, then sin C =
n1
SPUC (Main)
BY PRASHANTH R
RI of rarer medium
i.e, sin C =
RI of denser medium
Note (i): The critical angle of a medium increases with
the increase in wavelength of incident light (C  λ).
TIR in nature
(i) Mirage:
A
Refractive index
of air decreasing
B B´
AB – A taller object like tree
A´B´- Image of the tree that
causes the illusion
called mirage
A´
Mirage is an optical illusion observed on hot
days in deserts due to total internal reflection.
On hot days, the air near the ground is hotter
than the air at higher levels. The density of
hotter air is less than that of cooler air. As one
moves vertically upwards from the ground, the
density of air goes on increasing. Suppose a
person is looking a tall object AB like tree
from a greater distance. The rays from the top
of the tree pass through air whose refractive
index is decreasing towards ground. The rays
go on bending away from the normal at
different layers of air. At a particular layer of
air, the angle of incidence exceeds the critical
angle and undergoes TIR as shown in the
figure. The totally reflected rays reach the
observer who sees the rays as if reflected from
the ground. Hence for the observer, the rays
appear to be coming from A´B´ which is the
reflected image of AB. This image causes an
optical illusion that there is water on the
ground. This is because: due to variation in
temperature of air, the RI of different layers of
air keeps changing. As result, the image A´B´
presence of water. This optical illusion is
called mirage.
(ii) Sparkling of diamond: The brilliance of
diamond is due to TIR. The critical angle for
diamond-air interface is about 24.4o. If the
6
CHAPTER 9
light enters the diamond, it undergoes series of
total internal reflection within the diamond.
This causes the sparkling of diamond.
(iii) The formation of rainbow is due to TIR.
(iv) Another optical illusion called looming
(similar to formation of mirage) observed in
cold countries is due to TIR.
Technological applications of TIR
(i) Total reflecting prisms (TRP)
A total reflecting prism is an isosceles right
angled triangle with angles 45o, 45o and 90o. It
works on the principle of total internal
reflection. The refractive index of material of
the prism is about 1.5 and its critical angle is
about 43o. If a ray of light incidents at an angle
of 45o, it undergoes TIR. It is used (i) to turn
the ray of light through 90o, (ii) to turn the ray
through 180o and (iii) to invert the image of an
object (as an inverter).
Turning the ray through 90o
Turning the ray through 180o
A B´
B A´
As an inverter
The position of a TRP to turn the light through
90o is used in periscopes. The position of a
TRP to turn the light through 180o is used in
prism binoculars. As an inverter, a TRP is used
in reflecting type of telescopes.
(ii) OPTICAL FIBRES Cladding of low RI
Core of high RI (n)
Principle and construction: An optical fibre
is a device used for transmitting audio or video
SPUC (Main)
RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R
signals in the form light signals over longer
distances. An optical fibre works on the
principle of total internal reflection. An optical
fibre is a hair like structure with diameter of
about few micrometers. It is made of high
quality glass or quartz. An optical fibre
consists of core of higher refractive index. The
core is coated with a layer of lower refractive
index called cladding.
Working: The signal to be transmitted is
converted into light signals. The light is made
to incident at one end of the fibre at a suitable
angle. On entering the fibre, the light incidents
on core-cladding interface at an angle greater
than the critical angle. As a result, the light
undergoes series of total internal reflections
within the fibre and finally emerges from the
other end of the fibre. A number of such
optical are bundled together to form a light
tube which is used for all applications.
Applications:
1. Optical fibres mainly used in the field of
communication. The signals to be transmitted
are first converted into light signals using
transducers. The light signals are then
transmitted through optical fibres.
2. Optical fibre scopes are used to do
endoscopy for viewing internal organs like
stomach, intestines etc.
3. Optical fibres are used in fancy articles like
table lamps.
4. Conical optical fibres are use to produce
enlarged or diminished images of objects.
Advantages of optical fibres over conventional
cables like copper cable
1. In transmission of signals through copper
cables, the information loss is very large. In
transmission through optical fibres, the
information (or energy) loss is very low. For
example, the intensity loss of light when
transmitted through an optical fibre of length 1
km is about 95%.
2. Using a pair of optical fibres, a large
number of light signals (about 20000) can be
transmitted.
3. The transmission of signals through optical
fibres is noise free and cannot be trapped.
7
CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

