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PHYSICS
II PUC
(PART-2)

Ch Chapter name Teaching marks

N0. Hours
9 RAY OPTICS 10 9
10 WAVE OPTICS 10 9
11 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION 6 5
AND MATTER
12 ATOMS 5 5
13 NUCLEI 7 6
14 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS 10 9

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CHAPTER 9:
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION: A branch of physics which deals with the nature, sources, properties and
effects of light is called optics. There are three branches of optics, namely, geometrical optics,
physical optics and quantum optics.
1. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (Ray Optics): It is the study of ray – like properties of light and
optical instruments. It considers rectilinear propagation of light (i.e., light travels in straight
line).
2. PHYSICAL OPTICS (Waves Optics): It is the study of wave – like nature of light and
interaction between light and matter.
3. QUANTUM OPTICS: It is the study of particle nature of light (photon).

➢ Light is form of energy which enables to see the things around us.
➢ Optical medium is one which allows light to pass through it. It may or may not contain matter.
➢ A medium which allows a major portion of the incident light to pass through it is called
transparent medium. Ex,: Glass, Quartz etc.
➢ The medium which doesn’t allow a major portion of the incident light to pass through it is
called opaque medium. Ex.: wood, brick etc.
➢ The medium which allows only a fraction of the incident light to pass through it is called
translucent (semi-transparent) medium. Ex. Ground glass, oiled paper.
➢ HOMOGENEOUS MEDIUM: A medium in which the density is same throughout.
➢ HETEROGENEOUS MEDIUM: A medium in which the density is not same throughout.
➢ Isotropic medium is one in which the speed of light is same in all directions. Ex.: glass.
➢ Anisotropic medium is one in which the speed of light is different in different directions.
Ex.: Quartz.
Note: In geometrical optics only isotropic homogeneous media are considered.

TERMS COMMONLY USED IN RAY OPTICS

✓ RAY OF LIGHT: It is a straight line which represents the direction of propagation of light.
✓ BEAM OF LIGHT: It is a collection of rays of light. It may be convergent, divergent or
parallel.
✓ CONVERGENT BEAM: It is one in which the rays meet or appear to meet at a point.
✓ DIVERGENT BEAM: It is one in which the rays diverge or appear to diverge from a point.
✓ PARALLEL BEAM: It is a beam in which the rays are parallel to one another.
✓ IMAGE: If rays of light coming from a point source after reflection or refraction converge to
point or appear to diverge from a point, then that point is called as the image of the point
source.
✓ REAL IMAGE: If the rays after reflection or refraction converge to a point, image is real.
Real images are always inverted and can be caught on a screen.
✓ VIRTUAL IMAGE: If the rays after reflection or refraction, appear to diverge from a point,
the image is virtual. The virtual images are always erect and cannot be caught on a screen.

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REFLECTION OF LIGHT:
It is a phenomenon in which light travelling in one medium incident on the surface of another
returns to the first medium.
LAWS OF REFLECTION:
I LAW: “The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incident all lie in the
same plane”.
II LAW: “The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection”.
Normal
 ∠i = ∠r
Incident ray Reflected ray  After reflection, velocity, wave length and frequency
of light remains same but intensity decreases
i r  There is a phase change of  if reflection takes place
Boundary from denser medium

NOTE: These laws are valid at each point on any reflecting surface whether it is plane or
curved.
Mirror is a device which reflects maximum amount of light incident on it. There are two major
types of mirrors. (1) plane mirrors and (2) spherical mirrors (curved mirrors)
In this chapter we concentrate more on spherical mirrors.
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
A spherical mirror is a part of hallow sphere, whose one side is reflecting and other side is
opaque. There two types of spherical mirrors. Namely (a)convex mirror and (b) concave
mirror
(a) Convex mirror: It is a spherical mirror in which reflecting surface is curved out wards.
(b) Concave mirror: It is a spherical mirror in which reflecting surface is curved in wards.

C P P C
F F
Principle axis

Converges the rays

Diverges the light rays
Note:
(i) The centre of the sphere of which the mirrors form a part is called centre of curvature(C).
(ii) The geometrical midpoint of the spherical mirror is called pole or vertex of spherical mirror
(P).
(iii) The radius of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part is called radius of curvature.
(iv) The straight line segment drawn at any point to the spherical mirror from centre of
curvature is normal to the surface.
(v) A straight line joining the pole and centre of curvature is called principal axis of the mirror.
(vi) The length of the spherical mirror is called linear aperture.
(vii) The rays parallel to the principal axis and incidenting on spherical mirror are called
paraxial rays

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Cartesian sign convention:

1. All distances must be measured from the

pole of the spherical mirrors.
2. The distances measured in the direction of
incident light are taken as positive and the
distances opposite to the direction of incident
light are taken as negative.
3. The heights measured upwards and
perpendicular to the principal axis of the mirror
are taken as positive and vice-versa.

Principal focus and focal length

When paraxial rays incident on the surface of concave mirror, after reflection the beam
converges to a point on the same side of incidence, such a point is called principal focus(F) of
concave mirror.
When paraxial rays incident on the surface of convex mirror, after reflection the beam diverges.
Such diverging rays appear to originating from a point on the other side of incidence, such a
point is called principal focus(F) of convex mirror.
The distance between pole and principal focus(F) is called focal length of the mirror.

Note: If the parallel beam of light was incident, by making an

angle with the principal axis, the reflected rays would
converge or diverge from a point in a plane which is passing
through F and normal to the principal axis. This plane is called
focal plane of the mirror.

Relation between focal length and radius of curvature

Consider a concave mirror on which a parallel ray of light incident at point M as shown in figure.
Let R be the radius of curvature, F be the principal focus and f be the focal length of the
concave mirror.

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In figure, CM will be the normal and MD is the perpendicular drawn to the principal axis. Let 
̂ 𝐹= . By using the laws of reflection and alternating angle
be the angle of incidence. i.e., 𝐶𝑀
principle, we can show that 𝑀𝐹̂ 𝐷= 2.
In figure,
𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
tan 𝜃 = and tan 2𝜃 =
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷
For small angles, tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
Hence,
𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
𝜃= and 2𝜃 =
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷
𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
=> 2 =
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷
𝐶𝐷
=> 𝐹𝐷 =
2
We have, FD = f and CD = R
𝑹
Thus, 𝒇=
𝟐

MIRROR FORMULA
Consider an object AB placed in front of the concave mirror at a distance ‘u’from the pole. Let
A1B1 be its real image formed at a distance ‘v’ from the pole.
Let R be the radius of curvature, C be the centre of curvature, F be the principal focus and ‘f’ be
the focal length of the concave mirror.
The above ray diagram considers two rays from edge ‘A’ to show formation of image.
In the diagram,
 A1B1P and ABP are similar
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐵1 𝑃
∴ = ……..(1)
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝑃

 A1B1F and MPF are similar

(by considering MP as straight line)
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐵1 𝐹
∴ =
𝑀𝑃 𝑃𝐹
Since, MP=AB
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐵1 𝐹
= ……….(2)
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐹
From equation (1) and (2),
𝐵1 𝑃 𝐵1 𝐹
=
𝐵𝑃 𝑃𝐹
𝐵1 𝑃 𝐵1 𝑃−𝑃𝐹
= ……(3)
𝐵𝑃 𝑃𝐹
By measuring the distances according to Cartesian convention we get,
𝐵1 𝑃 = −𝑣 , 𝐵𝑃 = −𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐹 = −𝑓

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Using in eqn (3)

−𝒗 −𝒗+𝒇
=
−𝒖 −𝒇
𝒗 𝒗−𝒇
=> =
𝒖 𝒇
=> 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣 𝑢 − 𝒇𝒖
Dividing by ‘uvf’
1 1 1
= −
𝑢 𝑓 𝑣
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝐯 𝐮 𝐟
This is mirror equation

LINEAR MAGNIFICATION (m)

Linear magnification is defined as the ratio of size (height) of the image to the size (height) of the
object.
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
∴ 𝑚=
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
If hIand hO are the heights of the image and object respectively then
ℎ𝐼
∴ 𝑚=
ℎ𝑜
NOTE: (1) The linear magnification of mirrors can also be calculated as the ratio of image
𝑣
distance to object distance 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑚 = −
𝑢
(2) Optical density is different from mass density of a material. Optical density of material is
inversely dependent on velocity of light in that medium. Hence, lesser the velocity of light in
the medium, larger will be the optical density.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT:
“The phenomenon of change in the direction of a ray of light when it travels from one
medium to another of different optical density is called refraction of light”. OR
“The phenomenon of bending of ray of light when it travels from optical medium to
another is called refraction”.

Explanation of the phenomenon of refraction of light:

The boundary separating the two media is called the refracting surface (or interface).
The medium in which the light ray travels before reaching the surface is called the incident
medium. The medium in which the light ray travels after crossing the boundary is called the
refracting surface.
A ray traveling in the incident medium is called the incident ray and the ray traveling in the
refracting medium is called the refracted ray. The point on the boundary where the incident
ray falls is called as point of incidence (also called the point of refraction).

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The planar angle between the incident ray and the normal at the point of incidence inside the
incident medium is called angle of incidence (i). The planar angle between the refracted ray
and the normal at the point of refraction inside the refracting medium is called as the angle of
refraction (r).
In a pair of media, the medium in which a ray of light travels faster is called an optically
rarer medium and the medium in which a ray of light travels slower is called an optically
denser medium.
When a ray of light travels (for oblique incidence) from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it
bends towards the normal. When it travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, bends
away from the normal.

Note:
(i) Angle between the incident direction and the refracted ray is called the angle of deviation(d).
It is given by d = (i~r).
(ii) When a ray travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, i> r,  d = i – r
(iii) When it travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, i< r,  d = r – i
(iv) When a ray of light travels along the normal, it moves without any deviation.
i = r = d = 0.
Incident ray
i Rarer medium Denser medium

i
Deviation d= (r – i )

Deviation d = (i – r) d
r
d
Denser medium Rarer medium
Refracted ray

CAUSE FOR REFRACTION OF LIGHT: This phenomenon is attributed to the wave nature
of light. When a wave travels from one medium to another, frequency doesn’t change
whereas wavelength changes. This leads to the change in the velocity when light goes from
one medium to another. This causes the wave to bend when it travels from one medium to
another.
LAWS OF REFRACTION:
I LAW: “The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie
in the same plane”.
II LAW: “The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (i) to the sine of the angle of the
angle of refraction(r) is a constant for a given pair media and for light of given
wavelength (or colour)”.
sin i
i.e., = constant
sin r
This constant is called the relative refractive index of the second (refracting) medium with
sin i 1
respect to the first (incident) medium. = n2
sin r

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When a ray of light travels from medium-1 of RI n1 to medium-2 of RI n2, then,

sin 𝑖 𝑛2 𝑛
Therefore, = (Because 1
n2 = 2 )
sin 𝑟 𝑛1 𝑛1
n1sini = n2sinr This is the generalized Snell’s law of refraction.

Limitation of Snell’s law: For normal incidence, i = 00 and sin 0 = 0.

i.e., Snell’s law is not applicable to find relative refractive index for normal incidence.

RELATIVE REFRACTIVE INDEX ( 1 n 2 ):

Definition: - “The relative refractive index of medium-2 with respect to medium-1 is defined as
the ratio of the velocity of light in the medium-1 to that in the medium-2”.
If v1 and v2 are the speeds of light in media 1 and 2 respectively, then
𝑣
It is written as 1 n 2 i.e., 1 n 2 = 1
𝑣2
Let λ1→ wavelength in medium – 1 (∵ v = f λ) and λ2→ wavelength in medium – 2

f 𝜆1 𝜆1 𝜆1
In terms of wavelength, 1𝑛2 = = ⟹ 1𝑛2 =
f 𝜆2 𝜆2 𝜆2
Relative RI also has no dimension i.e., unitless.

Note:
1. It can be greater than 1 or less than 1.
2. If light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, V1>V2 then, 1n2 >1 and
3. If light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, V1< V2 then, 1n2<1.

ABSOLUTE REFRACTIVE INDEX (n):

Defn.:Absolute refractive index (n) of a medium can be defined as the ratio of speed of
light in vacuum or air( c) to the speed of light in the given medium (v).
𝐶
i.e., 𝑛 =
𝑉
fλ 𝜆
In terms of wavelength, n = = λ → wavelength in vacuum, (∵ v = f λ)
f 𝜆𝑚 𝜆𝑚
λm→ wavelength in medium .
Note:
1. Absolute RI of a medium ‘n’ is always greater than 1. This is because, the velocity of light in
vacuum
(i.e., c = 3 x 10 8 ms-1) is always greater than that in any material medium.
2. Absolute RI of air or vacuum is equal unity (i.e., = 1)
3. The absolute RI of a homogeneous medium is a scalar quantity.
4. RI has no dimension and hence no unit

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n2
To show that 1 n 2 = :
n1
Consider two media of refractive indices n1 and n2 respectively. Let v1 and v2 be the velocities in
the media 1 and 2 respectively and c -the velocity in vacuum then,
C C
Absolute refractive index of the medium 1 is n1 = : or V1 = : ------(1)
v1 n1
c c
Similarly, Absolute refractive index of the medium 2 is n2 = or v2 = --------(2)
v2 n2
But by definition, the relative refractive index of medium-2 with respect to medium-1
1 v1
n2 = using (1) and (2) we get,
v2
𝐶⁄ 𝒏𝟐
𝑛1
1𝑛2 = 𝐶 ⟹ 1
n2 =
⁄𝑛2 𝒏𝟏

PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBILITY OF LIGHT:

The principle of reversibility of light states that “If the path of a ray of light is reversed after a
number of reflections and refractions, it retraces the same path”.
1
So we can write, 1 n2 =
2 n1

LATERAL SHIFT
REFRACTION THROUGH A PARALLEL SIDED GLASS SLAB:
When a ray of light passes through a transparent parallel sided medium, it is laterally
displaced without any deviation.
Defn.: “The perpendicular distance between the direction of the incident ray and the
emergent ray when a ray passes through a parallel sided transparent medium is called
lateral shift”.

MENTION OF EXPRESSION FOR LATERAL SHIFT (LS):

ABCD is a parallel sided glass slab of RI ‘n g’ and thickness

‘t’ placed in air. The ray PQ suffers refraction at both the
faces AB and CD and finally emerges along RS as shown
in the figure below.
 Lateral shift LS = t
sin(i − r )
cos r
OR

LS = t sec r sin(i − r )

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Factors on which the lateral shift produced by a parallel sided glass slab depends:
The lateral shift produced by a parallel sided slab depends on
1) Thickness of the slab
2) Refractive index of the material of the slab and that of the surrounding medium
3) Angle of incidence
4) The colour or wavelength of light

NOTE:
(1) For normal incidence i = r = 00.  LS = 0. i.e., lateral shift is zero for normal
incidence.
sin(90 − r )
(2) For grazing incidence i.e., i = 900 , LS = t =t. This is maximum value for LS at i
cos r
= 900.

NORMAL SHIFT
“An object placed in one medium when viewed normally from another appears to be shifted
along the normal. This apparent shift in the position of the object along the normal is
called normal shift and the phenomenon is called normal refraction”.
An object in a denser medium when viewed normally from a rarer medium appears to be raised
(shifted towards the viewer).
On the other hand, when an object is in a rarer medium when viewed from a denser medium,
it appears to be farther away (shifted away from the viewer).
I d
In the figures ‘d’ represents normal shift. h
O h

h
h I
d O

EXPRESSION FOR NORMAL SHIFT (NS)

B

Rarer medium (n 2)
Medium - 2
D
M r
A
C
Apparent depth
r i

I N
Denser medium (n1)
Real depth Medim - 1
NS
i

[OBJECT IN A DENSERMEDIUM]:

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O is an illuminated point object placed in a denser medium of RI ‘n 1’ and it is viewed from a

rarer medium of RI ‘n2’. A ray OA incident normally on the interface XY moves un-deviated
along AB. Another ray OC incident on the surface close to AO is refracted along CD. When
DC produced backwards meets the ray OAB at I. On reaching eyes the refracted rays appear
to have come from I. I is the virtual image of O.
The depth OA is called Real Depth (RD).
The depth AI is called Apparent Depth (AD).
The distance OI is called normal shift (NS)
From fig., Normal Shift,
n2
NS =t[𝟏 − ] Where t = Real depth of the object.
n1
(Memorize as n2➔ RI of observer’s medium and n1➔ RI of object’s medium)
And we can also show that,
1 n2 Apparent depth
n2 = =
n1 Real depth
From air medium n2=1 and n1=n, then
1 Apparent depth
=> =
n Real depth
Real depth
n=
Apparent depth
1
and Normal shift, NS = t [1 – ]
𝑛

FACTORS ON WHICH NORMAL SHIFT DEPENDS:

Normal shift produced by a pair of media depends on
(1). Depth ‘t’ of the object from the refracting surface,
(2). refractive index of the medium in which the object is placed,
(3). refractive index of the medium from which the object is viewed.

NOTE:
(1) Object in air viewed from a medium, i.e., n1 = 1(air) and n2= n (medium).
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑛2 𝑛 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
= = ⟹𝑛=
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑛1 1 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
n2
NS = t [1- ] = t (1 – n)
n1
(2). If the object is viewed through a composite medium having parallel sides
the total normal shift NS = N1 + N2 + N3 + ----------
where N1, N2, N3 ----- are the normal shifts produced by the individual media.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION [TIR]:

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The ray of light from a luminous object placed in

the denser medium moves straight as it strikes the
surface XY normally. But if the ray strikes the
surface making a small angle with the normal, it
gets refracted in to the rarer medium bending away
from the normal. As the angle of incidence
increases, the angle of refraction also increases as
shown in figure. But for a particular angle of
incidence in the denser medium, the angle of refraction becomes 900. i.e., the refracted ray
emerges grazing the surface (see the fig. below). This particular angle of incidence is called
‘critical angle’. For further increase in the angle of incidence, the ray is not refracted but
gets reflected back in to the same medium. This phenomenon is known as total internal
reflection.

DEFINITION OF CRITICAL ANGLE (C):

“It is that particular angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle refraction is
900 or the refracted ray emerges just grazing the surface”.
DEFINITION OF TIR:
“When a ray of light traveling from a denser medium in to a rarer medium, strikes the
interface separating the two media at an angle greater than the critical angle, the ray is
totally reflected back into the denser medium. This phenomenon is called total internal
reflection (TIR)”.

CONDITIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:

1). The ray of light must travel from a denser medium into a rarer medium.
2). The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle for the
given pair of media.

RELATION BETWEEN REFRACTIVE INDEX AND CRITICAL ANGLE:

When the ray PQ traveling from the denser medium makes an angle equal to the critical angle C
at the interface, the refracted ray QR makes an angle
equal to 900.
Using Snell’s law,
n1 sini = n2 sinr
Here, i = C and r = 900 (angle of refraction).
 n1sinC = n2 sin90
or n1sini = n2 x 1
n
or sinC = 2
n1
If the medium-2 is air or vacuum and the refractive index of the denser medium is n then,
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n1 = n and n2= 1
𝟏 1
∴ 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝑪 = or C = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝒏 n

APPLICATIONS OF TIR:
1) SPARKLING OF DIAMOND: A properly cut diamond sparkles(glitters) due to total
internal reflection. Diamond has high RI (~ 2.5) and small critical angle (~25 0 ). The rays
undergo series of total internal reflections at various faces and emerge at a few faces.
Therefore, looking from these directions the diamond appears sparkling.
MIRAGE: Mirage is an optical illusion observed due to total
internal reflection of light at the air layers of different
density. During hot summer days ground gets heated up. Due
to this, the air layers just above the ground are at higher
temperature and hence lower density compared to the air
layers at a bit higher level. The sun rays from the sky while
passing from denser air layers to rarer air layers undergo total
internal reflection before reaching our eyes. Hence the
ground at a distance appears like a pool of water in which the image of sky is seen.

2) SHINING OF AIR BUBBLE IN WATER: The critical angle for water-air interface is 480
45!. When light traveling in water(denser medium) is incident on the surface of air
bubble(rarer medium) at an angle greater than 480 45!, the total internal reflection takes place.
Hence the air bubble in water shines brilliantly.

3) An empty test tube placed in a beaker filled with water in tilted position appears shining
because of total internal reflection of light at the interface between glass surface and air
inside it.

