122: OPTICS, SOUND AND WAVES

INTRODUCTION
This course is divided into three main parts: optics, sound and waves.
Optics:
Optics is a branch of physics that (deals with the behavior of light and other
electromagnetic waves.
Light is a form a radiant energy from sources such as sun, bulb due to the
interaction of electrical and magnetic field.
Light, which is a main subject of study in optics, has both a particle
(photons) and wave nature. This is called wave-particle duality which means that
in some experimental set-up, light behaves as wave and particles, but the wave
model can describe its propagation. It travels at a speed in a
vacuum. As a wave, it has the following properties: reflection, refraction,
interference, diffraction and polarization. For the sake of this course, we shall
dwell on the reflective and refractive aspect of the light wave (ray)
The principles of optics lie at the heart of modern developments such as
optical computers, laser, holograms, optical fibers and new techniques in medical
imaging.
With the knowledge of the properties of light it enables one to gain
understanding in the blue colour of the sky and the design of optical devices such
as telescopes, microscopes, cameras, eyeglasses and the human eye. Therefore
optics is of great importance to physics, science and engineering/technology in
general.

1
 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION AT PLANE SURFACE

𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒚

𝜽𝒊
𝜽𝒓

𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒚

Whenever light is incidence (strikes) on a plane three thing takes place i.e.
absorption, reflection and refraction or transmission.
Recall that the two important mode of propagation of light are reflection and
refraction.
Whenever light is incidence on a smooth interface separating two transparent
materials, it is partly reflected (change in direction of travel of light with in the
same medium) and partly refracted i.e. transmitted into the second material
(change in the nature of direction i.e. velocity of light ray between two media of
different densities)

2
 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒚

𝜽𝒊
𝜽𝒓 ∅

𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒚

𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒚

If the interface is rough, both the transmitted and the reflected light will be
scattered in various directions and there will be no single angle of transmission or
reflection. The reflection that occurs at a definite angle from a smooth surface is
called specula (mirrow) reflection while scattered reflection, usually from rough
surface is called diffuse reflection.

𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

3
Both kinds of reflection occur in transparent and opaque (material that do not
transmit light). The visibility of most objects is because they reflect light in a
diffuse manner from their surface.

INDEX OF REFRACTION
The index of refraction of any material is the ratio of the speed of light, in a
vacuum to the speed, in the material

The speed of light in water is . Determine the refractive index

Solution

Note the index of refraction is a dimensionless quantity, hence has no unit.

LAWS OF REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

The direction of the incident, reflected and refracted rays at a smooth interface
between two optical media/materials from experimental studies states that;
i. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all
lie in the same plane.
ii. The incident angle is equal to the reflected angle ;
i.e. (Law of reflection)
iii. The ratio of the sine of incident angle , and the sine of the refracted angle
, both measured from the normal is equal to the inverse ratio of their refractive

indices i.e. (Law of refraction)

Snell’s law
4
Snell’s law shows that if a ray of light travels from one medium of lower refractive
index to another of higher refractive index ( , the speed(velocity) of the
light reduces and bends toward the normal and when the reverse becomes the case
i.e. ( , the speed of the light increases and the ray bends further away from
the normal. This shows why a partially submerged ruler or drinking straw appears
bent to the eyes and a coin at the bottom of a beaker of water appear raised to the
viewer.

Example
A ray of light through water enters a glass of index of
refraction . If the ray makes an angle of with the normal, find the
directions of the reflected and refracted rays.

Solution:
i. The reflected angle is the same with the incident angle so

ii. The refracted rays direction from Snell’s law

5
DEFINITION OF TERMS
i. OBJECT: An object in optics is anything from which light ray emanates
or radiates.
ii. POINT OBJCET: An object that has no physical extent
iii. EXTENDED OBJECT: These are real objects with length, width and
height.
iv. IMAGE: It is the reflected or refracted picture of a object
v. IMAGE POINT: It is the point through which all rays after reflection or
refraction appear to be coming from.
vi. VIRTUAL IMAGE: This is a type of image that seem to be formed by
light coming from the image, but no rays actually pass through it.
vii. REAL IMAGE: Images formed when the rays really do pass through the
image point. Real images can be projected on a screen.
viii. DIMINISHED IMAGE: This an image with a smaller size when
compared with the object
ix. MAGNIFIED IMAGE: This is an image with a larger size when
compared with the object.
x. ERECT IMAGE: An image which has the direction (orientation) same as
the object.

FORMATION OF IMAGE BY PLANE MIRRORS

Images formed by extended objects are called extended image i.e. to each point
on the object; there is a corresponding point on the image. Considering the diagram
below, let O, be the object. Two rays from the object O are shown; all the rays
appear from O appear to diverge from the image point I after reflection.

6
 𝜽𝒊

𝜽𝒓

Construction for determining the Height of an Image

formed by Reflection at a Plane Surface
The height of the image is the same with the height of the object because the

triangle ̂ and ̂ are congruent. The size and orientation is also the same.

The ratio of image height to object height in image forming is known as the

lateral magnification i.e.

For plane mirror the magnification is unity, hence the reason why your image in a

plane mirror is of the same size with the real image. The image is as far

behind as the object is in front of the mirror

7
 Image formed by plane mirrors are erect, i.e. they point in the same direction as the

object meaning that the magnification is positive.

Image formed by plane mirrors are also reversed as shown below

K A L U P H Y S IC S S C IS Y H P U L A K

M
Reversed nature of Image formed by Plane
′ Surface
𝑌
𝑌
𝑍′
𝑍

𝑋 𝑋′

M
Image formed by the mirror is virtual, erect, reversed and is of the same size as the object

Image formed by reflecting or refracting surface can serve as the object for another

surface. This is of great importance in geometrical optics such that it helps to

understand image formation by combination of lenses/mirrors as in microscopes,

telescopes e. t. c.

8
 I1 I3

MIRROR 1

I2
MIRROR 2
EY
E

Note Images and formed by single reflection. Image is located by

treating either of the other images as an object is formed by double reflection
of each ray

Mirror forms an image on the object point, and mirror forms image

as shown above. The image formed by mirror 1 then serves as an object for

mirror 2, which then forms an image of this object at point . In the same view,

mirror 1 uses the image formed by mirror 2 as object and forms an object of it.

9
Take home:

1. Show with the aid of a ray diagram that the image formed by mirror using

image as an object is also located at image .

2. Find out the uses of the combination of plane mirrors.

The general formula that gives the number of images formed in relation to the
angles of inclination is

; where is the number formed and is the angle at which the

mirrors are inclined.

Example
Two mirrors, one of tall and the other tall are inclined at an
angle . How many images will they form of an object placed between them?

USES OF REFLECTION AT PLANE SURFACE (MIRROR)

1. The advantage is used in the construction of kaleidoscope i.e. the use of

fitted mirrors in a tube with pieces of coloured glasses.

2. Used in the construction of mirror periscope such that the parallel

arrangement of the mirrors is at angle .

10
 3. Used in departmental stores to display an infinite number of goods in a store
when two plane mirrors are placed at an angle of
4. For exhibition of goods in supermarket or medicine store.
5. Used in reflector galvanometer when the reflecting ray of an angle rotates
twice to the incidence ray angle of the mirror
6. Used by opticians to increase the length of their laboratory.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Recall light rays between two media are partially reflected, refracted/transmitted at
the interface with different indices of refraction. However, there are situation
where all of the light is reflected back from the interface, with none being
transmitted, even though the second material is transparent, hence called total
internal reflection.