ray is called the angle of minimum deviation

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM D. At d = D, i = e and r1 = r2 = r.
A prism is an optical medium with three Angle of
Deviation
rectangular faces and two triangular faces. (δ)
Two rectangular faces are well polished and
are called refracting surfaces. The angle d

between two refracting surfaces is called angle d=D

of the prism denoted as A.
Relation between n, A and D i i=e e
Angle of incidence (i)
A Now, eq. (3) becomes A = r + r = 2r
A
(Air) or r = --------- (5)
Q R d 2
i e A+ D
r1 r2 Eq. (4) becomes D = i + i − A or i =
2
P N
sin i
(n) S From Snell’s law, we have n =
B C sin r
Let ABC be the principal section of a prism of  A+ D
angle A with AB and BC as the refracting sin  
Or n =
 2 
-------- (6)
surfaces. Let n be the refractive index of A
material of the prism. Consider a monochroma sin
2
tic ray of light PQ travelling from air which
Deviation through thin prism
incidents on AB at an angle i. The ray PQ gets
A small angled prism or a thin prism is the one
refracted through the prism along QR and
whose refracting angle is less than 10o. For a
finally emerges from the prism along RS. Let
thin prism, the angle minimum deviation is
r1 be the angle of refraction at the face AB and
also small. Hence eq. (6) can be written as
r2 is the angle of incidence at the face BC.
 A+ D
From the cyclic quadrilateral AQNR, we get  
n
 2 
A + QNR = 180o --------- (1) (For smaller values of θ, sin θ ≈ θ)
A
From the triangle QNR, we get
2
r1 + r2 + QNR = 180o --------- (2) A+ D
Comparing eq. (1) and (2), we get
n= Or nA = A + D
A
A = r1 + r2 --------- (3) Or D = A(n − 1) --------- (7)
The deviation suffered by the ray at the face DISPERSION OF LIGHT
The phenomenon of splitting of light into its constituent
AB is d1 = i − r1 colours is called dispersion of light.
The deviation suffered by the ray at the face dR
White light dY Red
BC is d2 = e − r2
The total deviation suffered by the ray is dV Yellow
d = d1 + d2 = (i − r1 ) + (e − r2 ) = i + e − (r1 + r2 )
Violet
Or d = i + e − A ----------- (4)
A graph of angle of incidence and angle of
deviation is as shown. As the angle of When white light passes through an optical medium like
prism, the light is split in seven colours namely Violet,
incidence increases, the angle deviation first Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red
decreases, reaches minimum value and then (VIBGYOR). The different colours emerge from the
increases. The least deviation suffered by the prism through different angles of deviation. It is found

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CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

that violet colour suffers maximum deviation and red be shining at one part of the sky and there
colour suffers minimum deviation.
must be rain on the opposite part of the sky.
The observer can see the rainbow with the sun
Explanation for dispersion: on his back. The formation of rainbow can be
In vacuum, all the colours (wavelengths) in white light explained as below.
travel with the same speed. When white light passes Sun light Drop (1)
through a prism, different colours travel with speeds in
the prism. This is because: the refractive index of
material of the prism is different for different colours
(wavelengths). Hence the light undergoes dispersion. The
red colour travels with the maximum speed in the prism V Drop (2)
and suffers the least deviation. Violet colour travels with
the minimum speed and suffers the maximum deviation. R
Spectrum: The pattern of various colours of light is V 40o
called the spectrum. The spectrum is of two types namely Observer 42o
pure spectrum and impure spectrum. In a pure spectrum,
the adjacent colours are well separated from each other. R
In an impure spectrum, the adjacent colours overlap with
Figure (ii)
each other. Rainbow is an example for impure spectrum.