4) TOTAL REFLETING PRISM: Total reflecting Prisms are isosceles right angled prisms.
These are based on the principle of total internal reflections. They are used to turn the
incident beam through (i) 900 (ii) 1800 and to upright an inverted image. They are widely
used in optical instruments such as cameras, view finders, binoculars, periscopes and
reflecting telescopes.

OPTICAL FIBRES:
Optical fibre is designed to transmit light
wave
( EMW) in curved path. It is a thin
transparent fibre made of glass or
plastic (or quartz) which can transmit
light along any desired path with a
negligible loss of energy.

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CONSTRUCTION: It consists of a thin (diameter ~ 10-4m) transparent fibre made of glass or

plastic known as core. The core is coated all around with a material of lower reflective index
called cladding. The optical fibre used for communication has a protective cover.
A large number of fibre are arranged parallel to each other to form a bundle or cable such that
the fibres occupy exactly similar positions at both the ends of the bundle This prevents the
disturbance of transmitted image. This bundle of fibres is called light pipe (or optical pipe).

WORKING: When a ray of light is incident on one end at a small angle of incidence, it suffers
refraction into the core and strikes the core-cladding interface at an angle greater than the
critical angle. Hence it undergoes total internal reflection. This happens repeatedly and after a
series of total internal reflections, the ray emerges at the other end with practically no loss of
energy (or intensity).

USES:
1) Optical fibres are light in weight and small in size. Therefore, they can be used over greater
distances than copper cables.
2) The number of signals carried by optical fibres is much more than that carried by the copper
wires or radio waves.
3) Since optical fibres are insulated from external light, the optical communication is noise free.
4) Optical communication cannot be jammed as easily as radio signals can be jammed.
5) Optical communication is almost loss free.
6) It is very difficult to tap (cross talking) an optical fibres cable to read data signals.
7) Used to transmit light signals and three-dimensional signals.
8) Fibrescopes made from optical fibres are used by doctors to visually examine the inner parts
of human body.

Disadvantages:
1) The cost of manufacturing optical fibres and producing laser beam is very high.
2) It needs more expensive optical transmitters and receivers.
3) Glass fibres are easily broken than wires, so it requires extra care when installed.

REFRACTION THROUGH SPHERICAL SURFACE

“Spherical refracting surface is a refracting medium whose curved surface is a part of a
sphere”.
Types of spherical surfaces:
(i) Convex Spherical Refracting Surface: A spherical refracting surface which is convex
towards rarer medium is called convex spherical refracting surface.
(ii) Concave Spherical Refracting Surface: A spherical refracting surface which is concave
towards rarer medium is called concave spherical refracting surface.

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Terms related to the study of refraction through a Spherical Surface:

(i) Pole (P): The geometric centre (or the mid-point) of a spherical refracting surface is called its
pole.
(ii) Centre of curvature (C): The centre of the sphere of which the refracting surface forms a part
is called the centre of curvature.
(iii) Radius of curvature (R): The radius of the sphere of which the refracting surface forms a
part is called the radius of curvature.
(iv) Aperture: The area of the spherical refracting surface available for refraction is called the
aperture.
(v) Principal axis: The line passing through the pole of a spherical refracting surface and its
centre of curvature is called the principal axis.
(vi) Object space: The region in which the incident rays travel or the in which the real object is
situated is called the object space.
(vii) Image space: The region in which refracted rays travel or the region in which the real
image is formed is called the image space.
Note: The refractive index of object space is denoted by no and that of image space by ni. The
formulae which we will derive in our next discussions are based on the following assumptions
and sign conventions.

Assumptions:
1. The surface is of small aperture.
2. Only paraxial rays (i.e., the rays close to the principal axis) are considered.

Note:

Denser (n1)
C

P P C

Denser (n1)
Rarer (n2) Rarer (n2)
n1 >n2
Covex surface n1 > n2
Concave surface

RELATION CONNECTING u, v, R and n FOR REFRACTION AT A SPHERICAL

SURFACE
Consider a luminous point object O placed in front of a
spherical surface at a distance ‘u’. let the image I is formed
at a distance ‘v’ in the spherically refracting medium. Let
‘C’ be the centre of curvature and no and nI are the
Refractive index of the media in which object is placed and
image is formed respectively.
By considering aperture to be small, in figure
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𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
tan 𝑀𝑂̂𝑁 = , tan 𝑀𝐶̂ 𝑁 = and tan 𝑀𝐼̂𝑁 =
𝑂𝑁 𝐶𝑁 𝐼𝑁
For smaller angles tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃,
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
Therefore, 𝑀𝑂̂𝑁 = , 𝑀𝐶̂ 𝑁 = and 𝑀𝐼̂𝑁 =
𝑂𝑁 𝐶𝑁 𝐼𝑁
In MOC , i is the exterior angle
𝑖 = 𝑀𝑂̂𝑁 + 𝑀𝐶̂ 𝑁……..(1)
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
𝑖= + ……… (2)
𝑂𝑁 𝐶𝑁
Similarly in MCI
𝑀𝐶̂ 𝑁 = 𝑟 + 𝑀𝐼̂𝑁
𝑟 = 𝑀𝐶̂ 𝑁 − 𝑀𝐼̂𝑁 ……..(3)
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
𝑟= − …………(4)
𝐶𝑁 𝐼𝑁
From generalized Snell’s law, we can write
nO sin i=nI sin r
for smaller angles,sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
=>nOi = n r
Use eqn (2) and (4) in the above expression,
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
nO( + ) = nI( − )
𝑂𝑁 𝐶𝑁 𝐶𝑁 𝐼𝑁
1 1 1 1
nO( + ) = nI( − )
𝑂𝑁 𝐶𝑁 𝐶𝑁 𝐼𝑁
𝑛𝑂 𝑛𝑂 𝑛𝐼 𝑛
+ = − 𝐼
𝑂𝑁 𝐶𝑁 𝐶𝑁 𝐼𝑁
𝑛𝐼 𝑛𝑂 𝑛𝐼 𝑛𝑂
+ = −
𝐼𝑁 𝑂𝑁 𝐶𝑁 𝐶𝑁
𝑅𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑅.𝐼
{𝑖. 𝑒, + = }
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
In ray diagram by using Cartesian sign convention,
ON = -u , IN = v and CN = R
𝑛𝐼 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
+ 𝑂 = 𝐼− 𝑂
𝑣 −𝑢 𝑅 𝑅
On rearranging
𝑛𝐼 𝑛𝑂 𝑛𝐼 −𝑛𝑂
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
Note:
1. The above formula for refraction at a spherical surface is a general formula which holds good
even when
(i) Object is in denser or rarer medium and
(ii) Radius of curvature is positive or negative.

LENS:
A lens is an optical device bounded by two surfaces out of
which at least one is spherical.
Lenses may be classified into concave and convex lenses.

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Lenses which are thicker in the middle than at the edges are convex lenses. Convex lenses
converge a beam of parallel light rays and therefore they are also called convergent lenses.
Lenses which are thinner at the centre than at the edges are called concave lenses. Concave
lenses diverge a beam of parallel light rays and therefore they are called divergent lenses.
Principal axis: The principal axis of a lens is the line passing through the centre of curvatures of
its two surfaces.
OPTIC CENTRE:
When a ray of light incident on a lens emerges parallel
to itself, such refracted ray intersects the principal
axis at a fixed point inside the lens. This point is
called Optic centre. This is unique point.

PRINCIPAL FOCUS and FOCAL LENGTH:

When parallel rays incident on the surface of convex lens, on refraction the beam converges to a
point on the other side of incidence, such a point is called principal focus (F) of convex lens.
When parallel rays incident on the surface of concave lens, on refraction the beam diverges. Such
diverging rays appear to originating from a point on the same side of incidence, such a point is
called principal focus(F) of concave lens.
The distance between optic centre and principal focus (F) is called focal length of the lens.

Thin lens formula:

It is given as,
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
Where, ‘v’ is image distance
‘u’ is object distance
And ‘f’ is focal length of the lens

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Convex lens (Converges the light rays) Concave lens (Diverges the light rays)

Double convex Plano convex Concavo- convex Double concave Plane concave Convexo concave
Thick at middle Thin at middle
It forms both real and virtual images It forms only virtual images

LENS MAKER’S FORMULA:

Let ‘f’ be the focal length of a thin

convex lens of a material of
refractive index n2 having radii of
curvature R1 and R2. Let the lens be
placed in a medium of refractive
index n1 (n2>n1 ).
Let P be the luminous point object
placed on a principal axis at distance ‘u’ from optic centre as shown.
1) Refraction at surface ABC
By assuming the other surface ADC to be absent, let I 1 be the real image formed by the
spherical surface ABC, at distance v1,
𝑅𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑅.𝐼
We have, + =
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
By applying the present available data we get ,
𝑛2 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
− 1 = 2 1 ------------------(1)
𝑣1 𝑢 𝑅1
2) Refraction at surface ADC
Now, I is the final image formed at distance v. For image I, image I 1 can be regarded as the
virtual object in denser medium. Its real image is formed in air at I.
𝑅𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑅.𝐼
We have, + =
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
(This eqn. holds good even for concave spherical surfaces. But sign convention must be
followed)
So we get,
𝑛1 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
− 2 = 2 1 ------------------(2)
𝑣 𝑣1 −𝑅2
By adding eqn(1) and (2),
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 −𝑛1 𝑛2 −𝑛1
− + − = +
𝑣1 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣1 𝑅1 −𝑅2
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 −𝑛1 𝑛2 −𝑛1
− + = −
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2

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1 1 1 1
𝑛1 ( − ) = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )( − )
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 𝑛2 −𝑛1 1 1 1 1 1
=( ) [𝑅 − ] { since − = }
𝑓 𝑛1 1 𝑅2 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
OR
1 𝑛2 1 1
=( − 1) [ − ]
𝑓 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
This is called lens makers formula.
If the surrounding medium is air then, n1= 1 and n2 = n (RI of the lens) then, we can write
1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1)[ −
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
The above equation represents Lens makers’ formula with the surrounding medium air.

Factors on which focal length of a lens depends:

The focal length of a lens depends on
(i) Refractive index of the material of the lens.
(ii) Refractive index of the surrounding medium.
(iii) Radii of curvature of the two surfaces of the lens.

MAGNIFICATION:
Linear magnification is defined as the ratio of size (height) of the image to the size (height) of the
object.
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
∴ 𝑚=
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
ℎ𝐼
If hIand hO are the heights of the image and object respectively then, ∴ 𝑚 =
ℎ𝑜
Note: the linear magnification of mirrors can also be calculated as the ratio of image distance to
𝑣
object distance 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑚 =
𝑢

POWER OF A LENS:
Defn. : “Power of a lens is defined as its ability to converge or diverge light rays and is
1
measured by the reciprocal of its focal length measured in metre”. Power =
focal length
Power of a lens is measured in dioptre (D).

Note:(1) Defn.: “1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre”.
(2) Power of a lens can be zero but can’t be infinite.

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FOCAL LENGTH OF A COMBINATION OF TWO THIN LENSES IN CONTACT :

Consider two thin lenses L1 and
L2 of focal lengths f1 and f2 kept
in contact.
O is a point object placed on the
principal axis of the lens at a
distance ‘u’ from the lens
system.
A ray of light along the principal axis passes un-deviated.
In the absence of the second lens L2 the refracted ray travels straight and forms a real image at I1.

1). Refraction through the first lens L1(f1)

In the absence of the second lens, a real object at O will have a real image at I1.
1 1 1
Hence, we write − = ……………………. (1)
𝑣1 𝑢 𝑓1
2). Refraction through the second lens L2(f2)
Due to refraction at the second lens, the ray further deviates to form a real image at I. let I be the
final image formed at distance v. For image I, imageI1 can be regarded as the virtual object
1 1 1
Therefore, − = ………………………… (2)
𝑣 𝑣1 𝑓2
The formation of the image I due refraction through the lens combination can take place in two
stages.
Hence, by adding (1) and (2), we get,
1 1 1 1
− = + ………………………..(3)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓1 𝑓2
If ‘F’ is the focal length of the equivalent lens ‘L’of the above combination then
1 1 1
− = …………………………….(4)
𝑣 𝑢 𝐹
From (3) and (4)
1 1 1
= +
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2
In general, for n lenses,
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯+
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3 𝑓𝑛
Note:If P1 and P2 are the powers of the two lenses in contact and P the power of the combination,
then we have P = P1 + P2 and for n lenses P = P1 + P2 + P3+….. + Pn

Expression for Equivalent Focal Length of two lenses separated by a distance:

If two thin lenses of focal length f1 and f2 are separated by a distance ‘d’, then equivalent focal
length (F) of 1 = 1 + 1 - d lens is given by
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2
If P1 and P2 are the powers of the lenses then in terms of power the formula is
P = P1 + P2 - d P1 P2
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PRISM:
“A simple prism is a homogenous transparent refracting medium bounded by at least two
nonparallel plane surfaces inclined at some angle”.
Commonly used prisms are equilateral, right angled
isosceles prisms.
The commonly used prisms are bounded by three
rectangular faces and two triangular faces
The two of the three are well polished faces are called the
refracting faces of the prism.
The line of intersection between the refracting faces is called refracting edge.
The angle between the refracting faces is called the refracting angle of the prism A.
Any section of the prism perpendicular to the refracting edge is called the principal section of the
prism.

DERIVATION OF THE EXPRESSION FOR THE REFRACTIVE INDEX IN TERMS OF

THE ANGLE OF THE PRISM(A) AND ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION(D):
EFG is a principal section of a prism of RI ‘n’; A is its
angle and FG the base.
The ray PQ travelling in air would have travelled in
straight line in the absence of the prism. But due to
refraction through the prism, it emerges along RS
bending towards the base.

i1→angle of incidence at the face EF.

r1→angle of refraction at the face EF.
r2→angle of incidence at the face EG
i2→angle of emergence at the face EG.
The angle of deviation at the face EF is d1= i1- r1
The angle of deviation at the face FG is d2= i2- r2
Therefore total deviation, the total deviation is  SMT
=d
d = d1 + d2
= (i1- r1) + (i2- r2)
d = (i1 + i2) – (r1 + r2)-----(1)
In the quadrilateral EQRN,
∠𝐸𝑄𝑁 = ∠𝐸𝑅𝑁 = 900
∴ ∠𝑄𝐸𝑅 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 1800
0R 𝐴 = 1800 − ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅-------(2)
(Since, ∠𝑄𝐸𝑅 = A→ angle of prism)
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From the  le QNR, r1 + r2 +∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 1800

r1 + r2 = 1800 -∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 ------------ (3)
From eq. (2) and (3),we get, r1 + r2 = A
Using in (1)
or d = (i1 + i2) – A------------------ ( 4 )
It has been found that as the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation first decrease
reaches a minimum value and then increases as shown in the figure.
The least value of deviation for a ray of light passing through a prism is called angle of
minimum deviation D.
Under this condition the ray of light is symmetric about the refracting faces. It is parallel
to the base while passing through the prism.
i.e., when d = D, i1 = i2 = i and r1 = r2 = r --------(5) Using (5) in (3) and (4) we get,
A = r + r = 2r or r = A and
2
D = i + i – A or 2i = D + A or i= A+ D
2
𝐴+𝐷
sin 𝑖 sin[ ]
Form Snell’s law n = ⇒𝑛= 2
𝐴
sin 𝑟 sin[ ]
2

THIN PRISM:
A thin prism is one whose angle of refraction is very small ( <100 ).
or d = A (n - 1)
i.e., the above equation shows that the deviation produced by a thin prism
depends only on refractive index (n) and angle of the prism(A). But it is
independent of the angle of incidence.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT:
Screen
The phenomenon of splitting of white light into
Incident R
its constituent colours is called dispersion of Y
light. white light
V

The medium which brings about dispersion of

light is called a dispersive medium. The band of colours obtained on the screen is called
spectrum.
PURE SPECTRUM:
A spectrum in which the constituent colours are seen distinctly without overlapping is called
pure spectrum.
IMPURE SPECTRUM:
A spectrum in which the constituent colours overlap and are not seen distinctly is called an
impure spectrum.
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The rain bow

Rainbow is the best example for the naturally occurring
dispersion phenomena by water drops in the atmosphere.
Rainbow is due to combined effect of refraction and
reflection which results in dispersion. The conditions for
observing a rain bow are
(a) the sun should be shining at one part of the sky, while it
should be raining in opposite part of the sky.
(b) observer’s back must be towards the sun.
Generally there are two types of rain bows
(i) Primary rainbow
(ii) Secondary rainbow
Primary rainbow is formed by the rays which
undergo one internal reflection and two refractions
as they emerging finally from water-droplets.
Hence it is a three step process as shown fig(a).
Secondary rainbow is formed by the rays which
undergo two internal reflections and two refractions
as they emerge finally from water droplets. Hence it is a four step process as shown below.
The secondary rain bow is fainter as compared to the primary rain bow. The colours in the
secondary rain bow will be in the reverse order.

SCATTERING OF LIGHT
“The phenomenon in which particles of a medium deviate light in a lateral direction is
called scattering of light”.
Scattering is different from reflection because laws of reflection are not valid in scattering.
During scattering energy of the incident light is first absorbed and then reemitted by the atoms
and molecules of the material. When light is reemitted, the scattered light may or may not have
the same wavelength as that of the incident light.
When size of the scattering particle(a) is small compared to wavelength of the incident
radiation  , it is called Rayleigh scattering. Scattering of light by the molecules of air is an
example for Rayleigh scattering.
According to Rayleigh, the intensity (I) of scattered beam is inversely proportional to the
4 power of wavelength of incident radiation (  ).
th

1
i.e., I
4
Therefore, Rayleigh scattering intensity is maximum for violet and is minimum for red in the
visible range.

BLUE COLOUR OF THE SKY:

When the light from the sun passes through the atmosphere it gets scattered by
the air molecules and dust particles in it. Violet has the least wavelength; it scatters to a larger
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extent and it is followed by indigo and blue. Since our eyes are more sensitive to the blue colour
than violet. Sky appears blue when we look the sky in a transverse direction. In the absence of
atmosphere sky would have appeared black.

NOTE: When we look at the sun directly, we receive white light in which a part of blue is
eliminated due to scattering. Hence sun appears to be yellowish than white.

BLUE COLOUR OF THE SEA:

The blue colour of the sea is due to the reflection of light from the sky. The colour of
the sky is light blue but the colour of sea is deep blue. This is because the sea water absorbs red
colour of light to some good extent and its compliment colour is bluish green. As a mixture of
both bluish green and light blue the sea appears in deep blue colour.

RED COLOUR OF THE RISING AND SETTING SUN (Dawn and dusk):
During sunrise and sunset, the sunlight travels a longer path in the lower and densest
part of the earth’s atmosphere. Hence blue scatters to a larger extent and red and orange
penetrates. This is the reason for red colour of the sun during rise and set.

WHITE COLOUR OF CLOUDS:

Clouds will be usually present in the lower atmospheric region. They are seen due to scattering
of light from large dust particles, water droplets, ice particles are present in the cloud. In this
case, size of scatterer 𝒂 ≫ 𝝀. Hence all wavelengths are scattered nearly equal. Therefore,
clouds appear white.

NOTE:
The danger signals are red in colour because when the light falls on the signal, all colours are
scattered more than red. The red colour suffers least scattering and remains confined around the
signal. This helps in distinguishing the red signal from the far.

When the size of the scattering particle is comparable with the wavelength of the incident
radiation, it is called Tyndall scattering. Scattering of light by smoke is an example for it.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Microscope:
Microscope is an optical device used to magnify the object in its image. There are two
types of microscopes. Namely, 1) Simple microscope
2) Compound
microscope

1. Simple microscope:
Simple microscope is just a converging
lens of smaller focal length. Simple
microscope is also called magnifying lens.

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Here a virtual. Erect and magnified image is formed at the near point of eye. Object
is placed b/w F&C such that above said image is formed.
Magnifying power of simple microscope can also be defined as the ratio of the
angles subtended by the image and the object on the eye, when both are at least distance of
distinct vision of the eye. The magnification produced due to simple microscope will be,
𝐷
𝑚 =1+
𝑓
Where D is the least distance of distinct vision and ‘f ’ is the focal length of the lens used.
Magnification due to simple microscope is usually 𝑚 ≤ 9.

