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Urbanization and Its Impact on Rural Livelihoods: A Study of Xichang City

Administration, Sichuan Province, China

Article  in  Chinese Journal of Urban and Environmental Studies · June 2018

DOI: 10.1142/S2345748117500282

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Chinese Journal of Urban and Environmental Studies
Vol. 5, No. 4 (2017) 1750028 (17 pages)
© World Scientific Publishing Company and
Social Sciences Academic Press (China)
DOI: 10.1142/S2345748117500282

Urbanization and Its Impact on Rural Livelihoods: A Study of Xichang

City Administration, Sichuan Province, China

Vishwambhar Prasad SATI*

Department of Geography and Resource Management
Mizoram University (Central), Gram MZU
Tanhril, Aizawl 796004, Mizoram, India
sati.vp@gmail.com

DENG Wei, LU Yafeng, ZHANG Shaoyao and WAN Jiangjun

Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment
Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9, Block 4
Renminnanlu, Chengdu, Sichuang 610041, P. R. China

SONG Xueqian
Chengdu University of Information Technology
No. 24, Block 1, Xuefu Road, Chengdu
Sichuan 610225, P. R. China

This study examines urbanization in Xichang city administration (XCA) and its implications
on rural livelihoods. Time series data on population size and land use (1990–2010) of Xichang
city administration were gathered from population censuses and revenue records. The data
were analyzed to observe changes in population size and land use/cover during the recorded
period. Along with this, a case study of seven villages that are highly influenced by urban
expansion in close proximity to Xichang city was carried out. We surveyed 110 households of
selected villages using purposive-random sampling method and framed a structured ques-
tionnaire on urbanization implications for them. Descriptive statistics, correlation and
regression model was employed to analyze the data. From 1990 to 2010, the authors observed
an enormous transformation in urban landscapes as the urban area has increased by 14.02 km2
(111%) and about 20.65 km2 (16 times) increase in public transit construction land. On the
other hand, paddy fields and grasslands of the selected villages have decreased by 16.6 km2
(4.9%) and 35.43 km2 (8.4%), respectively. Along with urbanization, out-migration as well as
medical and educational facilities has increased while agriculture and livestock activities have
decreased. The study suggested that to lessen the impact of urbanization in rural areas,
agricultural and its allied practices should be intensified so as to augment employment and
reduce out-migration from the rural areas.

Keywords: Urban expansion; rural livelihood; peripheral rural area; urban–rural landscape;
Xichang city.

* Corresponding author.

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Vishwambhar Prasad SATI et al.

1. Introduction
Urbanization is a process of urban growth by natural increase in population or migration
from rural to urban areas. It refers to a growth in the proportion of a population living in
urban areas and the further physical expansion of already existing urban centers
(Samson, 2009; Alaci, 2010). The increasing share of country’s population living in urban
areas mostly because of rural to urban migration denotes urbanization (Satterthwaite
et al., 2010). It also denotes expansion of urban land uses and spatial concentration of
people working in non-agricultural activities. Urbanization is the outcome of the social,
economic and political developments that have led to urban concentration and growth of
large cities and changed land use. Urbanization rate and its impact on rural livelihoods vary
in different countries due to discrepancies of socio-economic conditions and status of
development.
World’s urban population stands above 54% (2014), up from 30% in 1950. It is pro-
jected to reach 66% in 2050 (UN, 2014). Urban population will grow by more than a
billion between 2007 and 2025 whereas rural population will hardly grow at all
(UN, 2008). A large change in rural dwellers was noticed worldwide during the past
several decades due to urbanization. In 1900, there were 6 to 7 rural dwellers for each
urban dweller, which has reduced to less than 1. It will be close to 3 urban dwellers for
2 rural dwellers by 2050 (UN, 2008). Because of an increasing urban growth in Africa and
Asia, world’s urban population is expected to be doubled between 2000 and 2030
(UNFPA, 2007). Populations of many cities in Asia and Latin America are growing at the
rate of about 5% per annum (Butler and Crooke, 1973). China’s urban population was 26%
of the national total in 1990 and it increased to 51.3% (690.79 million) in 2011
(NBS, 2011), more than double the total population of USA. Further, its urban population
is projected to be 70% of the national total by 2050 (Chen and Li, 2010). In China,
cultivated lands had decreased by 5 million ha between 1996 and 2002 due to urban
expansion (Lu et al., 2005). In India, urban population stands 30%, which is continuously
growing (ORGCCI, 2011). This study shows that in Xichang city administration (XCA),
urban population is 55.4% of the total. Hall and Pfeiffer (2000) expected that by 2020, the
number of world megacities would be 27 and over half of this growth will be in Asia.
Urbanization in the developing world is progressing much faster (about 4% a year) than in
developed countries (Soubbotina, 2004; Marshall et al., 2009).
Livelihood is the most comprehensive issue in the rural areas in both the developing and
underdeveloped worlds, where livelihood options are considerably limited and people are
suffering from food scarcity and malnutrition. A sustainable livelihood could address
development, sustainable resource management and poverty eradication simultaneously
(Krantz, 2001). A number of scholars define rural livelihood in a comprehensive manner.
According to Chambers and Conway (1992), “Rural livelihood comprises capabilities,
assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and activities required for a means of living.”
They further state: “A livelihood is sustainable which can cope with and recover from stress
and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable live-
lihood opportunities for the next generation; and which contributes net benefits to other