Newton’s experiment on dispersion of light Drop (1)

White light
R R
White light
V V
In earlier days, there was a misbelieve that the prism
creates the colours when white light passes through it.
Newton experimentally showed that white light consists
of seven colours and the prism only separates the colours
from one another. He allowed white colour to pass
through a prism which causes dispersion. The emerging
colours are then allowed to pass through another prism
which is inverted with respect to the first prism. It was
found that the light emerging from the second prism is
white light. This means: the first prism separates the
colours in white light and the second prism recombines
the colours producing white light.
FORMATION OF RAINBOW
White light
R drop as shown. The violet colour emerges at
42o 40o V an angle 40o with respect to incident light and
R
V Formation of primary rainbow
Fig (i)
A rainbow is formed due to dispersion of
sunlight by rain drops in the atmosphere. The
formation of rainbow is the combined effect of
refraction, dispersion and total internal
reflection. To see the rainbow, the sun should
Sun light
Drop (2)
R
V - Violet
R - Red
50o 53o
V R V
Observer
Figure (iii)
Consider the fig (i) where sun light enters a
rain drop and gets refracted through the drop.
The drop disperses the light into component
colours producing maximum deviation for
violet and minimum deviation for red. These
colours now incident on inner surface of the
drop at an angle greater than the critical angle
and undergo total internal reflection. These
totally reflected colours emerge out from the
red colour emerges at an angle 42o with
respect to incident light.
The fig (ii) explains the formation of primary
rainbow. The sun light is dispersed by two
drops producing colours as shown. The red
light from drop (1) and violet light from drop
(2) reach the observer. The violet light drop
(1) and red light from drop (2) reach at levels

SPUC (Main) 9
CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

above or below the observer. Thus the primary wavelengths like orange and red. Hence the sun appears
to be reddish.
rainbow has the red colour at the top and violet
colour at the bottom. Formation of primary
rainbow is a three step process: refraction, REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES
reflection and refraction.
Formation of secondary rainbow
The fig (iii) shows the formation of secondary
R
rainbow. In this case, the light undergoes two C P
total internal reflections in the drops as shown. Normal
The violet light from drop (1) and red light
from drop (2) reach the observer. Hence the
secondary rainbow has violet colour at the top Spherical surface: A curved surface which
and red colour at the bottom. The formation of forms a part of an imaginary sphere is called
secondary rainbow is four-step process. Due to spherical surface.
two reflections, the intensity of light gets Pole of the spherical surface (P): It is the
reduced. Hence the secondary rainbow looks geometric mid-point of the spherical surface.
fainter than primary rainbow. Centre of curvature (C): It is the centre of a
imaginary sphere of which the given spherical
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
The sunlight passing through the atmosphere gets surface forms a part.
scattered by the atmospheric particles so that the Principal axis: It is the line that passes
direction of light changes. It is found that the light of through the pole and centre of curvature.
shorter wavelengths is scattered more than the light of
Radius of curvature (R): It is the radius of an
longer wavelengths according to Rayleigh scattering.
Statement: The amount of scattering of light or intensity
imaginary sphere of which the given spherical
of scattered light is inversely proportional to fourth surface forms a part.
power of the wavelength of light. Aperture: The area of the spherical surface
1 which available for refraction of light is called
Intensity of scattered light 
4 aperture.
The scattering of light is observable only when the size Normal: The line drawn from the centre of
(a) of the scattering particles is smaller than the curvature to any point on the surface is the
wavelength of incident light (a << λ).
normal to the surface at that point.
Blue colour of the sky Object space: The medium which contains
As the wavelength of blue colour is smaller than that of incident rays is called object space. Its
red, the blue colour is scattered more than the red colour. refractive index is denoted by no.
As a result, the blue colour is predominant in the sky. In
Image space: The medium which contains
practice, the violet colour is more scattered than blue.
But the human eye is more sensitive towards blue than refracted rays is called image space. Its
violet. Hence the sky appears blue. refractive index is denoted by ni.
White colour of clouds Power of a spherical surface (P)
Rayleigh scattering is not valid if white light is scattered
by particles like dust and water drops as the size of these
d d
particles is too large compared to wavelength of light. All
the colours in white are equally scattered by the rain
drops or dust particles. Hence the clouds which contain
water drops look white.
Red colour of sun during sunrise or sunset
Spherical surface with Spherical surface with
During sunrise or sunset, the light from the sun has to
smaller power greater power
travel longer distances through atmosphere. During this,
most of blue colour and other shorter wavelengths are The ability of a spherical surface to bend the
removed due to scattering by atmospheric particles. The rays or the ability of the surface to converge or
light reaching the observer contains only longer to diverge the rays is called the power. The