2. Compound microscope:
Compound microscope is improved form of simple microscope in which two
convex lenses are used to obtain still magnified image of the tiny object. In construction it has
lenses co-axially and one of the lens can be moved to obtain sharp image. A schematic
diagram is as follows.
Out of two lenses one is used to focus the object called objective and other used to view called
eye piece. Let f0&fefocal lengths of objective
and eye piece respectively. Objective
produces real, inverted and enlarged image
near the fe of eyepiece. Eye piece now works
as simple microscope and uses the image as
virtual object and produces its erect enlarged
image. Thus there are two lenses, in which
one compound the magnification of other.
Therefore total magnification is
m = m0 me
ℎ′ 𝐿
from figure, m0 = =
ℎ 𝑓𝑜
Where L is the distance b/w second focus of objective to first focus of eye piece
𝐷
called tube length of microscope. And W.K.T. me= 1 +
𝑓𝑒
𝐿 𝐷
m = ( )(1 + )
𝑓0 𝑓𝑒
if the image is formed at infinity the (1+D/fe) ≈ D/fe
𝐿 𝐷
m = ( )( )
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒

Telescope:
The device used to produce angular magnification of distant objects. There are two types of
telescopes namely, 1) Refracting telescope
2) Reflecting telescope

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1. Refracting telescope:
Like microscope it also contains two
co-axially placed convex lenses which are
called objective and eyepiece respectively.
Objective has larger focal length and larger
aperture whereas eyepiece has smaller focal
length and smaller aperture. Objective
produces a real, inverted image and eye piece
magnifies this image.
The magnifying power m is
the ratio of the angle β to the angle α
We can also show that m = β/α ≈ f0/fe
In this case, the length the telescope, L = f0 + fe
Terrestrial telescope are used to focus leaves of trees, distant hills etc., and astronomical
telescopes are used to view celestial bodies. The magnification of telescopes can be increased
by using the objective of large aperture which leads to the aberration. In addition these are
expensive also hence we use reflecting telescopes.

2. Reflecting telescope:
In these telescopes parabolic
concave mirror is used as aperture to eliminate
chromatic & spherical aberrations. As mirror
manufacturing is easier and cheaper as
compared to lenses, these telescopes are not
costlier.
Objective mirror focusses the
light inside the telescope. Hence another
mirror (convex mirror in cassegrain telescope and plane mirror in Newtonian telescope) is
placed in front of the objective. The final image is viewed through an piece placed in front of
the second mirror as shown.
w.k.t for telescopes magnification is m= f0/fe
m = R/2/fe = R/2fe
f0 = R/2 for mirrors
R = radius of curvature of objective
In reflection telescope images obtained will be of high resolution and are much
brighter as compared to that produced by refracting telescopes.
Note:
1) India’s largest telescope is in kavalur, Tamil Nādu. The diameter of its objective is 2.34m.
2) The world’s largest telescope is in Hawaii, U.S.A the diameter of its objective is 10 m.

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Remember the following:

❖ For convex mirror focal length and radius of curvature are positive.
❖ For concave mirror focal length and radius of curvature are negative.
❖ For convex lens focal length is positive.
❖ For concave lens focal length is negative.
❖ If magnification m is positive images are virtual and erect.
❖ If magnification m is negative images are real and inverted.
➢ If |𝑚| < 1 image is diminished.
➢ If |𝑚| > 1 image is enlarged.
➢ If |𝑚| = 1 image size is equal to object size.

List of formulae
R 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 ℎ𝐼 𝑣
1. f = 2. + = 3.𝑚 = =−
2 𝐯 𝐮 𝐟 ℎ𝑜 𝑢
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝜆1 𝑣1 𝑐 𝑐 𝑛2
4. 1n2 = = = 5. n1 = and n2 = 6. 1n2 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟 𝜆2 𝑣2 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑛1
𝑡
7. SL = sin (i-r) (SL= lateral shift and t= thickness of optical slab)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ(𝑅.𝐷) 1
8. n = 9. SN = t (1 - ) (SN = normal shift , t= real depth of the object )
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ(𝐴.𝐷) 𝑛
1
10. SN = t (1-n) [When object is in rarer medium] 11. n =
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐
𝑛𝐼 𝑛0 𝑛𝐼 − 𝑛0
12. - = 𝑛0 = R.I of object space, 𝑛𝐼 = R.I of image space
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅

u = object distance, v = image distance

R = Radius of curvature of spherical surface
𝑛𝐼 ~ 𝑛 0
13. P = P= power of the spherical surface
𝑅
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 1 1 1
14. − = 15. = ( 1n2 – 1 ) ( - )
𝐯 𝐮 𝐟 𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 ℎ𝐼 𝑣
16. P = ( P = power of the lens) 17.𝑚 = =
𝑓 ℎ𝑜 𝑢
1 1 1 1
18. = + + +…………….. (when thin lenses are in contact)
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3

19. P = P1 + P2 + P3 +…………………..(when thin lenses are in contact)

1 1 1 𝑑
20. = + - +…………….. (when two thin lenses are separaetd by a distance ‘d’ )
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝐴+𝐷
sin ( )
21. A = r1 + r2 22. d= (i1 + i2 ) – (r1 + r2 ) 23. n = 2
𝐴
sin( )
2
24. d = ( n-1) A (Thin prism formula) 25. Ѳ = (n1 ~ n2 )A (Ѳ = angular dispersion)
𝑑1 ~𝑑2 𝑛1 ~𝑛2
26. ω = = ( ω = dispersive power)
𝑑𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 −1

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CHAPTER 10:
WAVE OPTICS
Physical optics is a branch of optics which deals with wave nature of light and
mechanism of its production, emission and propagation through space. It deals with the
phenomenon of Interference, Diffraction and Polarization of light.
From the experimental observations, it is evident that light is form of energy. Basically,
there are two methods of transfer of energy. (i)by stream of particles motion
(ii)by means of wave motion

THEORIES OF LIGHT
I. Newton’s Corpuscular Theory(1675):
The Corpuscular theory of light was proposed by Newton in 1675. According to him, light
being a form of energy can be transported in the form of particles called Corpuscles which are
shot by a luminous object giving out light. This theory suggests that,
(a) Different sizes of particles are responsible for different colours of light and
(b) Velocity of light is more in denser medium than in rarer medium.
These assumptions were found to be incorrect later.

II. Huygens’ Wave Theory (1678):

According to this theory, light is a form of energy which advances in the form of
wave motion. The source of light is a sort of disturbance. (Consisting of simple Harmonic
disturbance like sound). Huygens assumed that light waves are longitudinal in nature and just
as sound needs a material medium for its propagation, light also requires a medium to travel.
This medium was called “ETHER”. Since light travels in vacuum, ether was supposed to fill
all space including vacuum. This ether was supposed to be mass less, colourless, invisible
medium having high elasticity and practically no density.
This theory could explain reflection, refraction, total internal reflection, double
refraction etc. But failed to explain diffraction, polarization etc. Also, experimentally proved
the non-existence of ether.

III. Electro-magnetic Theory:

Maxwell proved that light gets propagated in the form of electromagnetic waves.
EMW consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields which are mutually perpendicular and
both being perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light. The alternately expanding
and collapsing magnetic and electric fields propagate in space with a velocity of 3X108m/s.
Thus, the difficulties of ether were removed.
This theory satisfactorily explained reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction,
polarization etc. But it could not explain black body radiation, photo electric effect, Raman
effect, Compton effect etc.

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IV. Quantum Theory:

According to this theory, light exhibits particle nature. Planck proposed this
theory to explain the black body radiation. According to him, light is made up of energy
packets called photons. Each photon carries an energy E=hν where h is called Planck’s
constant 6.625X10-34JS and ν is the frequency of radiation. A photon has no rest mass, it has
momentum, and hence we say that they exhibit particle nature.
This theory could explain photo electric effect, Raman Effect, Compton effect etc. But
it could not explain interference, diffraction etc.

HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE:
The locus of all such particles of the medium vibrating in the same phase is called a wave
front.
Augustin Jean Fresnel in 1815, combined Huygens principle of secondary wavelets and the
principle of interference in striking manner to explain the diffraction effect.
Huygens’ construction: A disturbance starting
from a source propagates in all directions in a
medium and arrives at large number of points during
the same time. The surface passing through these
points which are in the same phase is called a wave
front. Each point on the wave front acts as a source
of disturbance. A ray of light is a line drawn normal
to the wave front in the direction of propagation of light energy.

Types of wave fronts.

(i). SPHERICAL WAVE FRONT:
If we consider a point source in a homogeneous medium, the wave front
is an expanding sphere with the source at its centre. This is called spherical wave
front. It is as shown in fig,itis because locus of all such points are equidistant from the point
source.

(ii). CYLINDRICAL WAVE FRONT:

When the source of light is in linear shapes (eg.Slit), cylindrical WF is produced it is because,
all the points equidistant from a linear source lie on the surface of a cylinder.

(iii). PLANE WAVE FRONT:

When the source is at a very long distance, a small portion of any wave front
can be considered as a plane wave front. or A small part of a spherical or
cylindrical WF Originating from a distant source will appear plane and hence it is
called a plane wave front.
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NOTE:
1. When the plane wave front incidents on thin prism,
then emerging wave front is also plane wave front as
shown.

2. When the plane wave front incidents on thin convex lens, then
emerging wave front is Spherical wave front as shown.

3. When the plane wave front incidents on a concave

mirror, then reflected wave front is spherical wave front as
shown.

EXPLANATION OF REFLECTION USING WAVE ANALYSIS

Consider a plane wave front AB incident at
an angle i on a plane mirror MN as shown.
Let V be the velocity of light
Let t be the time taken by the wave
front to travel from B to C then, BC =Vt
To predict the shape of the reflected wave
front, let us draw a spherical curve from A
to E after a time t.
Let CE be the tangent plane to the AE and AE = Vt.
From figure we can prove that ∆ABC and ∆AEC are congruent to each other.
Thus 𝑖̂ =𝑟̂ Hence the law of reflection proved

EXPLANATION OF REFRACTION USING

WAVE ANALYSIS
REFRACTION FROM rarer to denser:
Consider a plane wave front AB incident at angle
i on the interface PQ of med-1 and med-2 as
shown. let V1 and V2 are the velocities of light in
med-1 and med-2 respectively
Let t be the time taken by wavefront to travel
from B to C. Then, BC = V1t

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To predict the shape of the refracted wave front in med-2, let us draw a spherical curve
from A to E after a time t. Let CE be the tangent plane drawn.
Then, AE=V2t
𝐵𝐶
In ∆ABC, Sin i= ……..(1)
𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐸
In ∆ADC, Sin r= ………(2)
𝐴𝐶

From Snell’s law

sin i BC V1t V1
n= = = =
sin r AE V2t V2
sin i V1
 = = n ……(3)
sin r V2
Let 1 and 2 are the wave lengths of light in med-1 and med-2 respectively.
If BC= 1 then AE= 2 , therefore we can write
sin i V1 1
n= = = …….(4)
sin r V2 2
Thus, wave theory successfully explains the fact that, as the light bends towards the normal
after refraction when its speed decreases. It is against the assumption of corpuscular theory.
So, experimental evidences support wave theory
NOTE: similar discussions hold good for refraction from denser to rarer.

COHERENT SOURCES:
A pair of sources are said to be coherent, if they emit light of same wavelength (or
colour) and the two waves must have constant or zero phase difference [i.e., phase diff.
remains constant].
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
Definition: “The modification in the distribution of light energy in the region of superposition
of two or more waves is called interference of light”. OR “Redistribution of light energy in a
region due to superposition of two or more light waves is called interference of light”.
Striking colour pattern on soap bubbles and oil spills on wet roads are due to interference
of light.

YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

The experimental arrangement consists of a narrow vertical slit ‘S’ illuminated by a
source of monochromatic light (i.e., light of single colour). A and B are two narrow sharp
vertical slits which are very close to one another. A screen is mounted vertically at a certain
distance from the slits. The two slits A and B behave as coherent sources.

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The waves from the two sources advance towards the screen and superpose upon each
other to produce alternate bright and dark bands on the screen. The pattern is called
interference pattern and the bands are called fringes.
In the figure, thick lines represent crests and dotted lines represent troughs. The
intersection of dotted lines or thick lines [i.e., overlapping of crest-crest or trough-trough]
produces bright band on the screen. The intersection of a thick line and a dotted line [i.e.,
overlapping of a crest and a trough] represents dark band on the screen.
The fringes are found to be equidistant and of the same width. All bright bands have the
same intensity and all dark bands have zero intensity.

Screen

B1

D1
A

S B0
B

D1

--------------Troughs B1
Crests
Points of interesection of crest
or troughs
Points of intersection of a
crest with a trough

Or

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CONSTRUCTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:

“If at a point, the crest (or trough) of one wave overlaps with the crest (or trough) of
the other, the resultant amplitude and hence intensity is maximum and the interference is
said to be a constructive interference”.
“If at a point, the crest of one wave overlaps with the trough of the other, the resultant
amplitude and hence intensity is minimum (or zero) and the interference is said to be a
destructive interference”.
The bright points are called interference maxima and darks points are called interference
minima.
THEORY OF INTERFERENCE:
Consider two simple harmonic light waves (vibrations) with amplitudes ‘a’ and ‘b’, same
wavelength(λ), constant angular frequency(ω) and a constant phase difference ‘δ’ given by
E1 = a sin ωt and
E2 = b sin [ ωt + δ ].
E1 and E2 are the values of electric field vectors of light at any time ‘t’.
When they superpose on each other, by the principle of superposition,
E = E1 + E2
i.e., E = a sin ωt + b sin [ ωt + δ ]
= a sin ωt + b sin ωt cosδ + b cos ωt sin δ
E = sin ωt [a + b cosδ ] + b sin δ cos ωt{ using sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cosA sin B }
Let [a + b cos δ] = R cos θ............... (1)
b sin δ = R sin θ ....................... (2)
Then,
E = sin ωt R cos θ + cos ωt R sin θ
= R (sin ωt cos θ + cos ωt sin θ)
E = R sin (ωt + θ) ............................. (3)
The equation (3) shows that the resultant wave is also simple harmonic of the same frequency.
‘R’ is the amplitude of the resultant wave and ‘θ’ is the phase difference between the resultant
wave and the first wave.
‘R’ can be obtained by squaring and adding the equations (1) and (2).
[R sin θ]2 + [R cos θ]2 = [a + b cos δ]2+ [b sin δ]2
R2 = a2 + 2 a b cos δ + b2 cos2δ + b2 sin2δ
= a2 +b2 + 2a b cos δ[∵ sin2θ + cos2 θ = 1]
OrR = a 2 + b 2 + 2 a b cos  ................... (4)
b sin 
Dividing (2) by (1) we get, tan  =
a + b cos 
From the eqn (4) it is clear that even a and b are constant, R varies because ‘δ’ varies from
point to point.

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Note: Expression for the resultant Intensity:

As the intensity I  R2, I also varies from point to point.
We know that, Intensity  [Amplitude]2
Then, the intensity due to the individual light sources of amplitudes ‘a’ and ‘b’ can be written
as
Ia  a2orIa = K a2 ............. (1)
Ib  b2orIb = K b2 ........... (2)
And the resultant intensity due to superposition I  R2 or I = K R2 .......... (3)
Where K is a constant of proportionality and R is the resultant amplitude given by
R2 = a2 +b2 + a b cos δ............... (4)
Using equations (1), (2), and (3) in (4), we get
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒂 + 𝑰𝒃 + 𝟐 √𝑰𝒂 𝑰𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜹
CONDITIONS FOR CONSTRUCTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:
FOR CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:
At the points of constructive interference, the resultant intensity(I) is maximum.
Since I  R2, I is maximum at the points where the resultant amplitude R is maximum.
But the amplitude R = a 2 + b 2 + 2 a b cos  is maximum when cos δ = +1.
i.e., δ = 0,2π, 4π, 6 π,……. n 2 π ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….
i.e., δ = 2 n π ----------------------------------(1).
“Hence, the condition for constructive interference is the phase difference between the
interfering waves must be an integral multiple of 2π”.
To find the corresponding path difference, using the relation,
𝜆
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 Screen
2𝜋
4 Dark
 3 Bright
i.e., x =  3 Dark
2 2 Bright
2 Dark
S1 1 Bright
But from (1), for constructive interference, S d
1 Dark
Central bright fringe
1 Dark
δ=2nπ. S2 1 Bright
2 Dark (or Central maxima)
 2 Bright
2 n
3 Dark
 x = 3 Bright
2 D
4 Dark

or Δx = n λ ------------------------------- (2)
i.e., for constructive interference, the path
difference between the interfering waves must be an integral multiple of wavelength.
The equations (1) and (2) are the conditions for constructive interference.

FOR DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:

At the points of destructive interference, the resultant intensity(I) is minimum.
Since I  R2, I is minimum at the points where the resultant amplitude R is minimum.
But the amplitude R = a 2 + b 2 + 2 a b cos  is minimum when cosδ = -1.

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i.e., δ = π, 3π, 5 π,……. (2 n + 1) π ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….

i.e., δ = (2 n + 1) π ----------------------------------(3).
“Hence, the condition for destructive interference is the phase difference between the
interfering waves must be an odd integral multiple of π”.
To find the corresponding path difference, using the relation,
𝜆
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
2𝜋

i.e., x = 
2
But from (1), for destructive interference, δ = (2 n + 1) π .

 x = (2n + 1)
2

or x = (2n + 1) ------------------ (4)
2
i.e., “For destructive interference, the path difference between the interfering waves must
be an odd integral multiple of half of the wavelength”.
The equations (3) and (4) are the conditions for destructive interference.
Note:
(i) Expressions for the resultant amplitude and intensity at the points of constructive
interference:
At the points of constructive interference, cos δ = +1. Then the resultant amplitude becomes
Rmax = a 2 + b 2 + 2 a b = (a + b) 2 = (a + b)
i.e., the resultant amplitude Rmax = a + b
Then the resultant intensity I  R2⟹Imax  (a + b)2
And if a = b, then, Imax  4a2
(ii) Expressions for the resultant amplitude and intensity at the points of destructive
interference:
At points of destructive interference, cos δ = -1. Then the resultant amplitude becomes
Rmin = a 2 + b 2 − 2 a b = (a − b) 2 = (a - b)
i.e., the resultant amplitude Rmin = a - b
Then the resultant intensity I  R2 or Imin  (a - b)2 Intensity I
And if a = b, then, Imin = 0

Intensity distribution Curve: At the points of

constructive interference, intensity is maximum
and at the points of destructive interference, -4 -3 -2 - O  2 3 4

intensity is minimum. According to the law of Phse difference

conservation of energy, the energy cannot be
destroyed. Here also the energy is not destroyed at the points of destructive interference but

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only transferred from the points of minimum intensity (destructive interference) to the points
of maximum intensity (constructive interference). The variation of intensity with phase
difference is as shown in the figure below.
THEORY OF INTERFERENCE FRINGES (EXPRESSION FOR FRINGE WIDTH [𝜷]):
Consider two coherent sources S1 and
P
S2 separated by a distance ‘d’. Let ‘D’
be the distance between the slits and x - d/2
the screen. The formation of the x
x + d/2
alternate bright and dark bands on the S 1
d/2 B
screen depends on the path difference d
d/2 O
M
between the waves arriving at the S 2 A
corresponding points on the screen.
Fringe width is defined as the D

distance between two consecutive

bright or dark fringes. Denoted as
.
The path difference can be found as follows.
The path difference between the waves from S1 and S2 reaching the point ‘P’ is
S2 M = S2 P – S1 P ------------------------------------- (1)
From Δle S2AP,
[S2P]2 = [S2A]2 + [AP]2 = D2 + [x + d/2]2 ----------- (2)
From Δle S1BP,
[S1P]2 = [S1B]2 + [BP]2 = D2 + [x – d/2]2 --------------- (3)
eqn (2) - (3) gives,
[S2P]2 - [S1P]2 = D2 + [x + d/2]2 - {D2 + [x – d/2]2 }
= D2 +x2 + (d2/4) + x d –D2 – x2 – (d2/4) + x d = 2xd
or [S2P]2 - [S1P]2 = 2xd
or [S2P + S1P][S2P-S1P] = 2xd
When P is very close to O (centre of the screen), S2P  S1P  D.
 [D + D][S2P – S1P] = 2xd or [S2P – S1P] = (2xd/2D) = xd/D
 Path difference, S2M = S2P – S1P = xd
D
------------------- (4)
Formation of Bright fringe at P:
xd
For bright fringe at P, this path difference, =nλ
D
n D
or x= Where, λ → wavelength of light and n = 0,1, 2, 3, ...
d
n D
i.e., the nth bright fringe at P from the centre O is at a distance xn =
d

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( n − 1)D
Similarly, the distance of (n-1)thbright fringe from Ois xn−1 =
d
Therefore, the distance of two consecutive bright fringes is = xn – xn-1
nD (n − 1) D nD Dn D D
= − = − + = …………….. (5)
d d d d d d

Formation of dark fringe at P:

For a dark fringe at P, this path difference, xd = (2n + 1)  or x =  (2n +1)  D 
D 2  2d 
Where, λ → wavelength of light and n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ……..
i.e., the nth dark fringe at P from the centre O is at a distance xn = (2n + 1) D
2d
D
Similarly, the distance of (n-1)thdark fringe from Ois x n −1 = (2n − 1)
2d
Therefore, the distance of two consecutive dark fringes is = xn – xn-1
2 n  D D 2 n  D D  D
= (2n + 1) D - (2n − 1)  D = + − + = …….. (6)
2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d d
From the equations (5) and (6), it is clear that,
distnce between the two distane between the two 𝜆D
{ }= { } = 𝑑
consecutive bright fringes consecutive dark fringes
The distance between two consecutive fringes is called fringe width.
𝝀𝑫
Therefore, fringe width 𝜷=
𝒅

CONDITIONS FOR A SUSTAINED INTERFERENCE PATTERN:

The following are the conditions for a sustained (or constant) interference pattern.
(1). Two sources of light must be coherent.
(2). The distance between the two coherent sources must be as small as possible
(3). The interfering waves must propagate in almost the same direction.
(4). The distance between the screen and the sources must be as large as possible.
(5). If the interfering waves are polarized, they must have same plane of polarization.