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 Urbanization and Its Impact on Rural Livelihoods

livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the short and long term.” Sati et al. (2014)
define livelihood as increased well-being, reduced vulnerability, improved food security
and more sustainable use of natural resources base. Further, a sustainable development
depends largely on the availability of livelihood assets/capitals — natural capital, human
capital, financial capital, physical capital and social capital. Most of the rural areas of
underdeveloped world are devoid of most of these livelihood assets/capitals.
Urbanization has both positive and negative impacts on rural livelihoods. On the one
hand, well-planned and managed urban growth and development can serve as a positive
factor for rural livelihoods (Alaci, 2010) such as a high demand on agricultural products,
access to developed extension services, educational and medicinal facilities and opportu-
nities for non-farm employment (Tacoli and Satterthwaite, 2003). On the other, unplanned
urbanization negatively affects rural livelihoods (UN-HABITAT, 2010; Mandere et al.,
2010; Gossop, 2011) as a result of changing land use and cropping patterns, decreasing
arable land, increasing unemployment in farming sector, causing high price of food
commodities, poor quality and scarcity of water, rural–urban migration and increasing
competition between agricultural and residential uses of natural resources (Bah et al.,
2003). Urbanization causes the spread of built-up areas (McGee, 2011; Simon et al.,
2004), and it results in increasing poverty and environmental degradation in rural areas
(Marshall et al., 2009). A study reports that about 34 km2 (17.8%) forest lands of Mumbai
metropolitan rural areas have been converted into built-up lands (Kumar et al., 2012).
Restructuring of industries and zoning of land use have promoted the economic growth in
Asian megacities on one hand and have brought severe ecological, economic and social
inequalities between regions and classes on the other (Fujii, 2004).
Peripheral rural areas comprise both urban and rural features and undergo several
changes (Aberra and King, 2005). Further, it stands for the process where rural areas
transform into urban system physically and functionally (Webster and Muller, 2002;
Heikkila, 2003). The major drivers of changes in rural livelihoods are rapid population,
increase in urban centers and changing socio-economic pattern (Jongkroy, 2009). Urban-
ization in East Asian countries is due to foreign direct investment, easy availability of
cheap labor force and development of residential houses with cheap land prices (Yuan et
al., 2008). As cities are growing rapidly towards peripheral rural areas, farmlands are
transforming into concrete structure and thus rural villages are reclassified as urban set-
tlements (Cohen, 2006). Urban pull is a major cause of human migration from rural areas
and this leads to population growth in cities (Gugler, 1996). Urban expansion supports the
spread of urban land into the rural–urban fringe and thus leads to rural–urban interaction.
Urbanization has spatial and functional characteristics and it has intensive and reciprocal
interaction with nearby rural areas in terms of service and commodity flow (Fig. 1).
The existing rural settlements of XCA are transforming abundantly. Changes in land use
and cropping pattern, livelihood activities, land management and settlement types are
common. With a vast arable land areas transformed into built-up areas, land demand is high
and thus it has enormous implications for rural livelihoods. No systematic study on ur-
banization and its impact on rural livelihoods in XCA has been conducted so far. This
study is an attempt to present a comprehensive analysis of all the aspects of urbanization

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Vishwambhar Prasad SATI et al.