11
 𝜃𝑟
𝜼𝟐 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑖𝑚 C
𝜼𝟏 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑖𝑚 𝜃𝑐 𝜃𝑖𝑟
𝜃𝑐
𝜃𝑖

From the diagram shown above the ray coming from the point source of

refractive index (denser) strikes the surface of the second medium of refractive

index (less dense).

Recall form Snell’s law of refraction is given by

; hence or

Note the ray is from the denser to a less dense medium; hence it moves away or

bends away from the normal. This shows that an incidence angle is less than

for which the refracted angle is

Therefore the angle of incidence for which the refracted ray emanates from the

tangent to the surface is called the critical angle. If the incidence angle is greater
12
than the critical angle, the rays cannot pass into the second medium but is trapped

in the medium of incidence and is completely reflected at the boundary surface.

This is called total internal reflection it occurs when the incidence ray is moving

from an optically dense medium to an optically less dense medium.

To find the critical angle consider two materials whose refracted angel

i.e. . Therefore substituting into the Snell’s law

or

; but

Example: the ray of light moves from glass of index of refraction to

air surface, the critical angle can be calculated

The answer above shows that for a glass-air surface, total internal reflection will

occur only when the incidence angle is greater than .

13
Total reflecting prisms have some advantages over metallic reflectors since it can

be totally reflected by reflected.

Total internal reflection in a porro prism

Note light enters and leaves at right angles to the hypotenuse and is totally

reflected at each of the shorter faces. The total change of the direction of the rays is

. A binoculars as an optical device uses the combination of two porro prisms

MIRAGES

It is generally accepted that light rays travel in a straight lines, but refraction and

total internal reflection often contradict the above statement by presenting pictures

we do not believe.

Mirage occurs due the atmospheric refraction from optical illusion i.e. something

that appears to be real but is unreal or merely imagined. During sunny /hot days the

ground is heated due to absorption of sun rays such that the layer near the ground

is a hot air that is less dense compare to the cool layer of air above that is denser

14
which accounts for why light from distant objects is refracted upward making

images of the objects appear inverted

APPARENT DEPTH

Refraction causes an object submerged in a liquid of higher refractive index to

appear closer to the surface than it actually is. The object O appears to be at

because of the refraction of light from the object. The apparent depth can be
′
denoted and the actual depth can be denoted by . This shallowing effect is

shown below in a diagram.

𝜃𝑟
𝜼𝟐

𝜼𝟏

𝜃𝑖
𝜃𝑟

𝜃𝑖

Relation between apparent depth and real depth

15
Using Snell’s law application at the surface which is given as

Relating the ratio of refractive indices to actual and apparent depths, a useful
relationship can be obtained for predicting the apparent depths of submerged
objects
From the diagram and

But and

OR

and

Therefore using the Snell’s law expression

If we restrict the ray to be nearly vertical, angles and will be small, hence the
′
following approximation applies i.e. and
Applying the approximation above, we can write the equation as

16
Example: If a coin rests on the bottom of a beaker filled with water of refractive
index and the apparent distance of the coin from the surface is 15cm.
how deep is the container.
Solution
′
Given and , with the

REFLECTION ON SPHERIACAL/CURVED SURFACE (section of it is a

sphere)
Image formed by plane mirrors are at the same size as the object, but there are
many applications for mirrors in which the image and object must be of different
sizes. Examples include magnifying mirrors, which gives images larger than
objects, surveillance mirror that give images smaller than objects. Other
applications require real images, which plane mirrors cannot form. Examples of
such mirror include the
i. Concave mirror: light is reflected from the inner concave surface.
ii. Convex mirror: light is reflected from the outer, convex surface. This is
sometimes called a diverging mirror because the rays from any point on
an object diverge after reflection as though they were coming from some
point behind the mirror.

17
Red, blue, and green light rays are reflected by a curved mirror. Note that the
point where the three colors meet is white.

Consider the mirror that has a radius of curvature R, and its center of curvature is
point . Point is the center of the spherical section of the mirror i.e. the vertex,
and a line through and is called the Principal axis of the mirror and P is a
point object that lies on the principal axis.

𝜃
𝜃

𝜶 ∅ 𝜷 𝑽
𝜹

Construction for finding the position of image F formed by a concave mirror

18
Ray passing through , strikes the mirror normally and is reflected back on
itself. All the rays from with angle with the axis strike the mirror and are
reflected back to intersect at the axis at the same point provided the incident
angle is small. The point is therefore the image point of the point object .
The image formed from the point object is real image.

′
Let the object distance measured from the vertex be ,the image distance be
′ ′
and noting that are all on the same side indicating
are all positive when reflection occurs at the concave side of a surface.
Using theorem from plane geometry ( An exterior angle of a triangle equals the
sum of the two opposite interior angle) and applying it to triangles
∅ (i)

∅ (ii)

Solving the equations simultaneously to eliminate , we have

∅ (iii)

Now let represent the height of point above the principal axis, and represent
the short distance from to the foot of the vertical line. Writing the expression for
′
the tangent ∅ and noting are positive.

′ ∅

Now let by approximation the angle ; and ∅ ∅ since

angle are small i.e. less than one radian. Also let the distance compare to the
′
be neglected, hence the approximation of equation (iv) becomes

19
 ′ ∅

Putting equation (v) into (iii) will give us

(vi )

Dividing equation (vi) by

(vii), which is the object –image

relation for spherical mirror.

FOCAL POINT AND FOCAL LENGTH

Consider an object point to be very far from the spherical mirror i.e. , the
incoming rays are parallel with the principal axis as shown below

Incident rays parallel to the axis converge to the focal point F of a concave mirror

20
 ′
The image distance will be

The rays converge to a point at a distance between the center of the curvature,

and the vertex of the mirror after reflection. The point at which the parallel
rays converge is called the focal point and the distance F from the vertex to the
focal point is the focal length .
The relation between the focal length to the radius of curvature is given by

From and putting it into equation (vii) we have

Equation (viii) which is the object –image relation for spherical mirror

21
 FORMATION OF IMAGE S BY CONCAVE MIRROR

𝜶 𝜽
𝜶 𝜽

Determining the position, orientation and size of an image formed by a concave mirror

Let an extended object represented by perpendicular to the principal axis

showing two rays leaving the tip of the object.
One of these rays passes through the center of curvature of the mirror, hitting the
mirror perpendicular to the mirror surface and reflecting back on itself. The second
ray strikes the mirror at its center and reflects as shown, obeying the law of
reflection. The image of the tip of the arrow is located at the point where these two
rays intersect.
The object distance at is nearly equal to that of , hence the image is
nearly straight and perpendicular to the axis. The object and image have different
sizes and they have opposite orientation.
The lateral magnification is
′

22
 Where the negative indicates the object and image are on opposite sides of the
principal axis.

Note the image formed by a mirror (concave) may be larger, smaller or be of the
same size as the object depending on the position of the object from the mirror.
This also determines the nature, position and orientation of the image, hence the
following;
1. When the object is at infinity, the image is real, inverted, diminished and is
formed at the focal point of the mirror.

2. When the object is at a distance longer than the radius of curvature , the
image is real, inverted, diminished and is formed between the focal point
and the center of curvature

Object before center of curvature, image inverted, and diminished

3. When the object is placed at the centre of the curvature, the image is real,
inverted, same size with the object and is formed at the centre of the
curvature with an opposite orientation

23
Object at center of curvature as well as image the same size but inverted

4. When the object is placed at the focal point of the mirror, the image is
formed at infinity, inverted, real and magnified.