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT:
“The phenomenon of bending of light around the edges of an obstacle and hence
encroachment of light into the geometrical shadow is called diffraction of light”.
Diffraction phenomena are part of our common experience. The luminous border that
surrounds the profile of a mountain just before the sun rises behind it, the light streaks that
one sees while looking at a strong source of light with half shut eyes and the coloured spectra
that one sees while viewing a distant source of light through a fine piece cloth, a spectrum of
colours on a CD disc are all examples of diffraction effects.

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Augustin Jean Fresnel in 1815, combined Huygens principle of secondary wavelets and
the principle of interference in striking manner to explain the diffraction effect.
Conveniently the diffraction phenomenon is divided into two groups namely,
(i) Fresnel diffraction and (ii) Fraunhofer diffraction.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FRESNEL AND FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION:
FESNEL DIFFRACTION FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION
1). “if the incident wave fronts are 1). “If the incident wave fronts are plane
cylindricalor spherical, then the wave
diffraction observed is called fresnel fronts, then the diffraction is called
diffraction”. Fraunhoffer diffraction”.
2). In the case of Fresnel diffraction, 2). In the case of Fraunhoffer diffraction
the source and the screen are at finite both
distances from the diffracting object. the source and the screen are at infinite
distances.
3). No lenses are required to obtain 3).Lenses are required to make incident
Fresnel diffraction. beam parallel and to converge diffracted
beam on the screen.
4). The central portion of diffraction 4). The central portion of diffraction
pattern may be bright or dark for the pattern is bright.
fringes.
5) Mathematical treatment is difficult. 5) Mathematical treatment is easy.

FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT:

A simple experimental set up consists of a monochromatic source placed at the focus of a
convex lens L1. The incident spherical wave front XY on passing through the lens L 1 becomes
a plane wave front. The plane wave front is diffracted by the slit AB and when the diffracted
light is converged on the screen MN by a convex lens L 2, a fringe system consisting of central
bright fringe with alternate dark and bright fringes on either sides of it is formed.

Analysis of diffraction pattern:

According to the Huygens principle, all the points on the wavefront AB act as sources of
secondary wavelets. These wavelets move forward in all directions. The intensity at any point
on the screen is the resultant effect produced by all these secondary wavelets. The resultant
effect depends on the path difference between the waves from the corresponding points on the
slit arriving at that point on the screen. This path difference can be found as follows

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L2

Slit Screen

P
L1 A 
S  O
C
M 
B

(i) Path difference:

Consider a point P on the screen. The wavefront which leaves at a certain angle ‘θ’ with
respect to the incident direction arrives at the point P. Draw a perpendicular AM on
the ray BP. Then the path difference between the wave from the points A and B of the slit is
BM.
In the ∆ AMB, sin θ = BM / AB or BM = AB sin θ.
Therefore, the path difference BM = a sin θ. Where, a = AB = width of the slit.

(ii) Formation of Central (OR Principal) Maximum:

The wavelets from all the points on the slit reaching the point O travel in the direction of the
incident wavefront and hence the angle θ = 0. This implies that the path difference BM = 0.
i.e., waves from every point in the upper half of the slit AC arrive in phase with the waves
from the corresponding points in the lower half CB of the slit. Therefore large number of
waves reinforce at O constructively producing a very bright and wide fringe called principal
maximum. The condition is Path difference BM = 0.

(iii) Formation of Secondary Minima:

For the point P just above or below the central maximum to correspond to a region of
minimum intensity, the path difference between the waves from the points A and B i.e., a sin
θ = one wavelength (λ). In that case, the path difference between the waves from the
corresponding points like A and C or C and B is equal to λ/2. Similarly every point in the
upper half of the slit AC has a corresponding point in the lower half CB with a path difference
λ/2(or phase difference 𝜋). This results in a destructive interference leading to the minimum
intensity. Therefore, the condition for the first secondary minimum is ,
Path difference, a sin θ 1 = 1λ ; θ 1→ angle of the wave front reaching that
point with respect to the incident wave front.
Similarly,
2nd secondary minimum is formed at an angle θ 2 such that a sin θ 2 = 2 λ
3rd secondary minimum is formed at an angle θ 3 such that a sin θ 3 = 3 λ and so on.
In general,
nth minimum is formed at an angle θ n such that asin θ n = n λ.
Where n = 1, 2, 3, ………….. and λ→ wavelength of light used.

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(iv) Formation of Secondary Maxima:

The first secondary maximum is formed at a point just after the first secondary minimum. For
this the path difference between the waves from A and B must be 3λ/2. Now if we divide the
slit into three equal parts each of length λ/2, every point in the first part has a corresponding
point in the second part with a path difference λ/2. Hence the waves from the corresponding
points of the first and the second parts nullify each other and only the waves from the third
part produce some intensity at that point. Therefore, for the formation of the first secondary
maximum the condition is, path difference a sin θ 1 = 3 λ/2.
Similarly,
2nd secondary maximum is formed at an angle θ 2 such that a sin θ 2 = 5/2 λ
3rd secondary maximum is formed at an angle θ 3 such that a sin θ 3 = 7/2 λ and so on.
In general,
nth secondary maximum is formed at an angle θ n such that,
asin θn= (2n + 1) λ/2.
Where n = 1, 2, 3, ………….. and λ→ wavelength of light used.

NOTE: The above discussion can be concluded as follows.

If a wave front from the slit AB moves in the direction of incidence, gets converged at the
centre O resulting in the formation of principal maximum. In this case, θ = 0 0 and hence the
Path difference BM = a sin Ө = 0.
If a wave front moves at an angle θ n with the incident direction satisfying the condition asin θ
n = n λ, then n secondary minimum is formed. If a wave front moves at an angle θ n with the
th

incident direction satisfying the condition asin θ n = (2n + 1) λ/2, then nth secondary maximum
is formed.

INTENSITY VARIATION IN THE CASE OF SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION:

P I
x 
x + x
S1 

d O
S2 d sin 3 2   2 3
− − −
d d d d d d
D Screen
Slit

Note: Width of Central Maximum

First minima
Condition for 1st secondary minimum is 
x
Central

a sin θ = 1 λ or sin θ = λ / a x maxima
First minima
From figure, tan θ = Opp/adj = x/D D
But if ‘θ’ is small, sin θ≃ tan θ

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∴ λ/a = x/D ⟹ x = λD / a
i.e., half width of central maximum is
x = λD / a
∴ Full width of central maximum is
ω = 2 x = 2 λD / a

*DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION*

INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION
1). Interference is the phenomenon 1). Diffraction is a phenomenon that
in which modification in the occurs due to the bending of light waves
distribution of energy due to super- around an obstacle.
position of two or more waves.
2). Interference is due to the 2 ).Diffraction is due to the Superposition
superposition of waves originating of secondary wave lets from different
from two coherent sources. parts of the same wave front.
3). Interference fringes are of equal 3). Diffraction fringes are of unequal
widths. widths.
4). Intensity of all the bright [maxima] 4). The intensity falls off gradually from
or dark[minima] bands is same. central fringe.
5). Dark bands are perfectly dark. 5). Dark bands are not perfectly dark.

LIMIT OF RESOLUTION AND RESOLVING POWER:

The images of the point objects formed by optical instruments like lenses are not just images
but diffraction patterns. When two point objects are placed very close to each other, the
diffraction patterns of the two objects overlap on each other. Due to the overlapping of their
diffraction patterns, the objects cannot be identified as two objects.
“Two closely spaced objects are said to be resolved if they are seen as two separate
distinct objects either with the naked eye or through any optical instrument”.

LIMIT OF RESOLUTION - DEFINITION: “Limit of resolution is defined as the least

linear or angular separation between two closely lying objects at which they can be seen
as just separated”.

RESOLVING POWER: “The resolving power of an optical instrument is its ability to

produce separate images of two closely lying point objects and is defined as the reciprocal
of limit of resolution”.

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RESOLVING POWER OF MICROSCOPE:

“The limit resolution of a microscope is the least distance
between two point objects at which they can be seen as just resolved”.
Reciprocal of limit of resolution is called resolving power.
If ‘dx’ is the minimum distance at which the two closely spaced
objects can be seen distinctly using the microscope, then the limit of

resolution is given by dx =
2 n sin 
λ→ wavelength of light , n→ refractive index of the medium between the objective and
the object and θ→ the semi vertical angle.
But resolving power = 1/ limit of resolution.
1 2 n sin 
 Resolving power ( R.P.) = =
dx 
i.e., resolving power of a microscope is directly proportional to the refractive index of the
medium and inversely proportional to the wavelength of light used. To increase the resolving
power the space between the objective and eye piece is filled with an oil of high refractive
index (e.g., cedar wood oil). Such microscopes are called oil immersion type microscopes.

RESOLVING POWER OF TELESCOPE:

“Limit of resolution of a telescope is the smallest angular separation between two
closely lying point objects at which they appear as just separated [or just resolve]”.
1.22 
It is given by d = λ→ wavelength of light used and d→ diameter of the
d
objective.
But The reciprocal of limit of resolution is called resolving power.
i.e., resolving power (R.P.) of telescope = 1/ limit of resolution.
1 d
 R.P. = =
d 1.22 
i.e, resolving power of telescope varies directly as its diameter and inversely as
wavelength of light. Therefore, resolving power of telescope can be increased by using
objectives of larger diameter.
POLARIZATION
It is the phenomenon in which light vibrations gets restricted to one particular plane or
direction. This phenomenon also shows light is a transverse wave like all other
electromagnetic radiation.
Experimental demonstration of Polarization:
In this experiment 2 tourmaline crystals cut parallel to their crystallographic axis(pass
axis) are used. The light from a monochromatic source is made to pass through a crystal (A).

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If the crystal is rotated about the incident direction, no intensity variation will be observed in
the light coming out of the crystal.
If another similar crystal (B) is also placed in the path of light from the first crystal with its
pass axis parallel to A, no change in intensity is observed in the light coming after the crystal
B. If both crystals are rotated keeping their axes parallel to each other, then also no change in
intensity is observed in the light emerging out of the crystal B.
If instead, only the crystal B is rotated keeping A in its position, then the intensity of light
coming out of B decreases and becomes zero when the pass axes of A and B are mutually
perpendicular (i.e., for 900 rotation). If the crystal B is rotated further, the intensity of light
after B increases and reaches maximum when the axes are parallel (i.e., for 1800 rotation). In
one complete rotation, the intensity becomes maxim twice at 180 0 & 3600 (i.e., when the pass
axes are parallel) and minimum twice at 900& 2700 (i.e., when the pass axes are
perpendicular).
The above observation can be explained as follows. The light after passing through crystal A
gets some one sided property, i.e, its vibrations are restricted to a particular plane. Therefore
light after crystal A is said to be plane polarized. Therefore, when the pass axes of A and B
are parallel light passes through both of them without any change in intensity. But when A
and B pass axes are perpendicular to each other, then light from A is completely cutoff as
light vibrations are perpendicular to axis of B.

Direction of
propagation
Direction of propagation Vertical oscillation Horizontal
oscillation

PLANE OF VIBRATION AND PLANE OF POLARIZATION:

The plane to which the light vibrations are restricted is known as plane of vibration and a
plane perpendicular to this is known as plane of polarization. This is as shown in the
following figure.
Plane of vibration

Plane of polarization

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REPRESENTATION OF PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT AND UNPOLARIZED

LIGHT :
Direction of propagation of
light

Unpolarized Unpolarized Plane polarized with

Plane polarized
plane of vibratiion
with plane of
perpendicular to the
vibratiion parallel to
plane of the sheet
the plane of the
sheet

METHODS OF PRODUCING PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT:

Plane polarized light can be produced using following methods.
1. Reflection
2. Refraction
3. scattering
POLARIZATION BY REFLECTION:
When un-polarized light is incident on an interface of medium, a part of it gets reflected
and a part gets transmitted. The reflected and refracted lights are found to be partially plane
polarized. As the angle of incidence is increased to a particular value, the reflected light is
completely plane polarized. This angle of incidence is known as
Brewster’s angle or polarizing angle (p). P  P

Defn. Polarizing angle: It is that particular angle of incidence for

which the degree of polarization of reflected light is maximum.
Note: The production of plane polarized light by reflection is
explained as follows. The vibrations of the incident light can be
resolved into two components parallel to the plane of incidence and r

perpendicular to the plane of incidence. Light due to the components

perpendicular to the plane of incidence is reflected where as light
due to the components parallel to the plane of incidence is transmitted.

BREWSTER’S LAW:
“This law states that the tangent of (Brewster’s) polarizing angle (p) is equal to refractive
index of the medium (n)”. i.e., tan (p) = n
PROOF:
Consider a ray of light PQ incident on a surface of a medium of refractive index ‘n’ at
polarizing angle (p). Let ‘r’ be the angle of refraction.

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It is observed that the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other at

polarizing angle of incidence. i.e., RQS = 900 N
According to the law of reflection, the angle of incidence
  P
is equal to the angle of reflection. i.e, PQN = NQR = i = P . P 
R
P

In the figure,
    900
NQN1 = NQR + RQS + SQN1 Q

Or 1800 = θ P + 900 + r
Or r = 900 - θ P …………………. (1) r
S
From Snell’s law, we have,
Sin 𝜃𝑃 N1
= 𝑛 ………………………(2)
Sin 𝑟
Equating equations (1) and (2) we get,
Sin 𝜃𝑃
=𝑛
Sin(90−𝜃𝑃 )

Or tan θ P = n
Hence the Brewster’s law is proved.

2. Polarization by refraction – Pile of plates:

The pile of plates consists of number of glass plates (about 15 to 20 microscope cover
slips). This pile of plates is supported in a tube of suitable size and are inclined at an angle of
32.50. A beam of monochromatic light is allowed to fall on the pile of plates at the polarizing
angle. 100% of the light vibrations parallel to the plane of incidence get transmitted whereas
only 85% of the vibrations perpendicular to the plane of incidence are transmitted and 15%
reflected. When this beam of light passes through the second plate, again some of the
perpendicular vibrations are reflected and this process continues as the light passes through
the remaining plates of the pile of plates. As a result of this the emergent beam is free of
vibrations perpendicular to the plane of incidence and contains only the vibrations parallel to
the plane of incidence.
3. Polarization by scattering:
When a beam of white light is passed through a medium containing particle whose size is of
the order of wavelength of light, then the beam gets scattered. When the scattered light is seen
in a direction perpendicular to the direction of incidence, it is found to be plane polarized.
This phenomenon is called polarization by scattering.
When a beam of unpolarized light is incident along Z-axis on a scattered at origin O. as light
waves are transverse in character, all the possible directions of vibrations of electric vector in
unpolarized light are confined to XY plane.
Hence light scattered in a direction perpendicular to the incident light is always polarized.

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POLAROIDS
Polaroid is a device used to produce and analyze plane polarized light. Polaroids are
used
1. to produce and analyze plane polarized light
2. to view 3D - pictures
3. as polarizing sun glass
4. In aero planes to control light intensity
5. To eliminate head light glare of the incoming vehicles.
6. They are used to improve colour contrast in old paintings.

LAW OF MALUS:
It states that, when a beam of completely plane polarized light is incident on an analyzer, the
resultant intensity of light (I) transmitted from the Intensity = I
0

analyzer varies as the square of the cosine of the

P Amplitude = A A 0

angle (𝜃) between plane of transmission of

analyzer and polarizer. I i Intensity = I
2
i.e., I ∝ cos 𝜃 Amplitude = A
I= I0 cos2𝜃 where I0 = intensity of 
the light incident on analyzer
NOTE: when un-polarized light passes through a
Polaroid, it can be proved that its intensity reduces to half of its initial value.

The validity of ray optics

An aperture (i.e., slit or hole) of size a illuminated by a parallel beam sends diffracted light
into an angle of approximately ≈ λ/a. This is the angular size of the bright central maximum.
In travelling a distance z, the diffracted beam therefore acquires a width zλ/a due to
diffraction.
It is interesting to ask at what value of z the spreading due to diffraction becomes comparable
to the size a of the aperture. We thus approximately equate zλ/a with a. This gives the distance
𝑎2
beyond which divergence of the beam of width a becomes significant. Therefore, 𝑧 =
𝜆
……(1)
𝑎2
We define a quantity 𝑧𝐹 called the Fresnel distance by the following equation 𝑧𝐹 =
𝜆
Equation (1) shows that for distances much smaller than 𝑧𝐹 , the spreading due to diffraction
is smaller compared to the size of the beam. It becomes comparable when the distance is
approximately 𝑧𝐹 . For distances much greater than𝑧𝐹 , the spreading due to diffraction Physics
dominates over that due to ray optics (i.e., the size a of the aperture). Equation (1) also shows
that ray optics is valid in the limit of wavelength tending to zero.

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LIST OF FORMULAE:
1. E = R sin( ωt +Ѳ)Where 𝑅 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝛿and
𝑏 sin 𝛿
tan ɵ =
𝑎+𝑏 cos 𝛿
E= resultant displacement eqn, R= resultant amplitude, 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are amplitudes if interfering
waves.
𝜆𝐷
2. β = (β =fringe width, 𝜆= wavelength of the light used, D= dist. between slits and
𝑑
screen)
𝛽𝑡
3. X0 = (n – 1) (X0 = shift in the central bright fringe)
𝜆
𝜆
4. For bright fringe, nλ = d sinѲ 5. For dark fringe, (2n + 1) = d sinѲ
2
2𝜆𝐷 1 2n sin
7. β = 8. For microscope R.P. = =
𝑑 dx 
n = R.I. of intervening medium, Ѳ = semiverticle angle
1 D
9. For telescope R.P. = = D = Diameter of the objective
d 1.22
10. n = tanѲ𝑝 n = R.I. and Ѳ𝑝 = polarizing angle
11. Malus’ law: I = I o cos2  Ѳ =angle b/w planes of transmission of polarizer and
analyser.

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Chapter 11:
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
The free electrons in metal can move freely inside the metal surface but cannot leave its
surface. To remove an electron from the surface of the material, a certain amount of work has
to be done. Energy supplied by an external source may do such a work.
✓ The minimum amount of work to be done or energy to be supplied to remove an electron from
a metal surface is called WORK FUNCTION of the material.
✓ WORK FUNCTION is different for different material.
✓ There are many ways to eject electrons from metal surface. Among those four methods are
familiar.