D
E
C
R
E
A
S
I
N
G

Fig. 1. Spatial and functional characteristics of urban expansion.

and its implications for rural livelihoods. It analyzes urbanization’s impact on land use
pattern, cropping pattern, livestock and market, livelihood options, occupation and income
and rural–urban migration. It also analyzes the various factors influencing population
growth, spatial pattern of urban expansion, development of infrastructural facilities, land
use/cover change and a detailed case study on rural livelihood transformation.

2. Methodology
2.1. Description of the study area
XCA is located in the southwest of Sichuan Province and central section of the Anning
River Valley, China, stretching between 27
32 0 –28
10 0 N and 101
46 0 –102
25 0 E with a
total area of 2,655 km2 (Figs. 2 and 3). Being a mountainous region, it includes six urban
communities, 27 towns, 227 villages and its total population is 642,900 (NBS, 2011). The
XCA has about 24,900 ha cultivated lands and 1.42 billion m3 average water resource,
of which 1.32 billion m3 is of surface runoff and the rest is from groundwater
(WICEE, 2008). Lying at 400 km southwest of Chengdu, it has subtropical and half-arid
monsoon climate, cool in summer and warm in winter. Average rainfall is 1,044.6 mm
(Liangshan Prefecture Meteorological Bureau, 2016). Its diversity is rich, which includes
seasonal subtropical mountain evergreen and temperate forests (above 1,800 m) with a
number of faunal species (WICEE, 2008). Pine forest can be seen in patches along
the road.
Xichang is the capital city of XCA with a population of 356,300 (NBS, 2011). Its area
is 802.9 km2, which includes 28.82 km2 of Qionghai freshwater lake, a major source of
water to Xichang city. It is a multi-ethnic city composed of people from 28 ethnic groups,

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 Urbanization and Its Impact on Rural Livelihoods

Source: Made by the authors.

Fig. 2. Location map of XCA, Xichang city and villages of the case study.

Source: Taken by the authors.

Fig. 3. Xichang cityscape and peripheral rural areas.

mainly Han, Yi and Tibetan. The Yi ethnic group dominates in population (Han et al.,
2009). Total built-up area of the city is 35.51 km2 and city roads length is 108 km.a
The rural settlements are scattered, located on the gentle slope along the Anning
River Valley between altitudes of 1,000 m and 2,000 m and within a distance of 40 km.

a Land and Resources Department of Xichang, Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture. Available at the official
website: http://gtj.lsz.gov.cn/lsgt/xcsgtzyj70/index.shtml (accessed October 10, 2016).

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Vishwambhar Prasad SATI et al.

Farming is the main occupation (40.2%). Onion, garlic and paddy are grown in the valleys
and tobacco, maize and walnut are grown in the mid-altitudes. About 60,000 ha land has
been devoted to walnut crop whereas about 280,000 ha land has been projected for its
cultivation. Food, fruit and vegetable processing centers have been set up in the valley
regions and a large agricultural land has been given for lease to companies. The govern-
ment imparts training to the farmers for ways of improving agriculture and raising livestock
sustainably. Although yield of crops has increased, agricultural land has decreased due to
urban expansion and development of infrastructural facilities.
In spite of potentiality in farming sector and a substantial scope of employment, about
20% households live below poverty line, which is the highest in China. Medical facilities
are quite expensive, educational institutions mainly lie in the city, rendering children from
the remote villages no access to them. Rural livelihood options are mainly based on
agricultural and livestock farming which have decreased due to urban encroachment.
Commodity price has hiked and, as a result, the farming communities are unable to live a
better life and they suffer from poverty.