Object at focal point. Image at infinity

5. When the object is placed between the vertex, and the focal point i.e.
, the image is virtual { formed on the side opposite of the mirror
from the object}, erect and larger than the object.
24
Object between focal point and vertex. Image is virtual, erect and enlarged

Example: A concave mirror has a radius of curvature with absolute value of

. Find the position of the image when the object is placed at (i) (ii)
(iii) (iv)
Solution
Given ; but

Therefore using the mirror formula we have the following;

1.

′
25
 2.

3.

4.

EXERC
Assume that a certain spherical mirror has a focal length of Locate and
describe the image for object distances of (a) (b)
and (c) .

26
 USES OF CONCAVE MIRRORS/CONVEX MIRRORS

a. Concave mirrors are used in the construction of reflecting telescope.

b. Concave mirrors are used as shaving mirrors when the face is very
close to the mirror.
c. Use for dressing as makeup mirrors
d. Use for car head lamps/ torch lights
e. Convex mirror are use as driving mirrors for cars.

FORMATION OF IMAGE BY CONVEX MIRRORS

In convex mirror the centre of curvature of the mirror is opposite to the
outing rays, which shows that is negative. The object distance is
′
positive; the image distance is negative. Note since is negative, the
focal point is virtual and incoming rays that are parallel to the principal
axis are not reflected through the focal point but diverge as though they
come from it behind the mirror.

27
Finding the position and magnification of image formed by convex
Generally images formed by convex mirrors are virtual, diminished,
erect and are formed behind the mirror as the object is in front regardless
of the position of the object from the mirror.

EXERCISE
1. An object of tall is placed to the left of the
vertex of a convex mirror with a radius of curvature of .
Find the position, size, orientation and nature of the image.
2. How far must a girl stand in front of a concave mirror of
to see an erect image of her face four times its natural size
3. Where an object should be placed, with reference to a concave
mirror of radius to form real image having half its
magnification.

28
REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM

𝑋
𝜶
𝑀
𝑛 𝑛′ 𝜹

𝜃 𝜷 𝜸 𝜃
𝜃′
𝜃′
𝜶

𝑌 𝑁′
𝑍

The deviation produced by the first face of the prism and chromatic
dispersion are both increased by the second face of the prism. For a
monochromatic light, the diagram shows the part of a ray or rays
incident on the first surface on the angle .
Applying Snell’s law to both faces gives

------ (1)

The directions at the first and second faces are

′
and

′
respectively and gives a total deviation of
29
 ------ (2)

′ ′
Considering as points on the cyclic quadrilateral and since
′ ′
lie on a straight line, therefore, ------ (3)
Combining the equation 1, 2, and 3 gives

′ ′

′ ′

---------- (4)
This is the expression for the total deviation suffered by a ray of light

MINIMUM DEVIATION (CONDITIONS)

The total deviation is found to vary with angle of incidence.
Experiment shows that as the angle of incidents is increased,
decreases, reaches a minimum and then increases again. The smallest
deviation angle is called angle of minimum deviation represented by
and occurs at angle of incidence , where is also equal to the two
surfaces. Here the angle of incidence equals the angle of emergence.
Thus rays passes symmetrically through the prism at a minimum
deviation. At this minimum deviation , we have, using Snell’s law,

′
′

30
 ′
(Two interior opposite angles of a triangle)
(Two interior opposite angles of a triangle)

′
But recall that
′
Solving for and the , we get
′
and

If we apply Snell’s law in the first and second cases, we have

′

Therefore the refractive indexes are given in terms of the parameters or

quantities.

Example, if the refracting angle and then

31
DISPERSION
This is the splitting of light of mixed wavelengths into a spectrum of
single wavelengths. A beam of ordinary white light such as sun light, on
passing through an optical prism or a diffraction grating is divided up or
dispersed into its constituent colours each of specific wavelengths. If the
dispersed beam is allowed to fall upon a screen, a coloured band or
spectrum is observed.
Note for all wavelengths, the speed of light in space or vacuum is the
same, but different in material substances. Therefore, the index of
refraction of a material depends on wavelength. Dispersion is dependent
on wave speed and index of refraction on wavelength. The wavelength
of light in a given material is given by

Where is the wavelength of light in a vacuum, and is the index of

refraction of the material
The index of refraction, decreases with increasing wavelength and
decrease in frequency and increases with decrease in wavelength and
increase frequency for most materials.

32
When white light (visible light) is incident on a prism, the deviation
(change in direction) produce by the prism increase with increase in
refractive index, increase in frequency and decrease in wavelength and
vice versa. All other colours are intermediate positions, with violet light
deviating most and red light least.
When this happens, we say the light is dispersed into a spectrum.
However, the amount of dispersion depends on the difference between
the refractive indexes for violet light and for red light.

33
LENSES

A lens is an optical system with two or more refracting surfaces. It is the

most familiar and widely used optical device after plane mirror. The
simplest lens is made of two spherical surfaces close enough together
that the distance (thickness) between them can be neglected. There are
many types of lenses grouped under two main types namely the convex
and concave lenses

CONVEX LENS
When a beam of parallel rays passes through a converging lens, the rays
converge to a focal point and form a real image at that point. A lens
has two focal points and , and the distance measured from the
center of the lens is the focal length.

𝐹 𝐹

𝑓 𝑓

Converging lens showing first and second focal length

Note: The two focal lengths are equal even when the sides have different curvature

34
 𝐴
𝑴

𝑶
𝛼 𝛽 𝐵′
𝐵 𝐹 𝛼 𝐹 𝛽
𝑰

𝑓 𝑓′ 𝑈′ 𝑓
𝑈′
𝐴′
Construction of finding image position for thin lens

Let the ray parallel to the principal axis before refraction passes
′
through the second focal point after refraction. Ray is
undeflected straight through the center of the lens i.e. there is no net
change in direction refraction. The two right angled triangle and
′ ′
are similar since the angle are equal and the ratios of the
corresponding sides are equal.
′

′ ′
Also triangle and are similar since the angle are equal. Hence
′

Equating the equations above

35
 ′ ′

This is the object image relation for thin lens

Also the lateral magnification for a lens is given as

′

The image formed is inverted. However, the nature, size, position and
orientation of image formed by a convex (converging) lens like that of a
concave mirror is determine by the position (distance) of the object from
the lens

1. When the object is outside the first focal point i.e. , the
′
distance of the image is positive and the image is real,
diminished and inverted

36
 𝑶

𝐹 𝐹
𝑰

2. When the object is at that centre of curvature of the first side, the
image is real, inverted, same size with the object and is formed at
the centre of the curvature for the other side.

𝐹 𝐹
𝑰

Object at the center of curvature, image is real, inverted, same size with the
object and formed at the center other second curvature.

37
 3. When the object is between the center of curvature, and the first
focal point, the image is real, enlarged, inverted and formed
beyond the center of curvature on the second side.

𝑶
𝐹 𝐹

Object between center of curvature, and focal point on the first side,
image is real, inverted, magnified and beyond center of curvature, on the second
side.

4. When the object is at the focal point , the image is formed at infinity

𝐹 𝐹

Object at focal point , image formed at infinity

38
 5. When the distance of the object is less than the focal length the
image is located on the same side of the lens as the object. It is
virtual, erect and larger than the object.

𝑶
𝐹
𝐹

Object distance , image is virtual, enlarged and formed of the same side of
lens as object.