THERMIONIC EMISSION: When a metal surface is heated, the thermal energy of the
electrons in metal increases with this the electrons free themselves from the forces which are
holding them and tend to escape from the surface of metal. The number of electrons emitted
depends on (a) nature of substance
(b) temperature to which material is heated
∴ “A process of emission of electrons from a hot metal surface is known as thermionic
emission”. The electrons emitted during thermionic emission are called thermions.

FIELD EMISSION: When a strong electric field is applied at the surface of a metal, it pulls
out the electrons from metal surface even at ordinary temperature. This is known as field
emission.
The number of electrons emitted depends on (a) nature of substance
(b) the strength of the applied electric field.
[Field emission is also called cold cathode emission]

SECONDARY EMISSION: When a high energy beam of electrons strike a metal surface,
the electrons will be liberated out of the metal surface. Such a phenomenon is called
secondary emission.
The electrons which are striking the metal surface are called primary electrons. The ejected
electrons from the metal surface are called secondary electrons.
The number of electrons emitted depends on (a) nature of substance
(b) the strength of the primary electrons beam.

PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION: When a radiation of suitable frequency is incident on a

metal surface, an electron will knock out of the metal surface. Such a phenomenon is called
photoelectric emission.
The electrons emitted during photoelectric emission are called photoelectrons.
The number of electrons emitted depends on (a) nature of substance

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(b) the intensity of incident radiation.

HERTZ EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATION
In 1887, Hertz discovered that when light is incident on metal
plates in an evacuated tube, an electric sparkling was found.
This indicates the liberation of charged particles from metal
surface as a result of radiation incidence. This is the first proof
of photo emission. After the discovery of electrons, these
emitted –vely charged particles are called photo electrons. The
phenomenon is called photoelectric effect.
Officially, credit discovery of photo electric goes to Hertz.

LENARD’S OBSERVATIONS
Lenard investigated the phenomenon photo emission.
Consider a vacuum tube into which a photo emissive cathode and
a collector are fused as shown.
When light of suitable frequency is incident on the cathode,
photoelectrons are emitted. Such electrons are collected by the
collector plate. This kind of flow of electrons constitutes a current called photoelectric current.
• Lenard observed that when potential difference was applied, no current flow was found.
• Lenard observed that when UV radiations allowed to incident on emitter plate, current flows
in the circuit. As soon as UV radiations were stopped, the current flow was also stopped.
• Lenard also observed that below a certain frequency of incident radiation photoelectric
emission will not takes place. Such a minimum cut-off frequency is called threshold
frequency. The corresponding wavelength is called threshold wavelength.

NOTE: If the collector plate is maintained at negative potential it opposes the photoelectrons
tending to reach the collector plate. Such an opposing potential given to the collector plate is
called retarding potential.
If the negative potential of collector plate further increased the photoelectrons may be
completely stopped at certain stage. Therefore, “The value of the negative potential maintained at
the collector plate at which all the photoelectrons tending to reach the collector plate are stopped
completely is called stopping potential.

HALLWACH’S OBSERVATIONS
Hallwach investigated the phenomenon photo emission with zinc plate
and uv radiations. He observed the following,
• Whenever –vely charged zinc plate was illuminated by UV-rays it last
its –ve charge.
• Whenever a neutral zinc plate was illuminated by UV-rays it became +vely charged.
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• Whenever +vely charged zinc plate was illuminated by UV-rays it became more +vely
charged.
• Whenever this phenomenon occurs that negatively charged particles are emitted out of the
surface. Thus emitter plate becomes positively charged. Later JJ Thomson’s experiment
revealed that, electrons can only emit out during this process.

NOTE:
❖ The threshold frequency is also called limiting frequency and threshold wavelength is also
called limiting wavelength. “The maximum wave length of the incident radiation above
which the photoelectric emission will not take place is called threshold wavelength”.
❖ The material that emits photoelectrons under the influence of radiation is called Photo
emissive material. It was found that, nearly all metals emit photoelectrons when exposed to
UV light. But alkali metals like lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and cesium emit
photoelectrons even when they exposed to visible light.

***Laws of photoelectric effect OR conclusion of experimental observations of PEE***

1) Photoelectric effect is instantaneous. The time gap between the incidence of light and ejection
of an electron is in the order of 10−9 s.
2) For a given material, photoemission takes place above a certain minimum frequency of
radiation. It is called threshold frequency.
3) Above threshold frequency, photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation.
4) Above threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly proportional to the
frequency of radiation.
5) Photo electric current becomes zero, at particular negative voltage maintained at anode. It is
called stopping potential.

DISCUSSION OFEXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS

1. Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent.

The number of photo electrons emitted per second is directly
proportional to the intensity of radiation whose frequency is greater
than threshold frequency. Hence, the phot0 current is directly
proportional to the intensity of radiation. It can be analysed using
the graph given beside.

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2. Effect of potential on photocurrent.

For a given intensity of radiation, as collector plate(C)
potential is increased positively photocurrent also
increases linearly. At certain positive potential of plate C
(collector plate), photocurrent reaches a maximum or
saturates.
This maximum current is called saturation current.
It can be analysed using the graphgiven beside.
For a given frequency of radiation, stopping potential is
independent of intensity of radiation.

3. Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential.

It is observed that above threshold frequency, if the
frequency of the incident radiation increases then the
strength of the photoelectron increases. So, with the
increment of frequency of incident radiation, stopping
potential also increases. Experimentally observed graph is
as shown.
Stopping potential is independent of intensity of
radiation but depends on K.E. of photoelectron.

PLANCK’S THEORYOF LIGHT(1900)

According to quantum theory, emission and absorption in a block body takes place in
terms of discrete packets of energy called quanta [photons].
Properties of quanta of light
1) All photons travel with the velocity of light in vacuum.
2) Photons are indivisible.
3) Photons are unaffected by electric and magnetic fields. Hence photons are electrically neutral.
4) Each photon possess energy given by 𝐸 = ℎ 𝜐.
5) Rest mass of photon is zero.
ℎ𝜐
6) Each photon possess momentum given by 𝑃 =
𝑐

• The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a solid surface under the influence of a
radiation of suitable Frequency is called Photoelectric effect.

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EINSTEIN’S EXPLANATION FOR THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

E = h0 E = h

Einstein proposed a simple and satisfactory explanation for the

K.E. = max.
photoelectric effect on basis of quantum theory. According to K.E. = 0
Einstein, light exists in the form of tiny packets of energy namely e –

e –

photons. Metal
The energy of a photon is given by, E = hν
Where, h is Planck’s constant and ν is frequency of radiation
When the light falls on a photo emissive material, it interacts with the material by behaving as
a particle.
The incident photon delivers its complete energy to an electron on the metal surface. If
sufficient energy is supplied by the photon, the electron escapes from the metal.
Since an electron is bound to the surface of the material, a certain amount of energy
has to be spent to release it from the forces holding it. So, such a minimum radiation energy
required to release an electron from the material is called photoelectric work function (W).The
photoelectric work function is different for different materials.
If the energy of the incident radiation is more than the work function of a given material then,
electron flies away from the surface with some kinetic energy (E k) . Thus,
Energy of a photon = work function + K.E. of photoelectron
Ephoton = W + Ek
hν = W + ½ 𝑚𝑣2
This is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation
If, 1. hν < W =>no emission takes place.
2. hν = W => Just emission takes place. { In this case ν = ν0}
3. hν > W => electron flies of with some kinetic energy.

EXPLANATION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON THE BASIS OF EINSTEIN’S

THEORY
1) Since electron and photon are very small particles (micro particles), the collision between
them can be treated as an instantaneous process.
2) The kinetic energy can’t be negative. When hν < W no emission takes place.
When hν0= W, then EK=0 it implies that the electron just releases from the material. The
radiations with the frequencies less than ν0 will not cause emission and hence ν0 is called
threshold frequency.
When hν> W, then photon provides sufficient energy to the electron to fly way from the
surface with suitable energy.
3) Above the threshold frequency, when the intensity of photons (number of photons) incident
on metal surface increases as a result number of Electrons ejected out also increase and hence
it increases the photoelectric current.

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4) Above the threshold frequency, As the frequency of incident radiation increases K.E. of
photoelectron also increases. Because the work function remains the same. Thus the stopping
potential also increases.

ELECTRON VOLT (eV): The energy gained by an electron in passing through a potential
difference of 1 volt is called 1 eV. When a charge q is moved under a P.d. V then kinetic
energy gained is given by, Ek = q V.
∴ , Ek = e V = 1.6 X 10-19 X 1 volt = 1.6 X 10-19 J
=> 1 e V = 1.6 X 10-19 J

(2) Graph of velocity of photo

(1) Graph of K.E. Vs. frequency electrons v/s frequency

DUAL NATURE OF MATTER

To explain certain phenomenon like interference, diffraction, polarization etc… , light
is treated as a wave .To explain phenomenon like BBR, photo electric effect, Raman’s effect
etc… light is assumed to be a a particle. Thus light is treated both as wave and particle. This is
known as dual nature of light.
Louis de’ Broglie proposed a revolutionary hypothesis that, as electromagnetic waves
exhibit particle nature, the material particles also exhibit wave properties during their motion.
[i.e., dual nature of matter] The wave associated with material particle in motion is called
matter wave or de ’Broglie wave.
The energy of a photon is given by,
E = hν …..(1) Where h is Planck’s constant and ν is frequency of radiation

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Also by Einsein’s mass-energy relation (relativistic),

E 2 = P 2C 2 + m02C 4 …….(2)
Since rest mass of a photon is zero. (i.e., m0 = 0)
Eqn(2) becomes, E=PC ………….(3)
Therefore from eqn (1) and (3), hν = PC
𝐶
h = PC [ ∵ C = ν λ]
𝜆
ℎ
=P
𝜆
ℎ ℎ
λ= = [ ∵ p = mC is the momentum]
𝑃 𝑚𝐶
If we extend the above discussion to any particle of mass m and moving with the velocity v,
then the de’ Broglie wavelength is given by,
ℎ
λ=
𝑚𝑣
By observing above relation we can conclude that de ‘Broglie wavelength of moving particle
is inversely proportional to the momentum of the particle.
The K.E. of particle of mass m moving with the velocity v is given by,
EK = ½ 𝑚𝑣2
2EK = 𝑚𝑣2
Multiplying both sides by m
2mEK = m2 𝑣2
∴ mv = √2mEK
∴ de’Broglie wavelength will be,
ℎ
λ=
√2mEK
If an electron is accelerated by a potential V , then K.E. gained is, EK = ½ 𝑚𝑣2 = e V
∴ de’Broglie wavelength will be,
ℎ 12.27
λ= = A0
√2meV √𝑉
Matter waves can travel in vacuum. Hence they are non-mechanical waves. Since matter
waves are not produced due to the accelerated charge, they are not electromagnetic waves.
Thus matter waves are neither mechanical nor electromagnetic waves. Therefore, they are
probability waves. Matter waves are also called pilot waves.

NOTE: We cannot visualize the matter waves in routine life due to their very small
wavelength.

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DAVISSON- GERMER EXPERIMENT

Construction: The experimental
arrangement is as shown in figure. It
consists of an electron gun which comprises
of a tungsten filament F, coated with barium
oxide and heated by a low voltage power
supply. The electron gun is connected to
H.T. battery. A nickel crystal is placed at a
suitable distance from the gun. A movable
electron detector with a sensitive
galvanometer is placed such that the
scattered electrons are collected at different scattering angles. The entire apparatus is enclosed
in an evacuated chamber.

Working: Electrons emitted are accelerated to a desired velocity by suitable potential. They
are made to pass through a cylinder to produce a fine collimated beam. The beam is made to
fall on the surface of a nickel crystal. The electrons are scattered in all directions by the atoms
of a nickel crystal.
The intensity of the electron beam, scattered in a given crystal is measured by the electron
detector. The variation intensity of the scattered electrons with the angle of scattering  is
obtained for different accelerating voltages. It was noticed that a strong peak appeared in the
intensity of the scattered electron for an accelerating voltage of 54 V at a scattering angle  =
500.
So we can conclude that, the appearance of the peak in a particular direction is due to the
constructive interference of electrons scattered from different layers of the regularly spaced
atoms of the crystals.
From Davisson and Germer experiment, the wavelength of electron waves was found to be
0.165 nm. From de-Broglie, the wavelength of electron waves found to be 0.167 nm.
Thus, there is an excellent agreement between the theoretical value and the experimentally
obtained value of de-Broglie wavelength.

2𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
NOTE: The resolving power of a microscope is given by R.P. =
𝜆
Therefore, R.P. of a microscope is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
Hence, as the wavelength decreases R.P. increases and vice versa.

List of formulae:
1
1.E = hν 2. W =h𝜈0 3. hν = W + mv2
2

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Newton’s Huygen’s Maxwell’s Einstein’s de-Broglie’s dual

corpuscular wave EM quantum theory of light
theory theory wave theory theory
(i) Based on (i) Light (i) Light (i) Light is (i) Light
Rectilinear travels in a travels in produced, propagates both as
propagation of hypothetical the form of absorbed and particles as well
light medium EM waves propagated as as waves
ether with speed in packets of
(high free space energy
elasticity 1
c= called photons
0 0
very low
density) as
waves
(ii) Light (ii) He (ii) EM (ii) Energy (ii) Wave nature of
propagates proposed waves associated light dominates
in the form of that light consists of with each when light
tiny waves are of electric and photon interacts with
particles called longitudinal magnetic E = h =
hc light. The particle

Corpuscles. nature. field nature of
h = plank's
Colour of light is Later on it oscillation light dominates
constant
due to was found and they do when the light
= 6.6  10 −34 J - sec
different size of that not require interacts with
they are material = frequency matter (micro-
corpuscles
transverse medium to = scopic particles )
travel wavelength

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CHAPTER 12:
ATOMS
# JJ Thomson discovered electron in 1897 and awarded Nobel prize in 1906 for discovery of
electron #.

J.J. THOMSON’S MODEL (1898):

According to this model,
1. An atom is spherical in shape and in which the mass & charge are distributed uniformly.
2. Positive & negative charges are embedded in the sphere.
3. The total number of +ve charges is equal to the total number of –ve charges. Hence the atom
is neutral.
This model explained Thermionic emission and ionization process satisfactorily. But
failed to explain origin of spectra & scattering of α - particles.
Hence this theory is discarded.

SCATTERING OF α - PARTICLES.

Geiger and Marsden performed alpha-scattering experiment under the guidance of

Rutherford.
Alpha particles emitted from radioactive source is allowed to incident on a thin gold film of
thickness about 2 x 10-7 m. The alpha particles which are scattered by gold foil in different
directions are observed with the help of a detector (screen). The whole apparatus is kept in
N
evacuated chamber to avoid interaction between alpha particles and air molecules. The
observations are listed as below.
a) Most of α-particles move un-deflected along straight line.
b) Only around 0.14% of the incident α-particles deflect by 10. N(180°)


c) It is also observed that 1 in 8000 of incident α-particles deflect by more than 900 .
d) Number of scattered particles : N  4 1
sin ( / 2)

e) If t is the thickness of the foil and N is the number of -particles scattered in a particular
direction (i.e.  = constant), it was observed that Nt = constant  N1 = t1
N2 t2

f) Distance of closest approach (Nuclear dimension) :

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The minimum distance from the nucleus up to which the -particle approach, is called
the distance of closest approach (r0). At this distance the entire initial kinetic energy has
been converted into potential energy so
1 1 (𝑍𝑒)2𝑒 𝑍𝑒 2 4𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
𝑚𝑣 2 = .  𝑟0 = =
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟0 𝑚𝑣 2 𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑣 2
g) Impact parameter (b) : The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector ( v ) of the -
particle from the centre of the nucleus when it is far away from the nucleus is known as impact
parameter. It is given as 

b
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝜃/2) +
𝑏= 1  𝑏 ∝ 𝑐𝑜𝑡( 𝜃/2)
4𝜋𝜀0 (2𝑚𝑣 2 ) Nucleus

For large b,  particles will go un-deviated and for small b the

-particle will suffer large scattering.

RUTHERFORD’S MODEL (1911) [Former student of Thomson]

Based on results of experiment Rutherford put forwarded his atomic model.
Rutherford proposed the theory based on his experiments on alpha scattering.
According to this model,
1. An atom is regarded as sphere. An atom consists of a centrally placed +vely charged massive
nucleus.
2. The nucleus is surrounded by tiny particles with a –ve charge called electrons.
3. The electrons revolve around the nucleus on circular orbits in all possible radii.
4. The e.s. force between nucleus & electron provides a necessary centripetal force for the
circular motion of electrons.
5. Atom is electrically neutral because the total number of +ve charges is equal to total number
of –ve charges.

Expression for the energy of an electron in hydrogen atom in terms of radius using
Rutherford’s model
Let ‘m’ be the mass & ‘-e’ be the charge on an electron.
Let +e be the charge on a proton and ‘Z’ be the atomic number of the
nucleus. Then the charge on nucleus is ‘+Ze’.
Let ‘r’ be the radius of an orbit in which the electron is revolving.
Let ‘v’ be the orbital velocity of the electron.
The total energy of en in its orbit will be, ET = EK + EP ------(1)

To find EK,
For stable orbit, Centripetal force = Colombian force
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑍𝑒 𝑋 𝑒
= .
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
1 𝑍𝑒 2
𝑚𝑣 2 = .
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
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Since the electron is in motion, it will have a K.E.

1 1 1 𝑍𝑒 2
By definition, K.E = EK= 𝑚𝑣 2 = [ . ] ------(2)
2 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
To find EP,
Since the electron will be at a finite distance from the nucleus, it possess potential
energy.

By definition, Potential energy = Force x distance

1 𝑍𝑒(−𝑒)
Ep = [ . ]xr
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
1 𝑍𝑒 2
Ep = - [ . ] ----------(3)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Then the total energy will be the sum of the EK& Ep .

Total Energy = Ek + Ep
1 1 𝑍𝑒 2 1 𝑍𝑒 2
= [ . ]- [ . ]
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

1 1 𝑍𝑒 2
ET = - [ . ]
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

1 𝑍𝑒 2
ET = - [ . ]
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Limitations of Rutherford theory:

According to the classical theory of electrodynamics, an accelerated e –

charge radiates electromagnetic energy. This implies that the electron

revolving with a acceleration in its orbit, loses its energy
continuously. As a result, electron should finally collapse in to the
Instability of atom
nucleus. But this is not the real situation.
Further, if the electron loses its energy continuously it should give rise to a continuous
spectra, which is not found practically. Hence Rutherford’s model was discarded.

ATOMIC SPECTRA AND RYDBERG CONSTANT (empirical formula):

When an atomic gas or vapour is excited it gives
emission spectrum. When white light (composite
light)passes through it gives absorption spectrum.
These are precisely same for a material and these
serve as a type of “finger print” for identification of
gas.

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Based on his observations in the hydrogen spectrum in the visible range, Balmer proposed a
simple formula for the wavelengths of emitted lines of hydrogen atom in A.D. 1885.
1 1 1
= R[ - ]
𝜆 22 𝑛2
Where  is the wavelength, R is called Rydberg’s constant whose value is R = 1.097 X 10 7 /m
and n takes the values n=3, 4, 5……. This formula is called Balmer’s formula
And other series of spectra are subsequently discovered later.
Lymann series:
1 1 1
= R[ - ] where n=2,3, 4, 5…….
𝜆 12 𝑛2
Paschen series:
1 1 1
= R[ - ] where n= 4, 5…….
𝜆 32 𝑛2
Bracket series:
1 1 1
= R[ - ] where n = 5,6,7…….
𝜆 42 𝑛2
Pfund series:
1 1 1
= R[ - ] where n=6,7,8,…….
𝜆 52 𝑛2

BOHR’S ATOM MODEL (1913)

Bohr proposed a satisfactory model for the hydrogen atom. He used both Planck’s theory
and Einstein’s photon model-concept in his theory. This theory is the improvement of
Rutherford’s theory.

Postulates of Bohr’s model.