SPUC (Main) 10
CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

power of a spherical surface is defined as the MN

tan NCM = ---------- (2)
ratio of difference in refractive indices of MC
object space and image space to the radius of MN
curvature of the surface. tan NIM = ---------- (3)
MI
𝑛𝑜 ~𝑛𝑖
𝑃= For smaller angles, the above equations can be
𝑅
The SI unit of power of a spherical surface is MN MN
written as NOM = , NCM = and
dioptre (D). ON MC
Paraxial rays: The rays of light which are MN
NIM =
parallel and close to the principal axis or MI
which make smaller angles with the principal From the triangle NOC, i = NOM + NCM
axis are called paraxial rays. MN MN
Assumptions Or i = + --------- (4)
OM MC
(i) Aperture of the spherical surface is small. Similarly, from the triangle NCI, we get
(ii) Only paraxial rays are considered. r = NCM − NIM
(iii) Only point object and point image are MN MN
taken lying on the principal axis. Or r = − --------- (5)
MC MI
Sign convention
According to Snell’s law, n1 sin i = n2 sin r
(i) All the distances like u, v and R are
For smaller angles, we get n1i = n2 r -------- (6)
measured from the pole along the principal
axis. Substituting for i and r from equations (4) and
(ii) The distances measured in the direction of (5) in eq. (6), we get
incident ray is taken are taken as positive.  MN MN   MN MN 
n1  +  = n2  − 
(iii) The distances measured in a direction  OM MC   MC MI 
opposite to the direction of incident ray are n1 n1 n2n
taken as negative. Or + = − 2
OM MC MC MI
Refraction through a spherical surface
A n1 n2 n2 − n1
Or + = --------- (7)
Rarer medium (n1) i N Denser medium (n2) OM MI MC
r As paraxial rays are considered, the pole P lies
O P M C I
close to M. Hence from sign convention,
R OM = - u, MC = +R and MI = +v
u v n1 n2 n2 − n1
B Now eq.(7) becomes + =
Consider a spherical surface AB of radius −u v R
curvature R with smaller aperture which is n2 n1 n2 − n1
Or − = -------- (8)
concave towards denser medium of refractive v u R
index n2 and convex towards rarer medium of LENS
refractive index n1. Consider a point object O A lens is an optical medium consisting of two
in rarer medium on the axis at a distance u surfaces of which at least one spherical.
from the pole. A ray of light ON incidents on Optic centre
Optic of a lens is a point on the principal axis inside the
AB at an angle i and gets refracted along NI to
lens, on passing through which a ray of light emerges
meet the principal axis at I. Here I is the real parallel to itself.
image of O. Let r be the angle of refraction.
From the triangles ONM, NCM and NIM, we
MN
get tan NOM = ---------- (1)
ON Thin lens