39
CONCAVE (DIVERGING) LENS
For a diverging lens, the beam of parallel rays incident on the lens
diverges after refraction. The focal points are reverses, relative to those
of positive lens. The focal length of a diverging lens is negative. All rays
parallel to the principal axis of a diverging lens appear to diverge from
the second focal point of the lens

𝐹 𝐹

𝑓 𝑓

First and second focal points of a diverging lens

The image formed by a concave (diverging) lens is usually virtual,

diminished and erect and it is formed at the same side with the object.

40
 Virtual, erect and diminished image formed by a diverging lens

The principal focus (F) of a convex lens is that point on the principal
axis where all ray originally parallel and very close to the principal axis
converge after refraction from lens. The principal focus is real and hence
positive.
The principal focus of a concave lens is that point on the principle axis
where all rays originally parallel and very close to the axis appear to be
diverging from after refraction from the lens. This focus is virtual and
hence negative.

TYPES OF LENSES
Lenses thicker at the centre than edges are converging (convex) lens
with a positive focal length; while those thicker at its edges than the
center are diverging (concave) lens with a negative focal length.

41
 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠
𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠
𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠

𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑢𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠

Note: The lens –maker’s equation is given as

( )

Where is index of refraction and , are values of the radii of

curvature for side 1 and side 2 respectively.

42
 OPTICAL INSTRUMENT

These are device that makes use of light to carry out one function or the

other. They make use of the application of images formed by mirrors

and lenses. The function of the human eye, cameras, microscope, and

telescope are dependent on the application of ideas gained from the

formation of images from lenses and mirrors.

𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

object
𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚
axis 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
stop

bellows

The basic components of a camera are a converging lens, a light tight

box, a light sensitive film that records an image and a shutter to allow
the light from the lens strike the film for required length of time

43
The lens of the camera forms an inverted real image on the film of the
object being photographed. With the camera in proper focus, the
position of the film coincides with that of the real image formed by the
lens, which makes the photograph as sharp as possible.
The image distance decreases as object distance increases which makes
the lens of the camera to be moved closer to the film for a distant object
and farther from the film for nearby objects when focusing the camera.
The film size and desired angle of view determines the choice of the
focal length for a camera lens. A lens of long focal length gives a
small angle of view and a large image of a distant object while that of a
short focal length gives a small image and wide angle of view.
In order for the film to record the image properly, the total light energy
per unit area reaching the film must fall within limits, hence the use of
the shutter and the lens aperture to control it. The shutter is used in
controlling the time interval during which light enters the lens and is
usually adjustable.
The light intensity reaching the film is proportional to the area viewed
by the lens and to the effective area of the lens. The size of area that lens
see is proportional to the square of the angle of view of the lens .

The effective area of the lens is controlled by aperture or diaphragm of

circular hole with diameter . The effective area is therefore
proportional to .

44
With these, the intensity of light reaching the film with a particular lens
is proportional to and inversely proportional to .
Photographers commonly express the light gathering capacity of a lens

in terms of the ratio called the number of the lens

HUMAN EYE

The basic parts of the eye are the lens, cornea, vitreous humor, iris and
retina.
A transparent membrane called the cornea with the region behind it
containing a liquid called the aqueous humor covers the eye. The lens of
45
the eye is held in place by ligaments attach to the cilliary’s muscles. The
cornea also contains a watery jelly behind the lens called the vitreous
humor.
The refraction of light ray entering the eye occur mostly at the outer
surface of the cornea and the lens, producing a real image of the object
viewed which is formed on the light sensitive retina (lining in the rear
inner surface of the eye). The rods and cones in the retina acts like an
array of miniature photocell; they sense image and transmit it via the
optic nerve to the brain.
The iris located in front of the lens contained an aperture with a variable
diameter called the pupil which opens and closes to adapt to changing
light intensity.
The image formed must be exactly at the location of the retina in order
for the object to be sharply seen. This the eye does by adjusting the
different object distance . It changes the focal length of its lens;
hence the image distance (lens-retina) does not change.
The process of increasing the tension in the ciliary muscle surrounding
the lens, which results into its contraction, makes the lens to bulge and
the radii of curvature of its surface decreases, hence decrease in the focal
length is called accommodation.

46
 DEFECTS OF VISION
PRESBYOPIA is the recession of the near point. This kind of defect
occurs as one grows old; such that the eye lens becomes rigid in a fluid
like manner in which the ciliary muscles are weak hence resulting to the
range of gradual diminishing of accommodation due to age.
CORRECTION: by the use of two spectacle lens (Bi-spectacle lens)
where the lower portion is used for reading and viewing nearer object
and the upper portion for distant object.

MYOPIC (nearsighted) EYE

This occurs if the cornea is sharply curved or the eye ball is too long
from front to back in comparison with the radius of curvature of the
cornea, and rays from an infinite distant object are focused in front of
the retina.
CORRECTION
This is corrected by using a concave lens (diverging). The lens forms a
virtual image of the object which acts as an object at or inside the far
point.

HYPEROPIC (farsighted) EYE

This occurs if the cornea is not curved enough or the eye ball is too short
and images from rays of an infinite distant object are formed behind the
retina.

47
CORRECTION
This is corrected by using a convex lens (converging). The lens forms a
virtual image of the object which acts as an object at or beyond the near
point.

ASTIGMATISM
This defect in vision causes image of object focused to be blurred to the
eye because the rays of the object which passes through the lens of the
eye are slightly distance away each other hence gives blurred vision
called astigmatism. It is the unequal curving of one or more of the
refractive surfaces of the eye usually the cornea. This is observed when
rays from the curvature of the cornea varies in different direction of the
48
eye than rays coming from different plane of an object are focused in
different position by the eye, that is not focused on the retina such that
image formed are distorted and blurred
Note any one with astigmatism will see one section of an object more
clearly than the other section.

CORRECTION
Astigmatism can be corrected with lenses that have different curvatures
in two mutually perpendicular directions.

POWER OF LENS
The power of a lens is given by the reciprocal of the focal length of the
lens in meters i.e. . . The unit of power of lens is called the diopters. It

is also a term used in describing lenses for vision correction.

Note that lenses with shorter focal length is more magnified and is
powerful compare to a lens of longer focal length. Hence, the shorter the
focal length of a lens the more it can converge or diverge light

THE MICROSCOPE
The microscope consists of two converging lenses. The first converging
lens represents the objective lens and the second lens is called the
eyepiece. Usually the object to be viewed is placed in front of the first
focal point of the objective lens to form a real, enlarged image
49
(which serves as an object to the second lens) just inside the first focal
′
point of the eyepiece. The final image formed from the eyepiece is
virtual, more enlarged and is formed between the near and far point of
the eye.

𝑶𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔 𝑬𝒚𝒆𝒑𝒊𝒆𝒄𝒆

𝑶 𝐹′ 𝐹′

𝐹 𝐹
𝑰

𝑰′

A ray diagram of a microscope showing a final inverted, enlarged and

virtual image

The angular magnification of a microscope can be increased by using an

objective lens of short focal length and an eyepiece of short focal
length to help minimize the value of the magnification.
50
TELESCOPE
This optical instrument varies from the microscope because it is used to
view large objects at large distances while that of microscope is used for
viewing small objects close at hand.
Usually the ray coming from the object are parallel such that real and
reduced image formed by the first lens (objective lens) goes parallel to
the second lens (eyepiece) causing a high degree of magnification which
makes it possible for viewing distant object. The final image formed by
the eyepiece is an enlarged and virtual image formed at infinity.