1. An atom consists of a +vely charged nucleus at the centre and –vely charged particles namely
electrons revolve around the nucleus. . The e.s. force b/w nucleus & electron provides the
necessary centripetal force for the circular motion of electrons. Electron revolving in an
orbit will not radiate any energy. Hence such orbits are called stationary orbits.
2. Electrons revolve in circular orbit. Electrons cannot revolve around the nucleus in any orbit.
They are permitted to revolve around the nucleus in those orbits where the angular
momentum of the electrons is equal to integer multiple of ‘h / 2𝜋’.Where ‘h’ is Planck’s
constant. Such orbits are called Permitted orbits.
3. Whenever an electron jumps from a higher orbit to a lower orbit, it emits radiation
(photon).The energy of a photon, will be equal to the difference between the energy of the
electron in the two orbits.
If E1 & E2 are the energies of an electron in two orbits, then the energy of the photon
liberated will be
hν = E2 - E1 when E2 > E1

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NOTE:
1. Bohr’s theory is applicable for hydrogen atom or hydrogen like atom [i.e., an atom in which
only one electron is present]
𝑛ℎ
2. mvr = is known as Bohr’s quantization condition for angular momentum.
2𝜋
3. Stationary orbit doesn’t mean that the electron is stationary. It means that the energy of the
electron remains the same as long as it revolves in that orbit.

Expression for the radius of the nth orbit of hydrogen atom according to Bohr’s model.
Let ‘m’ be the mass & ‘-e’ be the charge on an electron.
Let +e be the charge on a proton and ‘Z’ be the atomic number of the nucleus. Then the charge
on nucleus is ‘+Ze’.
Let ‘r’ be the radius of the nth permitted orbit in which the
electron is revolving. Let ‘v’ be the orbital velocity of the
electron. By Bohr’s quantization condition,
𝑛ℎ
Angular momentum = mvr =
2𝜋
Where ‘n’ is the orbit number.
𝑛ℎ
v = --------------------------(1)
2𝜋𝑚𝑟
From Bohr’s postulate,
Centripetal force = Colombian force
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑍𝑒 𝑋 𝑒
= .
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
1 𝑍𝑒 2
𝑚𝑣 2 = . -------------(2)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Put (1) in (2)
𝑛ℎ 1 𝑍𝑒 2
m( )2 = .
2𝜋𝑚𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑛2 ℎ2 1 1 𝑍𝑒 2
m = .
4𝜋2 𝑚2 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝜀0
=>r =
𝝅 𝒎 𝒁𝒆𝟐
For hydrogen, z = 1, thus
𝑛 2 ℎ 2 𝜀0
=> r =
𝜋 𝑚 𝑒2
Where n = 1,2,3,………. Represents the number of orbits and ‘n’ is called principal quantum
number.
NOTE: From the expression it is clear that radius of orbit is proportional to n 2 , i.e. r α n2.
It implies that if ‘R’ is the radius of 1st orbit,
then the radius of 2nd orbit is 4R &
the radius of 3rd orbit is 9R & so on.
=> It is clear that orbits are not equally spaced.

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Expression for the orbital velocity of the electron

According toBohr’s quantization condition,
𝑛ℎ
Angular momentum = mvr =
2𝜋
𝑛2 ℎ 2 𝜀 0
We have , r =
𝜋𝑍𝑚𝑒 2

𝑛 2 ℎ 2 𝜀0 𝑛ℎ
=> mv ( ) =
𝜋𝑍𝑚𝑒 2 2𝜋

𝑍𝑒 2
V=
2𝑛ℎ𝜀0

1
Since ν α , for a given atom . The velocity of an elelctron in the inner orbit is greater than
𝑛
outer orbit.

NOTE: For hydrogen atom , Z = 1 & n = 1

𝑒2
=>V =
2ℎ𝜀0
(1.6 𝑋 10−19 )2
=
2𝑋6.625𝑋10−34 𝑋8.854𝑋10−12

1.62
= X 10-38+34+12
117.31

2.56
V= X 108≈2.18 X 106 m/s.
117.31

Expression for the energy of an electron in a permitted orbit

Let ‘m’ be the mass & ‘-e’ be the charge on an electron. Let
+e be the charge on a proton and ‘Z’ be the atomic number of the
nucleus around which electron is revolving. Then the charge on
nucleus is ‘+Ze’. Let ‘r’ be the radius of the permitted orbit in which the electron is revolving.

The total energy of en in its orbit will be, ET = EK + EP ------(1)

To find EK,
By Bohr’s postulate, Centripetal force = Colombian force
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑍𝑒 𝑋 𝑒
= .
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

1 𝑍𝑒 2
𝑚𝑣 2 = .
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Since the electron is in motion, it will have a K.E.
1 1 1 𝑍𝑒 2
By definition, K.E = EK= 𝑚𝑣 2 = [ . ] -------------(2)
2 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

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To find EP,
Since the electron will be at a finite distance from the nucleus, it will have a P.E.

By definition, Potential energy = Force x distance

1 𝑍𝑒(−𝑒)
Ep = [ . ]xr
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

1 𝑍𝑒 2
Ep = - [ . ] -------------(3)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

The total energy will be the sum of the K.E. & P.E.
Total Energy = Ek + Ep
1 1 𝑍𝑒 2 1 𝑍𝑒 2
= [ . ]- [ . ]
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1 1 𝑍𝑒 2
ET = - [ . ]
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
ET = -
1 𝑍𝑒 2
[ . ]
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑛 2 ℎ 2 𝜀0
We have, 𝑟 = [From Bohr’s postulates]
𝜋𝑍𝑚𝑒 2
1 𝑍𝑒 2
ET = - [ . ]
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0
𝜋𝑍𝑚𝑒2
2
𝑚𝑍 𝑒 4
ET = -
8𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0 2
For hydrogen atom, Z = 1
𝑚𝑒 4
ET = -
8𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0 2

Important key note:

(i) In the energy expression –ve indicates that energy has to be given to the electron to release it
from the influence of the nucleus.
(ii) For the first orbit of the hydrogen atom (i.e. n=1 & z=1) E= -13.6 eV.
(iii) In general for the electron in the nth orbit,
−13.6
E = eV where n =1,2,3,4……..As n increases E tends to zero.
𝑛2
(iv) The permitted orbits in hydrogen are called Bohr orbits .The radius of the first orbit of
hydrogen is called Bohr radius.
(v) An electron in the first orbit around the nucleus will have the least energy. Thus the first orbit
is called ground state.
(vi) An electron in the higher orbits will have higher energies; such orbits are called excited
states.
(vii) Excitation is the process of shifting an electron within the atom from lower energy state
to higher energy state(orbit)
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(viii) The potential required to excite an electron from initial state to any higher energy state is
called excitation potential.
(ix) The energy to be supplied to excite an electron from any state (orbit) to any higher
state(orbit) is called Excitation energy.
(x) Excitation potential in volt = Excitation energy in eV.
(xi) Ionization is the process of removing of an electron from its initial state to the n = ∞ state
[i.e. free state => E=0 ]
(xii) The potential required to completely release or free an electron from its initial state
(orbit) to free
state (orbit) is called ionization potential.
(xiii) The energy required to completely release or free an electron from its initial state (orbit)
to free state
(orbit) is called ionization energy.
(xiv) Ionization potential in volt = Ionization energy in eV. If the ionization potential of
hydrogen is 13.6V then the ionization energy is 13.6 eV.

Expression for the wave number/ frequency the spectral lines in the hydrogen spectra.
Let ‘m’ be the mass & ‘-e’ be the charge on an electron.
Let +e be the charge on a proton and ‘Z’ be the atomic number of the nucleus. Then the
charge on nucleus is ‘+Ze’. Let ‘r’ be the radius of the nth permitted orbit in which the electron
is revolving.
𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
Then the energy in the nth orbit is, 𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑛2 ℎ 2 𝜀0 2
According to Bohr’s postulate, when an electron from a higher orbit(state) to a lower
orbit(state),the electron emits a radiation(photon).

Let E1 and E2 are the energies of an electron in two orbits n1 & n2 respectively. If an electron
transits between E1& E2 then the energy of the photon liberated will be

hν = E2 - E1
𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
= [ - ] - [ - ]
8𝑛22 ℎ2 𝜀0 2 8𝑛12 ℎ2 𝜀0 2

𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
hν = - [ ] + [ ]
8𝑛22 ℎ2 𝜀0 2 8𝑛12 ℎ2 𝜀0 2

𝐶 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1 𝑪
h = [ - ] [=> C = νλ => ν = ]
𝜆 8ℎ2 𝜀0 2 𝑛12 𝑛22 𝝀

1 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1
= [ - ]
𝜆 8ℎ3 𝜀0 2 𝐶 𝑛12 𝑛22

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1
‘ ’ is called wave number denoted by 𝜈̅ . 𝜈̅ represents number of waves present in one metre
𝜆
of length. The unit of wave number is 𝑚−1 .
For hydrogen z = 1,
1 1 1
Thus = 𝜈̅ = R [ - ]-----(1) [THIS IS CALLED BALMER’S FORMULA]
𝜆 𝑛12 𝑛22
𝑚𝑒 4
Where R = = 1.097 X 107 /m is Rydberg’s constant.
8𝐶ℎ3 𝜀0 2
Multiplying eqn.(1) by ‘C’
1 1 𝑪
⇒ 𝜈 = 𝑅𝐶[ − ] But we know that 𝜈 =
𝑛12 𝑛22 𝝀

NOTE:(a) R = 1.097 X 107 /m is the value of Rydberg’s constant.

Unit of Rydberg’s constant is m-1
Dimension of Rydberg’s constant. : [M0 L-1 T0]

(b)Even though there is only one electron in hydrogen, many spectral lines are possible . This
is because there are a large number of possible orbits. A large number of transitions can take
place. Hence a large number of lines are released.

Merits of Bohr’s theory

• Bohr’s theory describes successfully the hydrogen spectrum and hydrogen – like atom
spectrum.
• Bohr’s theory predicted the size of an atom .(10 -10 m)
• The Rydberg constant calculated in this theory is in well agreement with the experiment.

SPECTRAL SERIES IN HYDROGEN

Hydrogen spectra cover a wide range of wavelengths in the e.m. spectra. The
wavelengths emitted when a electron jumps from any orbit to a particular lower orbit, is taken
as a group and is named after the scientists who studied them.
Serial Name of Electron jumping from n2 Wavelength Region
no. series to n1
1 Lyman n2 = 2,3,4………. To n1 = 1 UV radiation
2 Balmer n2 = 3,4,5………. To n1 = 2 First 4 lines are visible (Hα , Hβ ,
Hγ , Hδ) and UV radiation
3 Paschen n2 = 4,5,6………. To n1 = 3 IR radiation
4 Brackett n2 = 5,6,7………. To n1 = 4 IR radiation
5 Pfund n2 = 6,7,8………. To n1 = 5 IR radiation
6 Humphrey n2 = 7,8,9………. To n1 = 6 IR radiation

NOTE: The lowest (shortest) wavelength in any spectral series is called the series limit.
This results when an electron jumps from n =∞ state to the corresponding orbit for the given
series.
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Energy level diagram (Spectral series diagram of hydrogen)

Limitations of Bohr’s theory

• In this theory only circular orbits are considered but elliptical orbits are equally possible.
• Fine structure of the spectral lines observed under high resolution, are not explained.
• Atoms with more than one electron are not explained.
• This theory does not provide any explanation for relative intensities.

De Broglie’s explanation on Bohr’s second postulate of quantization:

According to de-Broglie, the electron in a circular orbit around the nucleus exhibits wave
nature. Consider an electron in the nth circular orbit of radius ‘r’ moving with a speed v.
Then total distance travelled = circumference of the orbit = 𝟐𝝅𝒓
Since electron revolves in the orbit, it must be stable orbit.
From stationary waves concept we know that,
For stable orbit 𝟐𝝅𝒓 = 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒅𝒆 − 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝟐𝝅𝒓 = 𝒏 𝝀
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝝀= ………(1)
𝒏
From De broglie’s hypothesis
𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= = …………….(2)
𝑷 𝒎𝒗
From (1) in (2) we get,
𝟐𝝅 𝒓 𝒉
=
𝒏 𝒎𝒗
𝒉
𝒎𝒗𝒓 = 𝒏
𝟐𝝅

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𝒉
𝑳=𝒏
𝟐𝝅
This is Bohr’s quantization condition.

NOTE: On contrary we can also prove the following

𝒏𝒉
From Bohr’s postulate,𝑳 =
𝟐𝝅
𝒏𝒉
𝒎𝒗𝒓 =
𝟐𝝅
𝒏𝒉
𝒎𝒗 = …………(1)
𝟐𝝅𝒓

From De broglie’s hypothesis,

𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= = …………….(2)
𝑷 𝒎𝒗

Using (1) in (2) we get,

𝟐𝝅 𝒓
𝝀=
𝒏
This is expression for de-Broglie wavelength of the electron in the nth orbit.

List of formulae

𝑛 2 ℎ 2 𝜀0 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
1. r = 2. v = 3. E = -
𝜋𝑍𝑚𝑒 2 2𝑛ℎ𝜀0 8ℎ2 𝑛2 𝜀0 2

−13.6 𝑒𝑉 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1
4. For Z = 1 , En = 5 𝜈̅ = [ − ]
𝑛2 8ℎ3 𝜀0 2 𝐶 𝑛12 𝑛22

𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1 1 1
6. For z =1 𝜈̅ = [ − ] = 𝑅[ − ] Where R = 1.097x 107 m-1
8ℎ3 𝜀0 2 𝐶 𝑛12 𝑛22 𝑛12 𝑛22

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CHAPTER 13:
NUCLEI
An atom consists of centrally placed +vely charged, massive part called nucleus. Nucleus
consists of protons & neutrons in it, these are further called as nucleons.
• Proton is +vely charged fundamental particle and its mass is, Mp = 1.672 X 10-27 Kg.
• Neutron is fundamental particle which is electrically neutral & its mass is, Mn = 1.675 X 10-27
Kg.
• The number of protons in the nucleus is known as the atomic number (z) of nucleus.
• The sum of proton and neutron number is called mass number (A).
• Generally an atom(x) is written as XZA
Where Z is the proton number
A is the mass number
(A-Z) is the neutron number.
➔ The atoms of an element having the same atomic number (z) but different mass number are
called isotopes. Ex: 6C12 , 6C14
➔ The atoms of the elements having the same mass number but different atomic number(z) are
called isobars. Ex: 7N16 , 8O16
➔ The atoms of the elements whose nuclei have the same number of neutrons are called
isotones. Ex: 6C14 , 7N15 , 8O16 (All these have 8 neutrons in nucleus.)
➔ Atoms which have the same atomic number (z) and mass number (A) but exist in different
energy states are called isomers. Ex: 38Sr87* and 38Sr87
➔ The nuclei having same mass number but proton & neutron numbers are interchanged are
called mirror nuclei. Ex: 4Be7 &3Li7

Fractional atomic weight: It is the average atomic masses of all the isotopes of an element.

Discovery of neutron: James Chadwick discovered neutrons and awarded Nobel Prize in
physics for his discovery of neutron in 1935. Since the nuclei of deuterium and tritium are
isotopes of hydrogen and they all contain only one proton. But their masses are in the ratio of
1:2:3. Therefore it is sure that both deuterium and tritium must have some neutral matter in
them. The amount of neutral matter respectively is approximately found to be one and two
times, in the units of mass of proton.

This puzzle was solved by Chadwick in the reaction of Beryllium bombarded with alpha
particles. During the above reaction there was emission of neutral radiations. But at that time
only neutral radiations known were e.m. radiations (photons). By using law of conservation of
energy and momentum, Chadwick showed that neutral radiations consists of a new type of
neutral particles namely neutrons.

Mass of neutron= 1.67 X 10-27 Kg and free neutron is unstable and has mean life of about
1000 s.
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General properties of nucleus

NUCLEAR SIZE: The total size of the nucleus is called the nuclear size. The nuclear size
depends directly on the number of nucleons present in the nucleus. i.e., the nuclear size will
be directly proportional to the mass number (A).If ‘R’ is the radius of the nucleus, the volume
4
of the nucleus is πR3
3
4
➔ πR3 ∝ A or R3 ∝ A
3
1
R∝ 𝐴3
𝟏
Therefore, R = R0𝑨𝟑
Where R0= 1.3 fermi (It is an average value)
NUCLEAR CHARGE: The charge on the nucleus is called nuclear charge. The nucleus
carries +ve charge due to the presence of protons. If the number of protons in a nucleus is Z
then the charge carried by the nucleus is +Ze. Where +e is the charge on each proton.

NUCLEAR MASS:
The sum of the masses of all the protons and neutrons is called nuclear mass.
nuclear mass , M = Z(mp) + (A-Z) mn
Where Z & A-Z are the number of protons & neutrons.
mp & mn are the masses of protons & neutrons respectively.
NOTE: Experimental mass is always lesser than the theoretical value.

NUCLEAR DENSITY:
It is defined as the ratio of the nuclear mass to the nuclear size. The nuclear density is very
large .It is in the order of 1017 Kg/m3.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Note : Nuclear density, 𝝆 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑝 𝐴
= 4
𝜋𝑅 3
3
𝑚𝑝 𝐴 1
= 4 => R =𝑅0 𝐴3
𝜋 𝑅03 𝐴
3
1.672X10−27
= 4
𝜋𝑋(1.2𝑋10−15 )3
3

≈ 2 X 1017 Kg/m3 Nuclear density is independent of mass number.

NUCLEAR SPIN:
Like electrons, protons & neutrons also bear a spin. The total angular momentum of all
the nucleons due to their spin & orbital motion is called the nuclear spin. The spin angular
1 1
momentum of each nucleon is ћ . This implies that the spin quantum number of nucleons is .
2 2

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NUCLEAR MAGENTIC MOMENTA:

Protons & neutrons are endowed with magnetic properties. Hence a nucleons has a
nuclear magnetic momenta associated with its spin. Nuclear magnetic moment is measured in
terms of nuclear magneton (μN), which is a unit of magnetic moment.
Even though a neutron is electrically neutral, it is found to possess a magnetic moment.

NUCLEAR FORCES & THEIR CHARACTERISTICS:

A force that which holds the nucleons together as a single unit is called nuclear force.
• These are the strongest known force in the universe.
• These are short range forces. [Active in the order of 10-15 m]
• These are charge independent forces.
• These exhibit the property of saturation [i.e., they try to interact with the neighboring ones]
• These are spin dependent (parallel spin nucleons exhibit stronger force as compared to anti
parallel nucleons)
• These are exchange forces.
• These are non-central forces.
• These are non-gravitational & non-electromagnetic.

Einstein’s mass-energy relation

Earlier mass & energy were considered to be two separate entities. They had independent
laws of conservation. Einstein showed that mass and energy are inter convertible. Hence the
single law of conservation came in to practice. The energy E liberated when a mass m is
completely converted into energy is given by E = mc2 .Where ‘c’ is the velocity of light in free
space. During nuclear fission, nuclear fusion etc. there will be a decrease in the mass, such a
mass is converted into energy & is liberated during the process.
During pair annihilation of an electron & a positron, the entire mass is converted into
energy. (Conversion of mass into energy)
A single suitable gamma radiation may produce a pair of an electron & positron. Such a
process is known as pair production. (Conversion of energy into mass)

Nuclear mass in a.m.u& its energy equivalence

Nuclear mass is expressed in atomic mass unit (amu).
“One amu is defined as 1/12th of the mass of one atom of C-12 isotope”.

By definition, W.K.T.12gm of C12 contains 6.023X1023 atoms (Avogadro number)

i.e., 6.023X1023 atoms ➔12gm
1 atom ➔ ? (x)
12gm X 1 atom
x =
6.023𝑋1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

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12
x = [ ] gm
6.023𝑋1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
By definition,
1
1 amu = [mass of 1 atom C12 ]
12
1 12
= [ ] gm
12 6.023𝑋1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
= 1.66X10-24 gm
1 amu = 1.66X10-27 Kg
By Einstein’s , mass-energy relation.
E = mc2
=(1-amu)X(3X108)2
=1.66X10-27X9X1016
E =14.94X10-11 J
14.94X10−11
= eV
1.6𝑋10−19
E = 931.46X106 eV
i.e., 1 amu = 931.5 MeV

Mass defect
The difference b/w the mass of a nucleus and sum of the masses of its constituent particles
is called the mass defect. The mass defect is denoted by Δm.
The mass defect is given by, Δm = [Z mp+ (A-Z) mn] –M
Where, mpis the mass of proton, mn is the mass of neutron, M is the rest mass of nucleus.
Z & A are the atomic & mass number of element.
This loss of mass, is converted to energy and involved in the formation of the nucleus and it
binds the nucleons as a single stable unit. [According to Einstein’s mass energy relation].