SPUC (Main) 11
CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

A lens is said to be thin if a ray of light passing through Adding equation (2) and (3), we get
its optic centre suffers no deviation.
 1 1 
+ = (n2 − n1 ) −  -------- (4)
n1 n1
u v  R1 R2 
Suppose the object is at infinity, the image is
REFRACTION BY A LENS formed at the principal focus.
(LENS MAKER’S FORMULA) i.e, for u = ∞, v = f. Then eq.(4) becomes
A  1 1 
= (n2 − n1 ) −  ------- (5)
n1
(n1) M N (n1)
f  R1 R2 
(n2)
1  n2 − n1  1 1 
O B D I I´
Or =   − 
f  n1  R1 R2 
u v
v´ 1  n2  1 1 
C Or =  − 1 −  ------- (6)
Fig (i) f  n1  R1 R2 
Consider a convex lens bounded by two If a convex lens of refractive index n2 = n is
spherical surfaces ABC and ADC of radii placed in air (of refractive index n1 = 1), then
 1 1 
= (n − 1) −  ---- (7)
curvature R1 and R2 respectively. Let n2 be the 1
eq. (6) becomes
refractive index of material of the lens which f  R1 R2 
is surrounded by a rarer medium of refractive
In case of a concave lens, R1 is taken negative
index n1. Consider a point object O on the
and R2 is taken positive. In general focal length
principal axis at a distance u from the optic
of convex lens is taken as positive and that for
centre of the lens. A ray of light Om incidents
concave lens is taken as negative. The eq.(7) is
on ABC and gets refracted through the lens to
called Lens Maker’s formula.
meet the axis at I, where I is the final real
Lens formula
image of O. The formation of final image I can
be explained as below.
The general expression for refraction at a
n2 n1 n2 − n1 O I
spherical surface is − = ------ (1) u v
v u R
Refraction at the surface ABC Comparing equations (4) and (5), we get
In the absence the surface ADC, the ray OM n1 n1 n1 1 1 1
would refract through the surface ABC along + = or + =
u v f u v f
MN, which meets axis at I´ where I´ is the real
Applying sign convention for the lens, object
image of O.
distance is negative and image distance is
For the surface ABC, u = -u, v = v´ and R = R1.
1 1 1
n − n1 n2 n1 positive. Then − = ------ (8)
Then eq. (1) becomes + = 2 --- (2) v u f
v u R
1 Important points
Refraction through ADC 1. In case of an equiconvex lens (R1 = R2) of refractive
In the presence of the surface ADC, the ray index 1.5, the focal length of the lens is equal to radii of
curvature.
MN now appears to meet the axis at I´ which
i.e, If n = 1.5 and R1 = R2, the f = R1 = R2
serves as virtual object for ADC. Finally the 2. Focal length of a lens is inversely proportional to its
surface ADC produces the image at I. For the
 1
surface ADC, u = v´, v = v and R = -R2. Then refractive index.  f  .
 n
n1 n n − n1
eq. (1) becomes − 2 =− 2 ------- (3)
v v R
2

SPUC (Main) 12
CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

1
3. As n  , we get f  2 . Thus focal length of a
 2
O I I´
lens is maximum for red colour and minimum for violet v
colour. u v´
4. If a lens is placed in a medium of higher refractive
index, the nature of the lens changes. This means convex Consider two thin convex lenses A and B of
lens behaves as concave lens while concave lens behaves focal length f1 and f2 respectively placed in
as convex lens.
contact coaxially. Let O be a point object at a
5. If a lens is placed in water, its focal length always
increases and the power of the lens decreases. distance u from the point of contact between
6. If a lens of refractive index 3/2 is immersed in water of the lenses. The lens A produces a real image at
refractive index 4/3, then the focal length of the lens is I´ which serves as virtual object for the lens B.
quadrupled. If fa is the focal length of the lens in air and The second lens produces the final image at I.
fw is the focal length of the lens in water, then fw = 4fa
1 1 1
The lens formula is − = -------- (1)
Magnification (m) v u f
Magnification produced by a lens is defined as Refraction through lens A
the ratio of height of the image (hi) to height of In absence of lens B, the lens A would produce
the object (ho). real image of O at I´. Then lens formula
hi 1 1 1
i.e, m = assumes the form − = ------- (2)
ho v u f1