2.2. Data collection and survey methods

A set of qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to conduct this study. Data
were gathered mainly from primary and secondary sources. Time series data on population
were gathered from the censuses of China — from 1990 to 2010. Similarly, land use data
(1990–2010) were gathered from the Land and Resources Department of Xichang,
Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture.b The authors conducted an empirical study (case
study) of seven villages/towns — Daxing, Youjun, Lizhou, Mopan, Langhuan, Ma’an and
Minsheng of XCA in October 2016. Selection of villages/towns was based on the distance
from Xichang city and the altitude. A household-level survey was conducted, for which
purposive-random sampling method was employed to select households. The survey
includes in total 110 households. Of those surveyed households, sex ratio was 42:58. Three
ethnic community groups Yi (30%), Han (69.5%) and Tibetan (1%) comprise these
households. Location of villages ranges between the altitudes of 1,500% m and 2,050% m
whereas their distance from the Xichang city varies from 11.8 km to 38 km. The authors
designed a questionnaire with questions on socio-economic indicators — population, ed-
ucation, occupation and agriculture — and impacts of urbanization on income of house-
holds, out-migration, livelihood options, agricultural activities and development of
infrastructural facilities in rural areas.

2.3. Data analysis

The authors analyzed time series population and land use data of the last 20 years, showed
them through graphic representation and observed a drastic increase in population and
change in land use/cover. Further, the authors analyzed the data collected through

b The official website is http://gtj.lsz.gov.cn/lsgt/xcsgtzyj70/index.shtml.

1750028-6
 Urbanization and Its Impact on Rural Livelihoods

household survey and interview of the heads of households. Descriptive statistics such as
mean value, standard deviation and frequency of variables were used to analyze data. The
authors analyzed socio-economic status — mean value of ages of heads of households,
land obtained by households, education, yield of major crops and income earned from each
crop, per capita annual income and occupational structure. People’s perception of urban-
ization and its impact on rural livelihoods were analyzed. A correlation and regression
model was developed to correlate the impact of urbanization on rural livelihoods. Distance
of villages from the urban center is the main indicator causing positive and negative
implications of urbanization. The authors hypothesized that the larger the distance of
villages from the urban center, the less the impact of urbanization on rural livelihoods.

3. Results
3.1. Population growth in XCA (1990–2010)
The authors gathered data from China National Population Survey on population data of
XCA from 1990 to 2010 and observed that population has increased from 476,821 in 1990
to 618,500 in 2010, a growth of 29.7% (Fig. 4). The growth rate of male population is
34.7% whereas the female population growth rate is 35%. In terms of sex ratio, it is 942
females per 1,000 males. Annual growth of population is the highest in 1991–1992 (2.2%),
followed by that in 2005–2006 (2.1%). Meanwhile, average annual growth rate of popu-
lation during 1990–2010 is 1.4%.
Out of the total population of 642,000 of XCA, Xichang city accounts for 356,300,
which is 55.5% of the total (NBS, 2011). Further, yearly population growth rate of the city
is above 3%.

3.2. Land use/cover change in XCA (1990–2010)

Land use/cover change data of XCA were analyzed. The authors noted a large change in
land use from 1990 to 2010. XCA comprises 23.1% forestland, 17.4% dry land, 15.4%

Source: NBS (2011).

Fig. 4. Population growth in XCA (1990–2010).

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Vishwambhar Prasad SATI et al.

open forest, 14.4% high-coverage grassland, 12% paddy fields, 1% lake area, 0.8% public
transit construction land, 0.9% rural residential area and 1% urban land (2010). In terms of
land cover change, 8.1% increase in forestland was noticed (1990–2010). Further, public
transit construction land has increased by 16 times, and urban residential area and urban
land have increased by 16.6% and 111.5% respectively. On the other hand, a decrease in
high-coverage grassland (8.4%), open forestland (7.2%), paddy fields (4.9%) and lake area
(0.6%) was observed (Fig. 5). Data show that urban area has increased and spread towards
rural areas, causing agricultural land and grassland to shrink.
Data from the studied villages show the same pattern. Agricultural land has decreased
by 40%, mainly the villages lying in close proximity to the city. This situation prevails with
livestock population as the grassland has decreased. Rearing livestock has become a
problem.