51
DEFECT OF IMAGES FORMED BY CURVED MIRROR AND LENS
The defect from mirrors and lenses resulting to distorted image or deeper
colouration at the ends or edges of the object is called aberration. Aberration is also
the failure of a mirror or lens to behave correctly using its simple derived formula.
In mirror it is called spherical aberration, while in lens it is called chromatic
aberration.
Defect due to aberration occurs when the aperture (width) of the mirror or lens is
large or the use of extended objects and non-paraxial rays that proceed from the
object do not intercept correctly at the same point after reflection or refraction
resulting to images obtain to differ in shapes, sharpness and colour from the object,
hence called aberration.
SPHERICAL ABERRATION
This kind of aberration is mostly associated with spherical curved mirror of large
aperture. It is the failure of the rays from the object on the principal axis to
converge at the image point as a result of the large aperture hence producing
blurred image. These non-paraxial rays on reflection or refraction will not
converge at one point but will converge at different point with a circle of minimum
radius ( circle of least confusion) and diverge again.

𝑃 𝐹
𝑭

Spherical aberration for a lens

52
CORRECTION
By the use of adjustable aperture to control light intensity, hence reduces
spherical aberration (An aperture is an opening that controls the amount of
light passing through the lens.) Sharper images are produced as the aperture size
is reduced because with a small aperture only the central portion of the lens is
exposed to the light; as a result, a greater percentage of the rays are paraxial
same time.
In mirrors, spherical aberration can be minimized through the use of a parabolic
reflecting surface rather than a spherical surface. Parallel light rays incident on a
parabolic surface focus at a common point, regardless of their distance from the
principal axis. Parabolic reflecting surfaces are used in many astronomical
telescopes to enhance image quality for distant object.

CHROMATIC ABERRATION
This is a wave length-dependent imaging behavior due to dispersion from the
variation of index of refraction with wavelength. This causes different wavelengths
of light refracted by a lens to focus at different points, hence giving rise to
chromatic aberrations

CORRECTION
This defect can be neutralized by achromatizing the converging lens. This is
achieved by placing a suitable diverging lens of the same radius of curvature and
of different material in contact with the converging lens. This achromatic
combination is called chromatic doublet.

53
WAVES
The concept of wave is very important in dealing with a wide range of
phenomena and is one of the basic concepts of physics such that the
knowledge of its behavior is important to scientist and engineers.

Definition
Waves are physical situation which are produced at one point or space
propagated through media or space and felt later at another point without
the actual movement of the medium along with the wave.
The general properties of waves are:
a. Reflection
b. Refraction
c. Diffraction
d. Interference
e. Polarization

Classification of Waves
1. Waves are classified according to medium of propagation i.e.
(mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves) .
2. By the motions of the particles of transmitting medium are related to
the direction of propagation of the waves themselves (transverse waves
and longitudinal waves).

54
Mechanical waves
Mechanical Waves are waves that originate in the displacement of some
portion of elastic (deformable) medium about an equilibriums position,
causing it to oscillate about an equilibrium position. Because of the
elastic properties of the medium, the disturbance (wave or energy) is
transmitted from one layer to the next without any corresponding bulk
motion of the medium itself.
Mechanical waves need material medium for transmission. Inertia and
elasticity are the properties of the medium that determine the velocity of
the wave in the medium.
Elasticity gives rise to the restoring forces on any part of the medium
displaced from its equilibrium position while inertia tells us how this
displaced portion of the medium will respond to these restoring forces.
Examples of mechanical waves are water wave, sound waves in air.

Electromagnetic Waves:
This is originated from the interaction between the magnetic and electric
fields. In vacuum the speed of electromagnetic wave is 3.0x108m/s
Electromagnetic waves can have varying wavelength and frequencies
but the speed is constant in vacuum. If the electromagnetic wave is
passed through a medium the speed is affected by the refractive index of
the medium.

55
Examples of electromagnetic waves are light waves, radio waves,
infrared, ultraviolet rays, x-rays, gamma rays e.t.c.

2a. Transverse waves

If the motions of the particles are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave itself, we then have transverse wave. Examples
are water wave, and wave in plucked string. They are therefore said to
be mechanical transverse waves. Electromagnetic waves by virtue of
perpendicular fluctuations of magnetic field and electric field to the
direction of the wave travel is a transverse wave (not mechanical
waves).

Direction of travel of wave

Particles vibrations in transverse waves

2b. Longitudinal waves

If, however, the motion of the particles conveying a mechanical wave is

also along the direction of propagation, we then have a mechanical

longitudinal wave. Examples of longitudinal wave are sound wave and

wave in stretched spring.

56
 Direction of travel of wave

Particles vibrations in longitudinal waves

3. Dimensional classification

Waves can also be classified as one-, two-, or three dimensional waves,

according to the number of dimensions in which they propagate energy.

Waves moving along a string or spring are one dimensional. Surface

waves (ripples on water) caused by dropping a pebble into a pond, are

two dimensional sound waves and light waves which emanate radically

from a small source are three dimensional.

WAVE MOTION
Oscillation is the to and fro movement of an object about a fixed point.
If the motion repeats itself in equal intervals of time, the motion is said
to be periodic. The displacement of a body in periodic motion can
always be expressed in terms of sines and cosines. They are therefore
called harmonic motion {i.e. because of the sine and/or cosine
function(s)}.

57
 The general equation of motion of simple harmonic oscillator is
represented as shown below

..... (1)
One of the solutions of this equation is the displacement equation:
∅ 2a
∅ 2b
or … (2c)

t
-a
1 c y c le
y=a coswt

Where is the maximum displacement (amplitude) of the oscillation

and ∅ are constants. Equation (2a) can be written as

58
 { ( ) ∅}

∅
∅ i.e. the oscillation repeats

itself after a time .

Therefore the period of oscillation

Where √ ; since √

Period (T) is therefore the time taken for any oscillating system to
complete one full oscillation. The SI unit is second.

Frequency
Frequency (f) is the number of oscillations completed by an oscillating
system in one second.

Where, is the mass of the oscillating body, is the force constant of

the spring and ∅ is the phase angle of the motion.

59
Note that is called the angular frequency and the unit of

angular frequency is radian/second .

Now if the phase angle ∅ is zero, then from the given

graph above
If ∅ ; then

If ∅ ; then

and

The total energy of an oscillating body (SHM) of mass is

at any instant.
3a

3b
From equation (3) it can be shown that

60
 √

Thus for a body executing simple harmonic motion, there is the

exchange of energy between the P.E. and K.E. but the total energy is
always a constant at any instant. The velocity is maximum at the
equilibrium point.

If represents a curve moving to the right with

velocity , then

( )

Then let be the space period of the curve. Thus the curve

repeats itself every length  called the wave length. Therefore the

quantity represents the number of wavelengths in the distance

and is called the wave number.

, since

61
represents a sinusoidal or harmonic wave with wave length
propagating to the right with velocity .

where ( ) is the angular frequency of the wave,

but

( )

This is a fundamental equation of wave motion

Wavelength
The wavelength  is the distance advanced by the wave in one period. It
is the distance between two consecutive points which are in step, i.e.
they have the same phase.