v Refraction through lens B

Further it can be shown that m = In the presence of lens B, I´ behaves as virtual
u
Sign convention: In case an erected and object and B produces the final real image at I.
virtual image, magnification is positive and for Now lens formula assumes the form
an inverted and real image, magnification is 1 1 1
− = ------- (3)
negative. v v f2
Power of a lens Adding equation (2) and (3), we get
d 1 1 1 1
− = + ------- (4)
d F v u f1 f2
O
f Suppose the lens combination is replaced by
an equivalent lens of focal length f. An
The power of a lens refers to its ability to equivalent lens of a combination of lenses is
converge or diverge the rays falling on it. that single lens which produces the same effect
Power of a lens is defined as the tangent of the 1 1 1
as the combination. i.e, − = ------ (5)
angle by which it converges or diverges the v u f
incident light at unit distance from its optical Comparing equations (4) and (5), we get
centre. 1 1 1
Power of a lens is measured as the reciprocal = + ------- (6)
f f1 f2
1
of its focal length. i.e, P = In general, for n thin lenses in contact, we
f
1 1 1 1 1
The SI unit of power of a lens is dioptre (D). write = + + +−−−−−+
f f1 f2 f3 fn
P = 1 D if f = 1 m
Power of a lens is said to be one dioptre if its The total power of the combination is
focal length is equal to 1m. P = P1 + P2 + P3 + − − − − − − + Pn
Combination of two thin lenses in contact
A B

SPUC (Main) 13
CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS
Further, the total magnification of the
combination is the product of magnifications
due to individual lenses.
i.e, m = m1m2 m3 − − − −mn
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
An optical instrument is a combination of
lenses and mirrors used for producing
magnifies images of tiny objects and also to
observe distant objects like stars and planets.
The eye
The human eye is the most remarkable, natural optical
device. The human eye is almost spherical in shape with
a diameter of about 25 mm called eyeball. The light
enters the eye through a transparent white membrane
called cornea. Cornea covers a clear liquid called
aqueous humor (of RI 1.38),behind which there is a thin
diaphragm called iris. Iris has a small variable hole
called the pupil of the eye. Behind iris, there is a
crystalline lens supported by ciliary muscles. The light is
focussed by the lens onto the light-sensitive part of the
eye called retina. Between the lens and retina, there is
jelly like substance called vitreous humor (of RI 1.34).
Retina is the curved back surface of the eye, which
consists of millions of structures called rods and cones.
The rods and cones are respectively sensitive to intensity
of light and colours. These rods and cones transmit the
electric signals to brain through the optic nerve. Finally,
the brain interprets the image of the object on the retina.
The function of various parts of eye
The Cornea is the curved front surface of the eye, which
allows the light to enter the eye.
The iris is the coloured portion of the eye, which the
controls amount of light entering the eye. The iris is a
muscular diaphragm with a variable opening at the centre
called the pupil through which light passes. The diameter
of the pupil varies from 2 mm to 7 mm. The diameter
increases for dim light and decreases for bright light.
The eye lens is flexible. Its shape and there by its focal
length is varied by the action of ciliary muscles. For
example, when the muscles are relaxed, the focal length
of the lens will be about 2.5 cm and the lens brings the
objects at infinity to focus on the retina. When the object
is brought closer to eye, to maintain the same lens-image
distance, the eye lens is slightly compressed by the
ciliary muscles so that the curvature of the lens increases
and focal length deceases. Again the Image of the object
is brought to focus on the retina. When the eye focuses
the objects at infinity, it is said to be on fully relaxed
state.
Accommodation
SPUC (Main)
BY PRASHANTH R
The process in which the focal length of eye lens is
varied under the action of ciliary muscles so that the
image of objects at different positions is focussed on the
retina.
Least distance of distinct vision or Near point
If an object is too close to the eye, the eye cannot curve
so much to focus the image of the object on the retina. As
a result the image appears blurred. The least distance of
the object at which its sharp is formed on retina is
called the least distance of distinct vision or near point.
The standard value of near point for normal eye is 25 cm.
This value increases with age because the weak action of
ciliary muscles. It increases to a value of 50 cm at the
age of 40 years and nearly 200 cm at the age of 60 years.
For children of age 10 years, the near point is about 7 -8
cm. if an old person sees a book to read at a distance of
25 cm, the image appears blurred. This defect of eye is
called presbyopia. To correct this defect, a converging
lens of appropriate focal length is used.
Far point
The maximum distance of an object at which the eye
lens can focus the image of the object on the retina is
called the far point. For normal eye, the far point is
infinity.
DEFECTS OF VISION
1. Near-sightedness or Myopia
The defect of human eye due to which the eye can see
clearly the objects nearby and cannot see the objects far
away from it is called near-sightedness or short-
sightedness or myopia. A myopic person cannot see the
objects far away from him and the far point for him is not
at infinity. The far point may lie as close to the eye as 3-
4 m. The distant object is brought to focus in front of the
retina as shown in figure (i), as the rays from the distant
object are converged at a point in front of the retina. This
results in blurred image.
Figure (i)
Figure (ii)
This defect is corrected by using a concave lens of
suitable focal length between the object and the eye as
shown in figure (ii). The concave lens produces enough
divergence so that the rays are brought to focus on the
retina.
NOTE: The possible reasons for myopic defect are (i) an
increase in size of the eye ball, i.e, the distance of retina
from the eye lens increases and (ii) a decrease in focal
14
CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