3.3. Socio-economic analysis of the studied villages

The authors analyzed the mean values and standard deviations of socio-economic statuses
(Table 1) of studied villages (eight variables). The mean age of survey heads of households
is 43.6 years, household arable land is 0.3 ha land under agro-forestry is 0.2 ha and the part
of land transformed from growing agricultural crops to agro-forestry is 0.1 ha. The people
surveyed mainly engage in piggery and poultry. Averagely, each household has two pigs,
two ducks, one sheep and a head of cattle. Literacy rate among the heads of households is
100%, of which 58.4% are of primary school level, 28% middle school level, 10% high
school level and 3.6% college level. The survey shows that the major sources of energy for

Source: Land and Resources Department of Xichang, Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, http://gtj.lsz.gov.cn/
lsgt/xcsgtzyj70/index.shtml.
Fig. 5. Land use/cover change of XCA (1990–2010).

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 Urbanization and Its Impact on Rural Livelihoods

Table 1. Socio-economic analysis of the households (n ¼ 110).

Socio-economic indicators Mean value Std. deviation

Age of the head of household (years) 43.6 16.4

Arable land (ha)/household 0.3 0.9
Land transfer from agriculture to agro-forestry/household 0.1 0.4
Land under agro-forestry/household 0.2 0.6
Pig/household 2 3.1
Duck/household 2 0.3
Sheep/household 1 4.2
Cattle/household 1 5.1

Source: Field survey, 2016.

household are firewood (51.3%), coal (0.9%), gas (5.4%) and electricity (82.2%). The
building materials of houses vary from concrete (33.6%), brick (36.4%), brick and wood
(6.4%) to wood with soil (20.9%). Similarly, the house size varies from four rooms to more
than 10 rooms.
The authors analyzed the seven villages’ distances to Xichang city center, altitudes, per
capita incomes and out-migration rates (see Table 2). Distance is the main factor deter-
mining per capita income and out-migration. The seven villages are located between 11 km
and 38 km from the city center whereas their altitudes vary from 1,500 m to 2,050 m. The
largest out-migration (38%) occurred in the village Daxing, which lies 11.8 km (20-min
distance) from the city center while the smallest out-migration (10%) occurred in the
village Minsheng, 38 km (1-h distance) away from the city center. It can be inferred that
out-migration increases as the distance to the city center decreases. However, per capita
income is heterogeneous. Regarding villages located in close proximity to the city, per
capita income is comparatively high. Minsheng and Langhuan are exceptions. They lie
comparatively far from the city, yet their per capita incomes are high.

Table 2. Geographical and socio-economic characteristics of case study villages (110 surveyed households).

Distance
Out-migration
Village km h/min Altitude (m) Per capita income (yuan) (% of total population)

Minsheng 38 1h 1,800–1,960 7,775 10

Ma’an 28.5 1h 1,800–2,050 3,714 14
Langhuan 24.6 45 min 1,600–1,720 9750 16
Mopan 24 45 min 1,700–1,860 4,251 15
Lizhou 19.7 30 min 1,500–1,560 1,136 21
Youjun 18 30 min 1,500–1,600 8,680 26
Daxing 11.8 20 min 1,600–1,650 9,502 38

Source: Field survey, 2016.

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Vishwambhar Prasad SATI et al.

Fig. 6. Occupational structure.