62
Thus in wave motion, we have two periodicities, given by time and by
the wavelength,  with the two related by
Example
A tuning fork oscillates with a frequency of , the velocity of
sound in air is 340m/s, find the wavelength of the sound.
Solution

Progressive and Stationary Waves

Take a loose end of a long rope which is fixed at the other end and move

the loose end quickly up and down. Crests and toughs of the waves

move down the rope and if the rope were infinitely long such waves will

be called progressive waves.

Progressive waves are therefore waves travelling in an unbounded

medium free from possible reflection.
The displacement equation is .

63
Each particle of the rope vibrates with the same amplitude and frequency
but the phase of the vibrations changes for different points along the
wave. Therefore the wave profile of a progressive wave moves along
with the speed of the wave.

If the rope were reduced so that both ends were fixed, the progressive

waves travelled along the rope will be reflected at both ends like two

progressive waves trains traveling along the rope in opposite directions.

If the shaky frequency is slowly increased, at certain frequencies one or

more vibrating loops of large amplitude are formed in the rope.

The vibration of the rope will then be rope and standing waves
(stationary) would be formed.

64
For example if two progressive waves of equal amplitude and
frequency travelling in opposite directions be represented
by ,

The resultant displacement at any point is thus from superposition

principle as shown below

This is the equation of a stationary wave such that the wave-like profile
does not move along the medium and it can also be written as shown
below.

Where ( ) is the amplitude of oscillation of the

various particles such that when the amplitude is maximum

65
and is equal to which are called the antinodes while at minimum
amplitude i.e. they are called the nodes which occur midway

between the antinode when . Therefore in stationary wave,

the amplitude varies but the phase and frequency remain constant.

66
 l= /2 l= l= 3 /2

N A N N A A N N A A A N
Stationary transverse wave in a string

l= /4 l
=3 / 4 l= 5 /4

N
N A N A A N A A A
N N
Stationary longitudinal waves in a closed pipe

l= /2 l= l= 3 /2

A A A A A A A A A
N N N N N N
Stationary longitudinal waves in an open pipe

FIGURES OF STATIONARY WAVES

67
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
When two waves travel in a medium, their combined effect at any point
can be found by superposition principle. This is observed where they
cross such that the resultant displacement of the wave is the sum of the
displacements which each would have caused at that point, i.e. the
pulses or wave superpose. After crossing, each pulse travels along with
it original shape if nothing happens to it.
The principle states that the resultant displacement at any point is the
sum of the separate displacements due to the two waves. OR
When waves pass through each other unaffected and where they cross
the total displacement is the vector sum of the individual displacements
due to each pulse at that point is called superposition.

For two wave motions propagating in opposite directions, by

superposition principle, the resultant displacement is :

68
 a

2a

FIGURE SHOWING FOR SUPERPOSITION

In general, consider a physical property described by a certain field (E).

This field may be an electromagnetic field, deformation in a string, the

pressure in a gas, the strain in a solid, the transverse displacement of a

69
string and perhaps even the gravitational fields which are time

dependent at a place. The disturbance or agitation of the physical state at

other places results in the propagation of this disturbance through space

that affects the static conditions at other places. Therefore, we speak of a

wave associated with sound waves, and water waves.

This is the classification of waves according to their broad physical

properties.

Mathematically

for wave moving to the right

for wave moving to the left

V is the phase velocity

70
 Diffraction: Diffraction means the bending of waves around corners. It
could also be the spreading of waves when they pass through an opening
or around an obstacle into a region where we would not expect them is
called diffraction.

Diffracted wave fronts

Incident wave fronts

Generally, diffraction depends on the aperture and the wavelength of the

wave. The smaller the width of the aperture in relation to the wavelength
of the wave, the more pronounced the diffraction. If the width of the
aperture is large (not comparable) compared to the wavelength,
diffraction will not occur. Because it is practically difficult to have an
aperture of width 6 x 10-7m or less (wavelength of light), we maintain
that light travels in a straight line; hence we cannot see around corner.
Diffraction of light can be seen by looking at a street light through a
cloth umbrella.

71
Sound waves are diffracted by doorways, hence we hear around the
corner.

Interference: When two waves from a coherent source overlap,

interference occurs. This is true for all waves.it is also a region where
wave trains from coherent sources crosses, superposition occurs giving
reinforcement of the waves at some points and cancellation at other
points resulting to an effect called interference pattern or a system of
fringes .

𝐒𝟏
𝑺
𝐒𝟐

The experiment was set up by young as shown in the diagram. He allow

sunlight to pass through a pinhole and then at an appreciable distance
away, through two pinholes . The two spherical waves

72
emerging from the two holes interfered with each other in such a way as
to form a symmetrical pattern of varying intensity on the screen

c c
- Lines S1c and S2c are lines of
Coherent source D constructive interference
S1 c
(A)
D - Lines S1b and S2D are lines of
c constructive interference
c
S2 D
c

At constructive interference, the two trains of waves are in phase (i.e.

crest on crest and trough on trough) resulting to a reinforcement due to
superposition principle leading to the reinforcement of the amplitudes
(double amplitude).

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
73
At destructive interference, the two waves are out of phase (crest on
trough). By the superposition principle, there will be cancellation of the
amplitudes.

DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

For sound waves, constructive interference stands for loud sound while
destructive interference stands for soft sound. For light, we have bright
and dark fringes.

74
POLARIZATION OF WAVES
Polarization is the confinement of the vibrations of the particles of a
wave to certain planes with the aid of a polarizer. The polarizer has
certain characteristic i.e. polarizering direction which transmits on those
wave-train components whose vibration are in agreement with its
direction(cause the wave train to vibrate within a particular direction)
and absorb those not in agreement with the direction. The resulting wave
is said to be polarized.
Polarization is possible in transverse waves but not possible with
longitudinal waves since the direction of the vibrating particles are the
same with the direction of the wave travel. Polarization is a proof that
light is a transverse wave.

ave Plane polarized

d w
wave
rize
p ola P
Un Q R S

Rope

Slit

From the diagram above if the rope PQRS is fixed at end S and passes through two

vertical slits at Q and R. If the end P is moved to and fro in all directions vibrations
75
of the rope occur in every plane and transverse wave travel towards Q. at Q only

waves due to vibration in vertical plane can emerge from the slit and the wave

between Q and R is said to be plane polarized (in the vertical plane containing the

slit at Q) in contrast to that between P and Q which is un-polarized. If the slit at R

is vertical as shown the wave travels on, but if it is horizontal the wave is stopped

and the slits are crossed

VELOCITY OF WAVES IN MEDIA

A mechanical wave is transmitted by the vibration of the particles of the
propagating medium. A system can vibrate if it has mass and elasticity.
Wave can therefore only be transmitted by a medium if it has mass and
elasticity and it is these two factors which determine the speed of the
wave.
Expressions for wave velocity in a medium
1. Transverse wave on a taut string or sping
√
Where and

76
2. Longitudinal wave along masses linked by springs
√
Where spacing between mass centres is, is the spring constant
and represents one mass.
3. Short wavelength ripples on deep water is given as

Where is the surface tension, is the wavelength and is the

density
4. Speed of sound wave in solid is written as
√
Where is the Young’s modulus and is the density of the solid.
For example given that and
, find the velocity of the sound wave.
5. Speed of sound in gases is given as

Where is the ratio of principal heat capacities i.e. and the

density of the gas.

For example if the , and
, calculate the sound velocity of the gas.

77
 From the above expressions above note that in each case the
numerators contains an “elasticity” term and the denominator a
“mass” term.