length of the eye lens, when the eye is in fully relaxed
state. Suppose ‘x’ be the far point for a myopic eye and
‘f’ be the focal length of the concave lens to be used.
Now, For this concave lens u = , v = - x. Then from the
lens formula, we get f = - x. This means the focal length
of the concave lens to be used must be equal to distance
of far point for that myopic eye.
sharply focussed while the lines in perpendicular
direction being distorted as shown in fig.(i). For example,
if a person with astigmatism looks at wire mesh, he may
find the vertical lines being well focussed while the
horizontal lines being distorted or vice-versa. This defect
can be corrected by using cylindrical lens having suitable
radius of curvature and an appropriately directed axis.

2. Hypermetropia or long (far) sightednes

The defect of human eye due to which the eye can see
clearly the objects far away from it and cannot see the
nearby objects distinctly is called long-sightedness or
hypermetropia.
The far-sighted eye can see the distant objects clearly,
but it cannot see the nearer objects. The near point for
this eye is not 25 cm, but it is close to several hundred
centimetres. The rays from the near objects are brought
to focus behind the retina as shown in fig.(i). This results
in blurred image. This defect can be rectified by placing
a convex lens of suitable focal length between the object
and the eye as shown in fig.(ii). The convex lens
produces enough convergence to bring the rays to focus
on the retina.
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE (Magnifying lens)
A simple microscope is a converging lens of
small focal length, used for producing
magnified images of tiny objects. The lens is
held near the object so that the object lies at a
distance equal to or less than the focal
length. The eye is placed very close to the lens
so that an erected, magnified and virtual image
is formed at the near point (D = 25 cm). If the
object is at a distance equal to focal length, the
image is formed at infinity.
h
θo
D

Magnification when image is formed at near

point
Figure (i)

hi

F ho

Figure (ii) u
Astigmatism
D
Figure (i)
Suppose an object of height ho is placed at a
distance less than the focal length of a
Figure (i) magnifying lens so that a virtual, magnified
image of height hi is formed at a distance equal
to near point D.
The linear magnification produced by the lens
v
given by m = ------- (1)
u
Figure (ii)
1 1 1
Another common defect of vision is astigmatism. This As = − , eq. (1) becomes
defect is because: the cornea may not be exactly
u v f
spherical in shape. In this case, cornea may have larger 1 1   v
curvature in the vertical plane than in the horizontal m = v −  = 1 −  ------- (2)
plane and vice-versa. A person with astigmatism, can see v f   f
the lines in one direction (vertical or horizontal) being