Nuclear binding energy

“The energy which binds the nucleons together as a single unit is called Binding energy”.
OR “The energy required to break up the nucleus completely into its constituent particles is
called Binding energy”.
When a nucleus is formed, there will be a small loss in mass. Such a fractional mass is
called the mass defect. The mass lost occurs as energy.
Thus B.E is the energy equivalent of mass defect.
B.E = mass defect X (velocity of light)2
=> B.E = Δm c2
The B.E varies from element to element.

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Specific Binding energy [SBE]

The binding energy per nucleon of the nucleus is called Specific binding energy [SBE].
The SBE is the average energy required to remove a nucleon from nucleus. SBE is also
defined as the ratio of binding energy of nucleus to the number of nucleons present in it.
𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
 SBE = so, greater the SBE, greater will
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
be stability of the nucleus.
56
26Fe

Binding Energy Curve 8.0 He

Binding energy per

nucleon (MeV)
6.0
A graph of SBE plotted along Y-axis and mass number 4.0
Li

along X-axis gives the Binding energy curve and it will 2.0
H 2

be as shown. 0
50 56 100 150 200
The curve rises-sharply in the beginning & then Mass number A
gradually reaches the maxima ( 8.8 MeV for A=56).Then
the curve gradually decreases to about 7.6 MeV for A=238.
A study of the B.E curve provides the a good information about elements.
 The SBE for lighter atoms like helium, lithium is very small.
 With the increase in the mass number, the curve rises with characteristic maxima & minima.
Nuclei containing even number of protons & neutrons like 2He4, 6C12 show maxima. Such
elements are much more stable than neighboring nucleus & containing odd number of protons
or neutrons such as 3Li7 , which show minima.
 Nuclei with the mass number ranging from 50 to 120 are the most stable as they have the
large SBE.
(This indicates that a large amount B.E they have.)
 If the mass number is more than 120, the SBE decreases and reaches a minimum of 7.6 MeV
for uranium.(Such nuclei are unstable)
Packing fraction
It is defined as the ratio of the difference b/w the atomic mass(M) and mass number (A) to its
mass number(A). Thus, Packing fraction,
𝑀−𝐴
Packing fraction may be +ve or –ve. f=
𝐴
• If packing fraction is –ve, the nuclei are stable.
• If packing fraction is +ve, the nuclei are unstable.

NOTE: (i) (a) Neutrons with energy < 1eV are called slow neutrons.
(b) Neutrons with energy in the range 1 to 1.2 eV are called thermal neutrons.
(c) Neutrons with energy > 1.2eV are called fast neutrons.
(ii) Thermal neutrons induce nuclear fission in u235.

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NUCLEAR FISSION
The process of splitting up of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei with the liberation of
enormous amount of energy is called nuclear fission.
Fission of u235 can be represented as follows.
235
92U + 0n1 ------>92U236------>56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 3 0n1 + E
Ba
Where E is the energy released during the fission. Energy

Energy
Thermal
Neutron
236
92U
235
92U
Energy

Energy
Kr

When u235 is bombarded with thermal neutrons, it splits up into two fragments Ba141& Kr92,
together with three neutrons, releasing enormous amount of energy.
The energy released during the fission reaction will be in the form of K.E of the fission
fragments, γ – rays, heat energy & light energy. The fission fragments will be radioactive &
decay to stable products by emitting α, β & γ – rays.

NOTE:
(i) The material which can undergo fission is called fissionable material. [Fissile material]
(ii)The lighter nuclei obtained after the fission are called fission fragments.
(iii)Phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered by Otto Hahn and Fritz strassmann in
1939.
Nuclear chain reaction:
When a single neutron bombard with uranium it
splits up into two lighter nuclei with the release of
2 or 3 neutrons. These neutrons again cause fission
in other nuclei producing some more neutrons.
This process continuous. Such a type of self
sustained reaction is called Chain reaction.
Hence, “A nuclear chain reaction is a self-
propagating process in which a number of neutrons
multiply rapidly during fission till the whole material is disintegrated”.

There are two types of chain reaction.

1.Controlled chain reaction: In this type, number of neutrons allowed to multiply till it reach
a steady level & there after number of fission producing neutrons is kept constant. In this
manner a controlled supply of energy can be obtained. [This is the principle involved in
nuclear reactor].

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2.Uncontrolled chain reaction: In this type, number of neutrons is allowed to multiply

indefinitely. In short interval of time, the entire fissile material undergoes fission & a huge
amount of energy will be liberated. This causes a violent explosion. [This is the principle of
an atom bomb].

NOTE:
(i) The ratio of the number of neutrons present at the beginning of a particular generation to
the number of neutrons present at the previous generation is called multiplication factor (K).
(ii) The minimum mass (size or number of atoms) of the fissionable material below which a
self- sustained chain reaction cannot take place is called Critical mass (size or number of
atoms).
(iii) The minimum mass (size or number of atoms) of the fissionable material is said to be
Critical mass (size or number of atoms) if multiplication factor (K) is one.

Components of Nuclear reactor:

Nuclear reactor is a device or technology to initiate, sustain and cease controlled nuclear
reaction as required to derive energy & useful data from it.
All the types of reactors contain following components in common.
(i) The fuel: The fissionable material used in nuclear reactor is called nuclear fuel. The fuels
commonly used are u235& Pu239.
(ii) The moderator: Moderator is a device used to slow down neutrons without absorbing them.
Heavy water (D2O) & graphite are used as moderators. [During fission a large quantity of
neutrons are produced & they move very fast. To slow down such fast neutrons, moderators
are used].
(iii) The control rods: In order to control the production of neutrons & hence to control chain
reaction, A neutron absorbing material called controlling rod is used. Cadmium & Boron
rods are used as control rods in nuclear reactor.
(iv) Coolant: To remove & transfer the heat produced during fission to a heat exchange chamber
coolant is used. Normally liquid sodium is used as coolant.(co2 & air are also used as
coolant).
(v) The shield: During the process of chain reactions a large quantity of hazardous radiations are
produced. In order to prevent the escape of such radiations from the reactor a thick concrete
wall of 2 to 3 metres is constructed around entire reactor. It is called the shield.

NUCLEAR FUSION
“The process in which lighter nuclei (A ≤ 8) combine to form a single heavier nuclei
with the release of enormous amount of energy is called nuclear fusion”.
A typical Fusion reaction can be written as follows.
1H + 1H →2He + energy (24 MeV)
2 2 4

Nuclear fusion can be achieved only at high temperatures i.e., in the order of 107 K.
Since nuclear fusion occurs at very high temperature, it is called thermonuclear reaction.
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The hydrogen bomb is based on the principle of fusion of hydrogen.

NUCLEAR FISSION
Heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei
Reaction does not require specific
temperature & hence temperature
independent
Fission fragments are radioactive
Energy released per fission is large
Energy released per unit mass is less
NUCLEAR FUSION
Lighter nuclei combine to form a heavier
nuclei
Reaction is possible only at very high
temperature & hence temperature
dependent
Resultant nuclei are not radioactive.
Energy released per fission is less.
Energy released per unit mass is more.

RADIOACTIVITY
In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity when he had kept photographic plates
wrapped in black paper near the uranium salts, photographic plates were found to be affected.
These rays were called Becquerel rays.
“The phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration of an element with the emission of
radiation is called radioactivity.”
*The element which undergoes spontaneous disintegration & emits radiations is called a
radioactive element.
*The radiations emitted by a radioactive element are called radioactive rays.
*The phenomenon of radioactivity found in the naturally occurring elements is called natural
radioactivity.
Later in 1898, Marie curie & Piere Curie discovered two more elements polonium &
radium which were many more times radioactive than uranium. There are three types of
radiations emitted by radioactive elements namely alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ).
The radioactivity is unaffected by,
(i) The external conditions such as temperature, pressure and humidity.
(ii) The physical & chemical state of the material and
(iii) Electric & magnetic fields.
NOTE: (1) Radioactivity is an irreversible process
(2) All the elements from atomic number 81 to 93 are found to be radioactive.
Rutherford’s experiment

 -rays    -rays  
–  -rays +  -rays Magnetic field
– +     
– +  -rays
–  -rays +     
– +
    

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A small amount of radioactive sample is placed in the groove of a lead block.

The radiations emerging from the sample are subjected to a suitable electric field
with the help of two electrodes (plates).
1) The radiation which deflects towards the negative plate is called the alpha radiation.
2) The radiation which deflects towards the +ve plate is called the beta radiation.
3) The radiation which is unaffected by the field is called the gamma radiation.
Similar splitting was observable when the radiations are subjected to a suitable magnetic field.

Properties of α, β &𝛄 radiations:

α - rays [Alpha-rays]:
1. α – rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
2. α – rays affect photographic plates.
3. α – rays travel with a speed around 106 m/s.
4. α – rays posses the maximum ionizing power among the radioactive rays.
5. α – rays are least penetrative among the radioactive radiations.
6. α particle carries 4 units of mass & +2 units of charge. This indicates that it consists of 2
protons & 2 neutrons. Hence an alpha particle is the same as the nucleus of helium atom.
7. They cause burns on human body.

β - rays [Beta-rays]:
1. β – rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
2. β – rays affect photographic plates.
3. β – rays travel with the speed 0.3c to 0.9c [where c is the velocity of light].
1
4. The ionizing power of β – rays is ( )th of α – rays.
100
5. β – rays are 100 times more penetrative the α – rays.
6. A β particle has a negligible mass & a unit –ve charge. This indicates that it is same as
electron.
7. β rays cause damage to living cells.[tissue]
NOTE: β particles are emitted from the nucleus. They are not present in the nucleus. β – rays
are generated just at the time of emission. (β –particle is same as electron but originated
from nucleus.)

𝛾 - rays [Gamma-rays]:
1. 𝛾 – rays are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
2. 𝛾 – rays affect photographic plates.
3. 𝛾 – rays travel with the speed of light.
1 𝑡ℎ
4. The ionizing power of 𝛾 – rays is ( ) that of β – rays.
100
5. The 𝛾 – rays 100 times more penetrative than beta rays.
6. A 𝛾 – particle neither has a mass nor has the charge. It indicates that is a form of energy.
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7. 𝛾 – rays can cause serious damage & destruction to living cells, tissues…

NOTE: γ – rays are emitted from the nucleus of the atoms. They are not present within the
nucleus but emitted during radio activity.

Radioactive decay:
When a heavy element disintegrates & emits a radiation, it changes mass, charge &
energy. As a result, it changes into a lighter atom. The atom which emits the radiation is
called the parent atom. The lighter atom obtained after the emission is called the daughter
atom. If the daughter atom disintegrates & emits a radiation, it becomes the parent atom for
the next. This process is continuous till a stable atom is obtained. Such a process of
continuous disintegration is called Radioactive decay.
The set of elements obtained from the original parent atom to the final stable atom is called
the radioactive series.
The series are named after the longest lived member in the series.
The natural radioactive series are Uranium series, Thorium series, Actinium series and
neptunium series. Uranium series, Thorium series & actinium series end up at lead.
Neptunium series ends up at bismuth.

Law of alpha decay: When a radioactive element emits an alpha particle, its atomic weight
decreases by 4 units & its atomic number decreases by 2 units. Hence the position of the atom
shifts by ‘2’ columns to the left of its position in the periodic table.
92U
238
→90Th234 + 2He4 (α-particle)
ZX →Z-2Y + α – particle
A A-4

Law of beta decay: When a radioactive element emits a beta particle, its atomic weight
remains unaltered and its atomic number increases by 1 unit. Hence the position of the atom
shifts by 1 column to the right of its position in the periodic table.
90Th →91Pa + -1e0 (β – particle)
234 234

ZX →Z+1Y + β – particle
A A

Law of gamma decay: When a radioactive element emits a gamma particle, neither the
atomic weight nor the atomic number changes. After the emission of an alpha or beta particle,
the nucleus may be in an excited state. Such a nucleus returns to its ground state by emitting
gamma rays.
𝐴∗
Z𝑋 →ZX
A
+ 𝛾-ray

NOTE: A radioactive element emits either alpha or beta but never both simultaneously. This
may be accompanied by a gamma ray.

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NOTE: neutrino theory of β-decay:

Beta decay is the phenomenon of emission of an electron or positron from a radioactive

nucleus. There are two types of β-decay 1) β- decay 2) β+ decay
β- decay [electron decay]: During this decay a neutron is transferred into proton with the
emission of an electron that is
i.e., 0 n1 = 1 p1+ -1 e 0
β+ decay [Positron decay] : During this decay a proton is transferred into the neutron with the
emission of an positron.
i.e., 1 p1 = 0 n1+ +1 e 0

As the above reactions were observed experimentally they were found to be violating principle
of * Law of conservation of energy
* Law of conservation of linear momentum
* Law of conservation of angular momentum

To account for the above mentioned violations Pauli in 1930 proposed the neutrino hypothesis.
According to this hypothesis another particle namely neutrino (𝝂 is emitted during β-decay.
Neutrino is a charge less and mass less particle which has an intrinsic spin (1/2)Ћ . With the
above assumption all the apparent violations were found to be satisfied. Later neutrino(𝝂) and
its antiparticle antineutrino(𝝂̅) were discovered. During β- decay antineutrino will be emitted
and during β+ decay neutrino will be emitted.
β- decay =>0 n1 = 1 p1+ -1 e 0 +𝝂̅
β+ decay =>1 p1 = 0 n1++1 e 0 + 𝝂

Law of radioactivity: [Law of decay or disintegration law]

“The rate of disintegration, is directly proportional to the number of atoms present in the
sample.”
i.e., the number of atoms undergoing disintegration is directly proportional to the number of
atoms present in the sample.
Let there are N atoms initially. Let ‘dN’ number atoms undergo in a time dt.
By the law of radioactivity,
𝑑𝑁
∝ N
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁
⇒ = -λN
𝑑𝑡
Where ‘λ’ is a constant, called disintegration constant or the decay constant.
The –ve sign indicates that the number of atoms decrease with time.
𝑑𝑁
NOTE: The number of disintegrations in one second is called activity A = .
𝑑𝑡

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Expression for the number of atoms in a radioactive sample at any time ‘t’:
By the law of radioactivity,
𝑑𝑁
= -λN
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
= -λdt
𝑁

Intergrating…
𝑑𝑁
∫ = ∫ −λ𝑑𝑡
𝑁
log 𝑒 𝑁 = -λt + C
To find C:,When t = 0, Let N = N0
Then,
log 𝑁0 = 0 + C
C = log N0
 log 𝑒 𝑁 = -λt + loge N0
log N – logN0 = - λt
𝑁
log 𝑒 = - λt
𝑁0
𝑁
= 𝑒 − λt
𝑁0
N=
N0𝑒 − λt

Decay Constant: We have , N = N0𝑒 − λt ,Let λ= 1/t

−1
∗𝑡
N = N 0𝑒 𝑡
N0
N=
𝑒
“Decay constant is defined as the reciprocal of the time during which the number of atoms
in a given sample reduces to 1/e of its initial value”.

Half-life period [𝑻𝟏/𝟐 ] and Expression for Half life period:

Half-life period of radioactive element is the time during which the number of atoms in a
sample reduces by 50% of its initial mass or number.

We have, 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 − 𝜆𝑡

Let N0 atoms in a radioactive sample reduces to N0 / 2 in a time t = 𝑻𝟏/𝟐 (half life period)
N0
= N0𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1/2
2
1
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1/2
2
2 = 𝑒 𝜆𝑇1/2
Taking log on b/s
log 𝑒 2 = 𝜆𝑇1/2

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log𝑒 2 log10 2 2.303𝑋 0.3010 𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑

𝑇1/2 = = 2.303 = =
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝝀

Thus, half-life period is inversely proportional to the decay constant.

MEAN LIFE [T mean or T avg or τ ]

“Mean life of a radioactive element is defined as the ratio of the total life time of all the atoms
of radioactive element and the total number of atoms present initially”.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
So, T mean = ---------(1)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

We have, N = N0𝑒 − λt -------------(2)

Let N0 be the number of atoms at t=0 and N be number at given instant time.

From decay law, dN= - N dt --------------(3)

Let t be the life time of each atom. Then,

The total life time of dN atoms will be = t dN
Therefore, total life time of the atoms between the limits N0, at t=0 and N =0, at t = ,
0
𝑇 = ∫𝑁 𝑡 𝑑𝑁
0
Now take integration limits in terms of time
𝑡=∞
𝑇 = ∫𝑡=0 𝑡 (|𝑁 𝑑𝑡|)
𝑇
By defn, 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
𝑁0
𝑡=∞
∫𝑡=0 𝑡 (𝑁 dt)
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
𝑁0
𝑡=∞
∫𝑡=0 𝑡 (𝑁0 𝑒 − λt dt)
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
𝑁0
𝑡=∞
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =  ∫𝑡=0 𝑡 𝑒 − λt dt
1 𝑡=∞ 1
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = (Since,  ∫𝑡=0 𝑡 𝑒 − λt dt = )
 
NOTE:
0.693 1
We have, 𝑇1/2 = and 𝑇1/2 = 0.693 ( ) = 0 .693 T mean
𝜆 𝜆

This indicates that mean life is greater than half life.

1
By definition, T mean => N = N0 = 0.3679 N0 (i.e., 36.79 % of N0)
𝑒
In one mean life, the number of atoms of a radioactive sample reduces to 36.79 % of its initial
value. 𝑇1/2 =0 .693 T mean
1
T mean = ( ) 𝑇1/2 = 1.44 𝑇1/2
0.693

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Radio isotopes: Isotopes of an element which are radioactive are called radio isotopes.

Units of radioactivity
(i) Curie ( Ci ): One Curie is the activity of a radioactive element which disintegrates at the rate
of
3.7 X 1010 disintegrations per second.
(ii) Rutherford (Rd): One Rutherford is the activity of a radioactive element which
disintegrating at the rate of 1 X 106 disintegrations per second.
(iii) Becquerel (Bq): One Becquerel is the activity of a radioactive element which is
disintegrating at the rate of 1 disintegration per second (SI unit).

Radiation Hazards
The destructive effects produced by radiations are called radiation Hazards.
Radiation damage produced in biological organisms is mostly due to ionization in the cells. It
can be classified into two categories. Namely
(i) Somatic or pathological: Damage to any part of the body except reproductive system is
called somatic or pathological damage. Damage may result in death of the organism or some
diseases like cancer.
(II) Genetic: Damage to the reproductive system is called genetic damage. The DNA
molecules which carry the reproductive Information can be destroyed by a single radiation.
This results in abnormalities at birth and hence affects future Generation.

LIST OF FORMULAE
1
1. R = R0 𝐴 3 2. Δ m = [Z mp+ (A-Z) mn] –M 3. E = mc2
𝑀−𝐴
4.1 amu = 931.5 MeV 5. f = 6. B.E = Δ m c2
𝐴

7. B.E = Δ m X 931.5 MeV 8. ZXA→Z-2YA-4 + α – particle

9. ZXA→Z+1YA + β – particle 10. ZXA→ZXA + γ-Ray.
𝑑𝑁 0.693
11. = -λN 12. N = N0 𝑒 − λt 13. 𝑇1/2 =
𝑑𝑡 𝜆
1
14. T mean = 15. T mean = 1.44 𝑇1/2
𝜆

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Chapter 14. SEMICONDUCTING DEVICES

Classification of solids on the basis of resistivity

Sl Range of resistivity() Range of conductivity(σ)

no. in Ωm in Sm-1
1 Conductors 10-2 to 10-8 102 to 108
2 Semiconductors 10-5 to 106 105 to 10-6
3 Insulators 1011 to 1019 10-11 to 10-19

Band theory of solids:

According to Bohr’s theory of atomic model, there are well defined energy
levels exist for electrons in an isolated atom. When such atoms are brought close to one
another (i.e, in a solid), they begin to influence each other. Due to this inter atomic interaction,
energy levels are slightly modified.
The modified closely lying energy levels form almost a continuum & it is called energy
band.
There are three types bands in solids.
(i). Valence band: The energy band occupied by the valence electrons is known as Valence
band. It is completely filled at 0 K.
(ii). Conduction band: The energy band possessed by the conduction electrons is called
conduction band. It is completely vacant at 0 K.
(iii). The Forbidden band: The conduction band and valence band are separated by some
energy gap called forbidden band.