Occupational structure varies largely (Fig. 6). Most of the population is engaged in
farming sector (40.2%), followed by service sector (21.7%) and self-employed (2.4%).
About 8.1% are unemployed and 3.5% are others running small businesses.
Data on area, production, yield and income from fruits, vegetables, paddy, tobacco and
corn of 110 households of the seven villages are analyzed (Table 3). The largest arable land
is taken by corn (14.9 ha) as it is the main food crop growing in highlands. Tobacco ranks
the second in area (8.8 ha), followed by paddy (6.2 ha), vegetables (6.1 ha) and fruits
(2.2 ha). In terms of production, the largest production comes from vegetables (3,787 kg),
followed by corn (1,355 kg). Production of paddy is 941 kg and that of tobacco is 901 kg.
Fruit production is the smallest (709 kg). Vegetables have the highest yield (620.8 kg/ha),
followed by fruits and paddy. Corn has the lowest yield. Income from vegetables is the
highest, which is 772,710 yuan, followed by fruits (420,100 yuan). Incomes from other
crops — corn, paddy and tobacco — are below 60,000 yuan.

3.4. Impacts of urbanization on rural livelihoods

In this subsection, the authors analyzed urbanization’s impacts on rural livelihoods such
as those on agriculture (agricultural land use and cropping pattern), forest, water,

Table 3. Area, production, yield and income data on major crops in the studied
villages (n ¼ 110).

Major crops Area (ha) Production (kg) Yield (kg/ha) Income (yuan)*

Corn 14.9 1,355 90.9 58,020

Tobacco 8.8 901 102.4 33,800
Paddy 6.2 941 151.8 45,830
Vegetables 6.1 3,787 620.8 772,710
Fruits 2.2 709 322.3 420,100

Total 38.2 1,538.6 40.3 1,330,460

Source: Field survey, October 2016; *6.33 yuan ¼ 1 USD (April 28, 2018).

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 Urbanization and Its Impact on Rural Livelihoods

employment, income prices of food commodities, education, medical facilities, transpor-

tation and other infrastructural facilities. Urban settlements and land under construction of
infrastructural facilities have increased, which caused large-scale land degradation. Natural
landscape of XCA is spectacular, while it has been transformed into concrete structure.
Arable land used for growing rice largely in the valleys has decreased during the recent
past. Similarly, grassland, open forestland and size of perennial lakes have also decreased
during the last 20 years. Agriculture dominates economic activities and it constitutes a
means of livelihood to a large number of households, as people practicing agriculture
account for 40.2% of the population. The authors observed substantial decrease in liveli-
hood options due to impact of urbanization, and the surveyed subjects have confirmed the
substitution of their livelihoods. The authors interviewed the heads of households (n ¼
110) of seven villages with 18 questions on rural livelihoods and related issues. Impact of
urbanization is the strongest on cropping pattern and livestock farming. A large arable land,
where tobacco and maize used to be grown mainly in the highlands, has been transformed
for cultivation of fruit crops, mainly walnut. The valley region, where earlier paddy was
grown, has been transformed for cultivation of off-season vegetables. Similarly, livestock
population has decreased as large grasslands have been transformed for construction of
settlements and infrastructural facilities. There is a large change in land use pattern as forest
and agricultural lands have been transformed into infrastructural facilities. There is a rise in

Table 4. People’s perception on impact of urbanization on rural livelihoods

and infrastructural facilities (n ¼ 110 heads of households).

Respondents (%)

Q. No. Questions Yes No

1. Impact on cropping pattern 72 28

2. Impact on livestock farming 72 28
3. Impact on land use pattern 70 30
4. Impact on food commodity price 67.8 38.2
5. Impact on forest resources 62 38
6. Impact on transportation facilities 58.2 41.8
7. Impact on employment 57.9 42.1
8. Impact on occupational structure 57.3 42.7
9. Impact on production and yield of crops 55 45
10. Impact on medical and educational facilities 54.5 45.5
11. Impact on products’ supply 54 46
12. Impact on rural–urban migration 54 46
13. Impact on education 52 48
14. Impact on quality of arable land 51.8 49.2
15. Impact on water resources 51 49
16. Impact on health quality 51 49
17. Impact on living standard 36 74
18. Impact on income 23.2 76.8

Source: Field survey of the authors, 2016.

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Vishwambhar Prasad SATI et al.

Table 5. Impact of distance to Xichang city on rural livelihoods (a regression

model).