SPUC (Main) 15
CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

According to sign convention v is negative and
is equal to near point D. i.e, v = − D
 D
Now eq. (2) becomes m = 1 +  -------- (3)
 f 
Magnification when image is formed at
infinity
When the image is formed at infinity, we
define angular magnification. Magnifying
power or angular magnification of a simple
microscope is defined as the ratio of the
angle subtended at the eye by the final
image to the angle subtended at the eye by
the object, when both object and final image
are at the least distance of distinct vision
i
from the eye. i.e, m = -------- (4)
f
θo
θi
f is enlarged and virtual.
Figure (ii): Image formed at infinity
Finally, the angular magnification is given by
i D
m= =
f f
The magnification produced when the image is
at infinity is less by one than the magnification
produced when the image is formed at near
point. However, it is comfortable to view the
image when it is at infinity and the eye is said
to be in relaxed state.
COMPOUND MICROSCPE
A simple microscope has a limitation on
magnification. To produce higher
magnification, a compound microscope is
used. A compound microscope makes use of
two converging lenses. The schematic diagram
of compound microscope is as shown. The
lens towards the object is called objective. The
other lens towards the observer is called
eyepiece. The objective produces a real,
inverted and enlarged image AB of an object
AB, which serves as the object for eyepiece.
Eyepiece produces the final image ABwhich
u fo fe
B

A A´´ A´
Suppose an object of height ho is placed at
near point from the eye as shown in figure (ii). Objective lens B´
The object subtends maximum angle θo at the
eye which is given by Eyepiece

ho h
tan o = Or  o = o ------- (5) D
D D
For an object at a distance u from the lens,
image is formed at a distance v from the lens.
B´´
hi v v
We have m = = or hi = ho ------- (6)
ho u u Magnifying power or angular magnification of
If θi is the angle subtended by the image at the a compound microscope is defined as the ratio
hi 1 v  h of the angle subtended at the eye by the final
eye, then tani = = −  ho  = − o
−v v u u image to the angle subtended at the eye by the
object, when both object and final image are
ho
For smaller values of θ, we get  i = − -- (7) at the least distance of distinct vision from the
u
eye.
At u = -f, the image is formed at infinity. Then
Magnifying power of compound microscope
ho
eq. (7) becomes  i = ------- (8) when final image is at near point
f Suppose me and mo be the magnifications
produced by eyepiece and objective lenses

SPUC (Main) 16
CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

respectively, the net magnification produced The disadvantage with telescope is that the
by the microscope is m = me mo. lenses used are big in size and also the images
 formed are not free from chromatic aberration.
D
It can be shown that me = 1 +  and Hence the modern telescopes make use of
 fe  concave mirrors. A concave mirror is free of
 v   D  v  chromatic aberration. The telescopes with
mo = 1 − o  and m = 1 +  1 − o  mirror objectives are called reflecting
 fo   fe   fo 
telescopes.
where, D – least distance of distinct vision, vo
– distance of the image AB from the
objective, fo – focal length of the objective lens
and fe – focal length of the eyepiece.
fo
Magnifying power of compound microscope fe
when final image is at infinity
The magnification produced by objective lens
vo
is mo = and that produced by eyepiece is
uo
D Eyepiece
me = . Then the net magnification produced
fe Objective lens
vo D
by the microscope is m = mo me =
uo f e
REFLETING TELESCOPE
When the object is close to the principal focus
of the objective, the image is formed nearly at Objective
the eyepiece. Then uo = fo and vo = L = length mirror
of the microscope. Thus the magnifying power
L D Secondary
of the microscope is given by m = . mirror
fo fe
When the image is formed at infinity, the Eyepiece
microscope is said to be in normal
adjustment.
A telescope with mirror objectives is called
TELESCOPE reflecting telescope. Advantages of reflecting
A telescope is used to produce angular telescope over astronomical telescope are
magnification of distant objects. It has an (i) As mirrors used there is no chromatic
objective lens of larger focal length and eye aberration.
lens. The magnifying power of a telescope in (ii) As parabolic mirror is used there is no
normal adjustment is defined as the ratio of spherical aberration.
the angle () subtended at the eye by the (iii) The mirror can be supported on its entire
final image to the angle () subtended at the back where as the lens has to be supported on
it rim.
eye by the object. It can be shown that the
magnification produced by the telescope is
fo
given by m = . The length of the telescope
fe
in the normal adjustment is L = fo + fe .

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CHAPTER 9 RAY OPTICS BY PRASHANTH R

SPUC (Main) 18