Sound
Sound exhibits all properties of wave except polarization from previous
lectures. This suggest that sound is a longitudinal wave motion which
requires a material medium which is a mechanical type.
A sound is produced by a vibrating object which superimposes, on any
movement of the particles transmitting medium have, an oscillatory to-
and fro motion along the direction of travel of the wave.
There are three types of sound characterized by the range of frequencies
namely;
1. Infrasound
This type of sound has a frequency range of (below 20Hz) which are
usually generated by large sources like earthquake are called infrasound.

2. Audible range
This is roughly within the frequency range of (20Hz-20,000Hz) which
can stimulate the human ear and brain to the sensation of hearing is
called sound. Audible sound range originates in vibrating strings
(violin), vibrating air columns (organ, clarinet), vibrating plates and
membranes (xylophone, loudspeaker, and drum) etc.
78
 3. Ultrasound
This kind of sound has frequency greater than 20,000Hz (i.e. above
20,000Hz) are called ultrasonic sound waves. Ultrasound is produced by
elastic vibrations of a quartz crystal induced by resonance with an
applied alternating electric field (piezoelectric effect). Bird and dogs
hear this sound. It is also used by fishers to detect fish shoal and by bats
as a kind of navigational radar for night flying.
Ultrasounds are produced by elastic vibrations of a quartz crystal
induced by resonance with an applied alternating electric field
(piezoelectric effect). Bird and dogs hear this sound. It is also used by
fishers to detect fish shoal.
Industrially, ultrasound is used for non-destructive testing of materials
for type and size of flaws, holes and cracks. It is also used in the
degassing of melts (molten iron). Medically, it is used in locating
abnormal growth in the brain and cancerous tissues in the body.
Ultrasound is used in the treatment of boils, lumbergo (waste pain) and
bursitis (breast disease).
Ultrasounds are used by Agriculturists to drive birds away from their
farms.
Ultrasounds are also applied in:
i. Burglar Alarms
ii. Submarine signaling

79
 iii. Obstacles and energy ship
Generally sound travel fastest in metals, following by water and least in
air.

BEATS
When two notes of slightly of different frequencies but similar
amplitudes are sounded together , the loudness increases and decreases
periodically heard are called beats OR If two notes of nearly equal
frequencies are sounded together, a periodic rise and fall in intensity can
be heard. This is known as the phenomenon of beats.

The production of beats is a wave effect explained by the principle of

superposition. When two wave trains from two sources of nearly equal
frequency are observed by an observer at an instant the wave from the
sources arrive in phase and reinforce to produce a loud sound. The phase
difference then increases until a compression (rarefaction) from one
source arrives at the same time as rarefaction (compression). At point A
loud note is heard because the waves are in phase, while at point B little
or no note is heard by the observer due to variation in amplitude.
Beats are thus due to interference since the sources are not coherent(
different frequencies) there is sometimes reinforcement at a given point
and cancellation at the other.

80
Beat frequency equals the difference of the two almost equal
frequencies
Suppose the beat period (i.e. the time between two successive maxima)
is and that one wave train of frequency makes one cycle more than
the other frequency then
Number of cycles of frequency in time
Number of cycles of frequency in time
Therefore

Since one beat has occurred in time and so is the beat frequency,

hence

81
y1

t
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

1/16sec

y2

t
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

1/8sec 𝑳𝒐𝒖𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

A
Y3
𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒏𝒐 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝑩

Given that the frequencies of the notes are 48Hz and 56Hz respectively,
then the beat frequency will be (56 – 48) Hz = 8 Hz. This means that for
every 1/8 seconds, peak intensity is heard (i.e. increased amplitude due
82
to reinforcement by super-position principle and they are in phase; T1,
T3 and T5).

In the first 1/16 sec, the two waves are 180 o out of phase and by
superposition principle, there is cancellation of amplitudes at T2, hence
lowest intensity is obtained. The same thing happened at T4. This rise
and fall of intensity as a result of two notes of nearly equal frequencies
being sounded at the same time is called beats.
Uses of beats
1. The phenomenon of beats can be used to measure an unknown
frequency of a note provided that the frequency of a note is known.
i.e. Beats frequency = f1 – f2
f1 = f2 ± beat frequency
2. Beats are also used to tune an instrument to a given note.

NOTE (MUSICAL NOTE)

A musical note is produced by the vibrations that are regular and
repeating, i.e. by periodic motion. Non-periodic motion creates noise
which is not pleasant to the ear.

83
Three characteristics of notes are pitch, loudness
and quality.
I. Pitch
A sensation experienced by a listener. The pitch of a note depends only
on the frequency of the sound vibrations from the source. The higher the
frequency, the higher the pitch of the note and a lower frequency gives a
low pitched note.

II. Loudness
A subjective sensation by a listener, which is determined by the intensity
of the sound and by the sensitivity of the listeners’ ear
The intensity of a sound is defined as the rate of flow of energy per unit
area perpendicular to the direction of travel of the sound at the place in
question OR the energy per second flowing through one square meter
held normally at that place to the direction along which the sound
travels.
At a distance from a small source of sound, if the total energy
emitted per second equally in all directions by a point source passes
through the surface area of a surrounding sphere neglecting
absorption in the surrounding medium is given by

84
This is an inverse square relationship and it holds for intensity and the
unit of intensity is .
Intensity of a sound due to a wave of given frequency is directly
proportional to the square of its amplitude of vibration.

Therefore the greater the mass of air in vibration, the greater is the
intensity of sound obtained. Loudness varies with frequency and
intensity, therefore a measure of intensity is a measure of the loudness.

III. Timbre/Quality
Quality or timbre distinguishes same note (i.e. same frequency and
amplitude) sounded on two different instruments. This is because they
consist of fundamental note which are predominant than the others
usually with smaller intensities called overtones.
Fundamental note is a component of lowest frequency and the
overtones are the multiples of the fundamental frequency.
The number and intensities of the overtones present in a note determine
its quality or timbre. If is the fundamental frequency, then the
harmonics (notes of simple multiples of ) are , etc.
85
 WAVES IN PIPES
CLOSE PIPE: In the simplest stationary wave vibration possible, there
will be a displacement node at the closed end of the pipe, since the air
there must be at rest, and a displacement antinode at an open end
where the air can freely vibrates. Waves travels up to the closed end,
gets reflected so that a stationary wave is obtained inside the pipe.

λ
𝑠𝑡
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐

The diagram above shows that the length of the pipe equals the

distance between a node and the next antinode. That is

where wavelength of the wave.

The frequency of the note is given by where is the speed of
sound in air.
Therefore

86
This is the lowest frequency produced by the pipe, i.e. the fundamental
frequency of the pipe or first harmonic.

If a stronger blast of air is blown into this pipe, notes of higher

frequencies can be obtained which are simple multiples of the
fundamental frequency

1 ,f 1
𝟑𝝀𝟏
𝟒
= 𝜄 𝜆 =
𝜄

𝒗 𝟑𝒗 𝒗

l=
𝒇𝟏 𝟑( ) 𝟑𝒇𝟎
3 /4 𝝀𝟏 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍
.

2 2 ,f
𝟓𝝀𝟐
𝟒
= 𝜄 𝜆 =
𝜄

𝒗 𝟓𝒗 𝒗
𝒇𝟐 𝟓( ) 𝟓𝒇𝟎
l= 5 /4
.
𝝀𝟐 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍

Figures for Harmonics

87
Therefore for a closed pipe, is the first overtone of the third
harmonic and is the second overtone of the fifth harmonic
respectively. In general a closed pipe gives only odd numbered
harmonics whose obtained frequencies are .