NOTE: (i) The energy bands are referred for complete solids but never to the single atom.
(ii) Valence band will not be empty forever.
(iii) Electrons never found in forbidden band.
[The valence electrons are loosely bound to the nuclei, when smaller energy is supplied to
them, then they become free from nuclei and move to the conduction band by leaving a hole
at valence band. Such electrons help in conduction of electron current and hence they are
called conduction electrons]

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS ON THE BASIS OF ENERGY BANDS:

(i)Conductors: In the conductors, valence band overlaps with conduction
band.
Hence, large number of valence electrons are available for electrical
conduction. As a result, their resistivity will be very less.
Ex: cu, Fe, Ag, Au.

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(ii) Semiconductors:
Semiconductors are neither good conductors nor insulators. In this case,
Conduction band and valence band are separated by small energy gap < 3 eV.
As a result, their resistivity is more than conductors.
Ex: Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si), etc….

(iii)Insulators: In insulators conduction band and valence band are

separated by a forbidden energy gap > 3 eV. As a result, their resistivity is too
high.
Ex: Diamond, Glass, rubber.
Note: The energy difference between top of the valence band and bottom of
the conduction band is called energy gap.

SEMICONDUCTORS:
Semiconductors are classified into two groups.
Namely (i) Intrinsic semiconductors (pure)
(ii) Extrinsic semiconductors (impure)
(i) Intrinsic semiconductors (pure) :
Semiconductors in the purest form are called intrinsic
semiconductors.
Eg : Ge & Si.
Consider a semiconductor like germanium (or silicon) with tetravalent atoms i.e., having ‘4’
valence electrons in the atoms. When an electron comes out of the band, a vacancy is created
in the valence band. The vacancy created by an electron as it comes out of the valence band is
called a hole.
Ge & Si both are tetravalent atoms and they are bounded by means of covalent band.
When an electric field is applied, the electrons and the holes
move in opposite directions. Thus, a hole behaves like a +ve
charge.
The electrical conductivity of a pure semiconductors can be
increased by increasing the temperature. so resistance of
semiconductor decreases. Hence semiconductors possess –ve
temperature coefficient of resistance.

NOTE: A semiconductor behaves like perfect insulator at absolute zero temperature. (i.e., at
0K)

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(ii) Extrinsic semiconductors (impure):

The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor can be increased by adding the suitable
impurity.
◼ The process of addition of suitable impurities to a semiconductor to enhance the conductivity
is called doping.
◼ The materials added to a pure semiconductor to enhance its electrical conductivity are called
doping agents or dopants.
◼ The semiconductor added (doped) with suitable dopants is called doped or extrinsic or impure
semiconductor.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors. Namely, (a) N-type semiconductor.
(b) P-type semiconductor.

(a) N-type semiconductor:

Consider a semiconductor like germanium (or silicon) with
tetravalent atoms i.e., having ‘4’ valence electrons in the atoms. Ge Ge Ge
Donor
Let a pentavalent atom like antimony or bismuth is added to electron
germanium electron
[Pentavalent → 5 valent electrons]. Ge Bi Ge

Then the pentavalent atom forms only ‘4’ pairs of Valence

covalent bonds with its neighboring atoms and fifth valence electrons

Ge Ge Ge
electron will be a free electron. Thus every impurity atom
added denotes a free electron
An impurity atom which donates a free electron to the
crystal is called the donor or donor impurity atom.
In a n-type semiconductor number of free electrons will be equal to the number of
donor atoms. Hence, here electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge
carriers.
N-type Intrinsic + P-type
Intrinsic +
Trivalent
Pentavalent
S.C. S.C. S.C.
S.C. impurity
impurity

(b)P-type semiconductor: Ge Ge Ge
Consider a semiconductor like germanium (or Acceptor
silicon)with tetravalent atoms .i.e., having the 4 valence hole

electrons in the atom. Let a trivalent atom like indium or Ge In Ge

boron i.e., having 3 valence electrons in the atom is added to Valence

germanium. electrons
Ge Ge Ge
Then the trivalent atom forms only 3 pairs of covalent
bonds with its neighboring atoms and 4th bond has no pairing
electron .As a result hole is formed. Thus every impurity atom creates a hole. A hole behaves
like a +ve charge and it also accepts an electron.

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An impurity atom which creates a hole & accepts an electron in the crystal is called acceptor
or acceptor impurity atom.
In a p-type semiconductor number of holes will be equal to the number of acceptor
atoms. Hence in this type holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge
carriers.
NOTE: Both p-type and n-type semiconductors are electrically neutral.
Intrinsic semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors
1.These are pure semiconductors 1. These are impure semiconductors
2. electron density is equal to hole density 2. electron density is not equal to hole
density
3. conductivity is low 3. conductivity is comparatively high
4. conductivity depends on the temperature 4. Conductivity depends on the temperature
and also on doping level.
5. silicon 5. doped silicon

n-type semiconductors p-type semiconductors

1. It is obtained by adding pentavalent
impurity atom to pure semiconductor.
2. electrons are majority charge carriers and
holes are minority charge carriers
3. At 0 K only electrons take part in
conduction
4. silicon doped with phosphorus
1. It is obtained by adding trivalent
impurity atom to pure semiconductor.
2. holes are majority charge carriers and
electrons are minority charge carriers
3. At 0 K only holes take part in
conduction
4. Silicon doped with boron.

✓ The donor energy level is just

below the conduction band.

✓ The acceptor energy level is just

above the valence band.

❖ Number of electrons present in conduction band in an intrinsic semiconductor is equal to

number of holes in valence band. i.e., 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ and 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 𝑛𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ
❖ Number of electrons present in conduction band in n-type semiconductor is greater than
number of holes in valence band. i.e., 𝑛𝑒 > 𝑛ℎ and 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 𝑛𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ
❖ Number of electrons present in conduction band in p-type semiconductor is less than number
of holes in valence band. i.e., 𝑛𝑒 < 𝑛ℎ and 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 𝑛𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ
Semi-conductor diode (PN- junction diode)
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A junction of a p-type and n-type semiconductor is called PN-junction.

A single pure semiconductor with one half doped to become a p-type and the other half
doped to become n-type constitutes a PN junction.
– +
Formation of PN junction
V B

Consider a just formed PN junction. The n-region will contain only

electrons and the p-region will contain holes. Thus there will be a
concentration difference across the junction. P N
Depletion layer
Due to this, electrons diffuse from the n-region to the p-region and
holes diffuse from the p-region to the n-region. After some charge
carriers are diffused, the electrons and holes combine to form immobile ions. Such immobile
ions form a thin region in the vicinity of the junction called the charge depletion region.
Even though the depletion region is devoid of free charges, it still has +ve and –ve ions.
Due to these ions, a P.d. is developed across the junction . Such a P.d. is called junction
potential or potential barrier. This potential barrier prevents the further
diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction.
Circuit symbol of PN-junction diode is as shown.
– +
FORWARD BIASING
When the P region of a PN junction is connected
to the +ve and the N region is connected to the –ve terminal
of a battery, the PN junction is said to be forward biased. P N

In forward bias, the +ve terminal of the battery repels the holes + –

in the p-region and the –ve terminal repels electrons in the -region.
As a result both the holes and the electrons are driven towards the junction.
Initially when applied voltage is low, the potential barrier opposes the low of charges and
hence no current appears. When the applied voltage increases and becomes greater than the
potential barrier, the current increases.
When the acquired energy by holes or electrons is sufficient, some of
the holes & the electrons penetrate the junction to move to the other
side. The motion of majority carriers constitutes a current in the
external circuit. Such a current increases sharply with the applied
voltage. The resistance to such a current will be small.
In forward bias, the voltage at which the current begins to increase sharply is called Knee
voltage. Forward biased diode characteristic curve is as shown.

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REVERSE BIASING
– +
When P region of a PN junction is connected to the -ve and the N-
region is connected to the +ve terminals of a battery, the PN junction
is said to be reverse biased.
In reverse bias, the holes are attracted towards the –ve terminal P N

and the electrons are attracted towards the +ve terminal of the – +

battery. This increases the width of depletion region and potential

barrier is increased. As a result the potential barrier will be increased. Hence the majority
carriers cannot pass through the barrier.
But a few minority charge carriers may constitute a very small
current in the order of few µ𝐴.
As the applied voltage increase, at a certain value the junction
may breakdown and the reverse current increases sharply. Such a
voltage is called breakdown voltage. Thus a reverse biased PN
junction offers a very large resistance to the flow current through it
.Hence reverse biased PN junction behaves as an open switch.
Reverse biased diode characteristic curve is as shown.

RECTIFICATION:
The process of converting A.C to unidirectional current (D.C) is called rectification. The
circuit (device) which does the process of rectification is called a rectifier. A diode can be
used as rectifier.
Let us observe the diode behavior carefully. A PN junction diode allows current to flow in a
particular direction and in other direction it is opposed. Hence PN junction acts like a ‘valve’.
This property is used to convert AC into DC.
There are two types of rectifiers namely, (i) Half wave rectifier
(ii)Full wave rectifier

(i)Half wave rectifier:

The primary of a transformer has to be connected to
the A.C to be rectified ends of secondary of transformer
are connected to the PN junction diode & a resistance in
series as shown.
Let us understand the working of one complete cycle of
i/p A.C.
In first half of the i/p A.C cycle, when the end A is
+ve, the end B will be –ve. With this the PN junction
will be forward biased. During this time the diode allows
Current to flow through it. Hence a current flows

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through the resistance RL.

In second half of the same cycle, when the end B is +ve, the end A will be –ve. With this
the PN junction will be reverse biased. During this time the junction diode will not allow the
current through it. Hence there will be no current through the load resistance RL.
This repeats in every cycle of the i/p A.C . Since only one half of every cycle is rectified
the process is known as half wave rectification.

NOTE: In the above situation the o/p will not be a purely D.C but just a discontinuous
pulsating.
(ii)Full wave rectifier:
The primary of a transformer has to be connected
to the AC to rectified. Ends of secondary of transformer
are connected to the ‘2’ PN junction diodes and a
resistance as shown.
In the 1st half of the i/p AC cycle, the end A will be
+ve and end B will be –ve. With this diode D1 will be
forward biased and D2 Will be reverse biased. During this time D1 allows the current to flow
through it, whereas D2 doesn’t allow any current.

In the second half of i/p AC cycle, the end B will be

+ve and end A will be –ve. With this diode D2 will be
forward biased and D1 will be reverse biased. During this
time D2 allows the current to flow through it where as D1
doesn’t allow.
This repeats in every cycle of the i/p AC. Since both the
halves of a cycle are converted in to unidirectional current, the process is known as Full wave
rectification.

NOTE: (a) In the above situation, the o/p will not be a pure DC but it will be continuous
pulsating.
(b) A steady D.C can be obtained by
passing the o/p of full wave rectifier through a
suitable filter circuit. A simple filter circuit can
be constructed using capacitor in parallel with
RL as shown below.
PN junction(diode) as a switch:
Diode conducts in forward bias, hence it behaves as closed switch in forward bias.
Diode does not conduct in reverse bias, hence it behaves as open switch in reverse bias.
Note: Ideal diode offers zero resistance in forward bias and infinite resistance in reverse bias.

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Zener Diode
It is a special type of diode constructed by the scientist named C. Zener.
Circuit symbol is
It is fabricated by heavily doping both p-side and n-side of PN-junction as a result it forms
very thin depletion layer with high electric field strength at junction( 5 X 106 V/m).

V-I characteristics of Zener diode:

Zener diode characteristic in forward bias is similar to
that of normal PN-junction diode in forward bias.
But in reverse bias, after breakdown voltage a large
increment in the current value can be observed for very
negligible change in reverse bias voltage.
Thus we can say that, zener break down voltage remains
almost constant in reverse bias.
This property of zener diode helps to use it as voltage regulator.

Zener diode as a voltage regulator:

In this process the unregulated output of rectifier is regulated with
the help of Zener diode.
Here, Zener diode is connected with the resistance Rs in reverse
bias as shown.
Beyond the Zener voltage, if the input voltage increases, the current through Rs and Zener
diode increases. This increase the voltage drop across Rs without any change in Zener voltage.
Similarly when input voltage decreases current through Rs and Zener diode decreases but
Zener voltage does not change. Thus output received across Zener diode remains
same(constant). Hence Zener diode acts as regulator.

OPTO-ELECTRONIC DEVICES
1) Photodiode. (Photodetector)
A diode which converts light into electrical energy is called a
photodiode. Circuit symbol of photo diode is as shown.
Photodiode works in reverse bias. A photodiode essentially uses photovoltaic effect.
When photons of suitable energy are made to incident on the depletion region of the diode, it
results in the formation of electron hole pairs. The generated electrons move towards the p-
side and generated holes move towards n-side, which develops a small p.d. across the
junction.
When an external resistance is connected photocurrent flows through it. As we increase the
number of incident photons, photocurrent also increases.
Photodiodes are used (a) to detect optical signals

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(b) in optical communications

(c) in logic circuits etc.
2) SOLAR CELL:
It is basically a PN-junction which generates emf when solar radiation incident on it. Its
working principle is similar to photodiode (photovoltaic effect) except that no extra biasing is
required. The circuit symbol is as shown.

Fabrication and working of solar cell:

A transparent PN-junction is attached with metal contacts on either
sides as shown.
When radiation of suitable energy falls on the diode, the electron hole pairs
are generated near the junction. The generated electrons move towards the
p-side and generated hole move towards n-side. They are collected by
metal contacts and p.d. is developed across a metal contact. When an external load resistance
is connected, photo current flows.

3) Light Emitting Diode (LED):

A diode which converts electrical energy into light is called light
emitting diode. It is fabricated by heavily doped PN-junction. It works in
forward bias.
Working: Energy is required to create an electron hole pair in a semiconductor. The same
amount of energy is released when an electron and a hole recombine. In germanium or silicon
such energy is released as heat energy (IR radiations) & is absorbed by the material.
In some semiconductors like gallium arsenide & gallium phosphide…..the energy is emitted
as photon (visible range). This is the principle of LED.
In practice, in a LED, The PN junction is forward biased, electrons and holes move
towards the junction region. At junction they recombine to produce photons. The colour
emitted depends on the composition of material used.
Aluminum gallium arsenide → Red & IR.
Aluminum gallium phosphide → Green.

LEDs are used in display in (i) public utility places

(ii) consumer electronic gadgets
(iii) Infrared remote
(iv) traffic signals etc.

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LOGIC GATES
Consider a problem having only two solutions. The answer may be yes or no, true or false, on
or off etc. Such answers can be represented by 0(negative answer) or 1 (positive answer).This
logic can be applied to the circuits also.
1) Logic gate is an electronic circuit whose output depends on its inputs.
2) The inputs to logic gates are either 0 (0ff) or 1 (on).
3) Truth table gives a complete description of the behaviour of the logic gate.
4) The behaviour of a logic gate can be described by Boolean equations.
5) Boolean equations use letters to represent the input and output to explain the behaviour of
the logic gate.
6) There are three basic gates namely AND gate, OR and NOT gate.

AND GATE A
Y
An AND gate is a logic gate which performs logical multiplication B

An AND gate has two or more inputs and only one output.
AND gate gives an output only when all its inputs are present.
The figure represents the equivalent of two input AND gate. The INPUT OUTPUT
lamp will be ON only when both the switches A and B closed .This A B Y=A∙B
implies that the output will be 1 if and only if the inputs A and B 0 0 0
are 1. 0 1 0
The Boolean expression is A*B=Y or A.B=Y or AB=Y. Read as A 1 0 0
and B equals Y. This is not n arithmetical multiplication but a 1 1 1
logical multiplication.
A
Y
OR GATE B INPUT OUTPUT
An OR gate is a logic gate which performs logical addition. A B Y=A+B
An AND gate has two or more inputs and only one output. 0 0 0
0 1 1
The OR gate will have an output when either A or B or both are 1. 1 0 1
The figure represents to two input OR gate. The lamp will light up 1 1 1
when A or B or closed. This implies that the output will be A=1 or
B=1 or A=B=1. The output will be zero only when A=B=0.
The Boolean expression A+B=Y. Read as A or B equals Y.

NOT GATE
The NOT gate performs a basic function called inversion or
complementation. INPUT OUTPUT
The inverter changes 0 to 1 or 1 to 0. The Boolean expression is Y = A B=Ā
𝐴̅ . This is read as Y = NOT A. Y is compliment of A. The mark 0 1
“0” in the symbol represents inversion. 1 0

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NAND GATE

INPUT OUTPUT
The NAND gate is a circuit with AND gate followed by a
A B Y= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴+𝐵
NOT gate
If any input is 0 or all inputs are 0, the output is 1. 0 0 1
If the inputs are 1 then output is 0. 0 1 0
The output of a NAND gate is Y = 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ and is read as Y 1 0 0
equals NOT (A AND B). 1 1 0

NOR GATE INPUT OUTPUT

A B ̅̅̅̅
Y =𝐴𝐵
0 0 1
0 1 1
A NOR GATE is circuit with OR gate followed by a NOT gate 1 0 1
The output of a NOR gate Y = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 + 𝐵. 1 1 0
This is read as Y equals NOT (A OR B).
In NOR gate the output will be 0 when any one or its inputs are 1.
If the inputs are 0, the output will be 1.
NOTE: NAND and NOR gates are also called universal gates because all other gates are
constructible using these two gates

XOR GATE (Exclusive OR gate)

It is a logic gate whose output follows the equation,
Y = A𝐵̅ + 𝐴̅B or A B

INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y=A B
0 0 0
Demorgan’s Theorem 0 1 1
FIRST THEOREM: Compliment of the sum is 1 0 1
equal to the product of compliments. i.e., ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ ∙ 𝐵̅ 1 1 0
SECOND THEOREM: Compliment of a product is equal to the sum of
compliments. i.e., ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ + 𝐵̅

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Important 5 mark questions of II PU PHYSICS

Part-2
1) Obtain the relation between focal length & radius of curvature of spherical mirror
2) Obtain the expression for mirror formula for spherical mirrors.
3) Write the conditions for TIR & obtain the relation relating RI and critical angle
4) Obtain the relation, relating u,v,n &R for a spherical surface
5) Derive Lens maker’s formula.
6) Derive the expression for effective focal length of thin lenses in contact
7) Derive the expression for RI in terms of angle of prism & angle of minimum deviation
𝐴+𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
2
i.e., 𝑛 = 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
2

8) Give the theory of interference.

9) **Explain YDSE with neat diagram**.
10) Obtain the expression for fringe width of a fringe in YDSE.
11) List the difference between interference and diffraction.
12) State Brewster’s law & obtain n = tanp where p is polarizing angle of incidence.
13) Prove Snell’s law using wave analysis.
14) Prove laws of reflection using wave analysis.
15) Explain the laws of photoelectric effect OR facts of observations of photo electric effect.
16) Give the Einstein’s theory of PEE.
17) Explain PEE results based on Einstein’s theory.
18) **Derive the expression of total energy of electron around the nucleus according to
Rutherford**.
19) Derive the expression for radius of electron in nth orbit using Bohr’s model.
20) Derive the expression for energy of electron in nth orbit using Bohr’s model.
21) Obtain the expression for frequency of EMW emitted when electron jumps from higher to
lower orbit.
22) List the characteristics of nuclei.
23) Define amu& prove 1amu = 931.5 M eV.
24) Explain important components of nuclear reactor.
25) State radioactive decay law & prove N = N0𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 .
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26) What is half-life of radioactive substance and hence derive the expression for same.
27) What is mean life of radioactive substance and hence derive the expression for same.
28) List the difference between P-type &N-type semiconductor.
29) Explain the working of half wave rectifier.
30) Explain the working of full wave rectifier.
31) Explain the working of Zener diode as voltage regulator.

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