OPEN PIPE
In open pipe both ends of the pipe are open and are displacement
antinodes. The simplest stationary wave for open pipe there is a
displacement node midway between the two antinodes, hence in the
diagram below

Here we have the length between two antinodes to be

Therefore the fundamental frequency is given by

The next simplest mode of vibration gives the first overtone from the
diagram below

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 But
Therefore

This is the second harmonic since, .

The second overtone is obtained from the third harmonic as shown

below

Here we have

But
Therefore

Hence in an open pipe all harmonics are possible as overtones

89
 WAVES IN STRINGS
The string is a tightly stretched wire or length of a gut. When it is struck,
bowed or plucked, a progressive transverse wave travel to both ends,
which are fixed, where they are reflected to meet the incidence wave as
shown in the diagram below.
MODE OF VIBARTION OF WAVE IN A STRING

(a) (b) (c)

From the above diagram the fixed ends must be the displacement
nodes . If the string is plucked in the middle the simplest mode of
vibration is figure (a) with being a displacement antinode. This
vibration creates the fundamental note of the frequency , and

where is the length of the string. The frequency is therefore

where is the speed of the transverse wave along the string.

By plucking the string at a point a quarter of its length from one end, it
can vibrate in two segments as shown in figure (b) , then if is the
wavelength of the resulting stationary wave , hence

90
This is the first overtone or second harmonic.
ASS: Now show that if the string vibrates in three segments as shown in
figure (c), obtain the second overtone or the third harmonic

Note from the analysis above a string can vibrate in several modes
simultaneously, depending on where it is plucked , and the frequencies
and relative intensities of the overtone produced determines the quality
of the note emitted.

LAWS OF VIBRATION OF STRECTHED STRING

Recall in our previous lecture that the speed of a transverse wave
travelling along a stretched string is given by

where is the tension in the string and is its mass per unit length. If
the string has length , the frequency of the fundamental note emitted
by it has just been shown to be

Hence from the two equations above,

91
 √

From it follows that

√
These three statements are known as the laws of vibration of stretched
strings

Example: A sonometer wire of length and mass per unit length

is stretched by a load of . If it is plucked at
its mid-point, what will be (a) the wavelength and (b) the frequency of
the note emitted? Take .

Solution
(a)Let the length of the wire be

(b) The fundamental frequency emitted by a wire of length

mass per unit length and under tension is given by

92
 √

But

DOPPLER EFFECT
The pitch of the note from the siren of a fast –travelling ambulance or a
police car appears to increase as it approaches a stationary observer and
drops suddenly as it passes.
Also if the siren of a fast –travelling ambulance or a police car is
stationary i.e. source, an observer moving towards the source will
observe increase in pitch while a lower pitch sound is observe when
leaving the source. This apparent change in frequency of the wave
motion when there is relative motion between the source and the
observer is called Doppler Effect

93
In the figure is the source of waves of frequency and velocity and
is the stationary observer. If were at rest, the waves emitted per
second would occupy a distance and the wavelength would be .

Source moving
I. When is moving towards with velocity , waves are
now compressed into smaller distance since moves a
distance towards per second.

94
To the effect thus appears to be a decrease of wavelength to a
value given by

Hence if is the apparent frequency we have

Hence the apparent frequency of the source moving towards stationary

observer will be written as

( )

The apparent frequency is therefore greater than the true frequency since

II. Source moving away from stationary observer is shown

below

95
Hence the apparent wavelength for source moving away from the

stationary observer is

Therefore apparent frequency

( )

In this case since

Question
A train whistle emits sound at a frequency of .(a) what is the
pitch of the sound heard when the train is moving towards a stationary
observer at a speed of (b) What is the pitch heard when the train
is moving away from the observer at this speed? Assume the speed of
sound to be

Solution
(a) Since the source is moving towards the observer is positive
Where

( )

96
 ( )

(b) Since the source is moving away from the observer is

negative

( )

( )

Example
Calculate the frequency of the beats heard by a stationary observer when
a source of frequency moves directly away from him with a
speed of towards a vertical wall. (speed of sound in air is
).
Solution
(a)source moving away from the observer is negative

( )

97
 ( )

(b) source is moving towards the observer after reflection from

wall is positive

( )

( )

Observer moving: In this case the wavelength is unchanged and is

given by , since the waves sent out per second by the
stationary source occupy a distance .

98
 I. If the observer has velocity towards , the velocity of the
wave relative to is .
Therefore the apparent frequency is given by

( )

Thus since, .

II. If is moving away from the stationary source , the velocity

of the waves relative to is .

99
The apparent frequency is

( )

Thus .

Example
A stationary source of sound has a frequency of on a day when
the speed of sound is (a) What pitch is heard by an observer
who is moving away from the source at a speed of (b) the pitch
when an observer is moving towards the source.
Solution
(a)Since the observer is moving away is negative

( )

( )

(b) Since the observer is moving towards is positive

( )

100
 ( )

Source and Observer moving: Motion of the source affects the

apparent wavelength and motion of the observer affects the velocity of
the waves he receives
I. If the source and the observer are approaching each other with
velocities.

Thus respectively then, as before, we can say

Apparent wavelength of
Velocity of waves relative to

Therefore for the apparent frequency, thus

101
 ( )

II. When source and observer are moving away from one another is
shown below

Here the apparent wavelength and velocity respectively are

Hence, the apparent frequency will be

102
 ( )

In general

( )

Where the upper signs apply to approach and the lower signs to
separation

Example
A siren with frequency is moving away from an observer with a
speed relative to the air and the observer is moving towards the
siren with a speed of relative to the air. What frequency of the
siren does the observer hear? (Speed of sound in air is )
Solution
Since the source is moving away from observer is negative
Also the observer moving towards the source is positive

( )

( )

103
DAMPING
Damping is the progressive diminution of the
amplitude of an oscillation with time as a result of
loss of energy due to friction. The general equation of
a damped harmonic oscillator is
2
Md y
2
b
dy
 ky  0 … … (5)
dt dt

The displacement y = ae-bt/2m coswt … (6)

The angular frequency w = √ ( ) …

(7)
b is called the damping factor which depends on
friction. If b is zero, (5) becomes (1), a free oscillation
equation.

y
ae-bt/2m
+ay Ae-bt/2m coswt

-a Ae-bt/2m

104
There are three types of damping, critical damping,
under-damping and over-damping or heavy
damping.

Critical damping Heavy damping

+a

-a
under damping

i. Critical damping reduces the motion to rest in

the shortest possible time.
ii. The under damping takes a very long time to
bring the motion to rest. (i.e. b is small). An
example is the oscillation of the bob of simple
pendulum due to air resistance.
iii. Over damping never allows the oscillation to
reach the equilibrium position (i.e. b is large).

105
Forced oscillation and resonance
All vibrating or oscillating systems have some degree
of damping (natural or artificial). In order to keep
this system in continuous oscillatory motion, some
external periodic force must be used. The frequency
of this force is called the forcing frequency. At a
certain frequency fo, the forcing frequency equals the
natural frequency of the system when the amplitude
is maximum. This corresponds to the frequency of
the free oscillation of the system when it is allowed
to oscillate on its own. Resonance is therefore said to
occur.
Resonance is therefore said to occur whenever
the external (forcing) frequency equals the
natural frequency of the system.

Amplitude current
intensity

Forcing frequency
106
There are resonances in mechanical, electrical,
optical/acoustic systems, etc.

107