S. No. Variable Correlation coefficient

1. Impact on cropping pattern 0.021

2. Impact on livestock farming 0.021
3. Impact on land use pattern 0.022
4. Impact on food commodity price 0.12
5. Impact on forest resources 0.13
6. Impact on transportation facilities 0.21
7. Impact on employment 0.22
8. Impact on occupational structure 0.23
9. Impact on production and yield of crops 0.24
10. Impact on medical and educational facilities 0.25
11. Impact on products’ supply 0.26
12. Impact on rural–urban migration 0.26
13. Impact on education 0.28
14. Impact on arable land 0.30
15. Impact on water resources 0.31
16. Impact on health quality 0.31
17. Impact on living standard 0.50
18. Impact on income 0.80

Source: Field survey of the authors, 2016.

food commodity prices and urbanization has impacts on food product supply. Occupational
structure has largely changed and off-farm employment opportunity has increased. For-
estland has decreased whereas transportation facilities have increased. Production and yield
of crops have decreased and quality of arable land has worsened. Medical and educational
facilities have increased and thus health quality and level of education have been improved.
Out-migration has increased and water availability has decreased. There is not much
impact of urbanization on living standard and income level as perceived by households.
The authors developed a regression model, correlating the independent variable distance
with dependent variables of livelihood options (Table 5). It is found that distance has an
enormous adverse implication on cropping pattern, livestock farming and land use. Further,
distance of rural settlements from city center is significantly related to the depleting forest
resources, high prices of community supplies, suitable transportation, increase in off-farm
employment and decrease in farm employment and changing occupational structure. It is
also correlated with the low production and yield of crops, increase in medical and edu-
cational facilities, sufficient supply of products, high rural–urban migration, high level of
education, shrinking arable land, increasing water scarcity and improving health. There is
not much impact on the living standard and income of people living in rural areas.

4. Discussion
Findings from a number of researches revealed that urban expansion has many
adverse effects on rural areas and the farmers (Tegegne, 2002). It impedes grazing land

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 Urbanization and Its Impact on Rural Livelihoods

(Humphrey and Sneath, 1999) and thus results in declining livestock’s mobility
(Fratkin and Mearns, 2003). Price rise in food commodities has led to rise in hunger among
urban populations (Cohen and Garrett, 2010) and its impact can be noticed among the rural
households. According to Vakkilainen and Varis (1999), the quality of water is often
threatened in poor areas due to domestic and industrial wastes. Further, it is a great
challenge to the people living in peripheral rural areas when urban expansion encroaches
fertile agricultural land (Adeboyejo, 2007). Urban expansion towards rural areas covers
agricultural land and changes land values and land markets. The future implications of
urbanization will be on food and farming as food demands increase due to urban growth
and change in diets. On the other hand, urbanization has been associated with pro-poor
social reforms (Mitlin, 2008) over the past two centuries. The rural–urban migration flow,
which causes urbanization, is mostly a response to economic changes.
Urbanization has significant impact on rural livelihoods. Particularly, it has large
negative impact on developing and underdeveloped countries, whose rural areas are
suffering from the consequences of haphazard urban expansion and inadequate infra-
structural facilities. In China, 54.8% of the population live in urban areas where urban
annual growth rate is high (2.82%) and it has subsequent impacts on rural areas
(NBS, 2011). Infrastructural facilities — transportation, health facilities, education and
availability of food commodities — have increased due to urbanization. However, agri-
cultural and grazing lands have shrunken and farming activities decreased. Further, envi-
ronmental pollution has increased in rural areas. Being a mountainous city and lying in
quite a remote area of Sichuan Province, Xichang has an annual average growth rate of
urban population (1.3%) comparatively lower than that of other cities in China (2.8%)
between 1990 and 2010.
The authors noticed substantial implications of Xichang city for rural areas in close
proximity to it, in the forms of increasing infrastructural facilities, employment augmen-
tation and income generation. Further, the education level of people is relatively high in
these areas which have a number of educational institutions and enjoy favorable govern-
ment policy that provides free education. People who are out-migrants to Xichang city and
work as skilled labors have higher income, while people who are practicing farming in
rural areas suffer from low income. The study also shows that the migration rate is higher in
villages in close proximity to Xichang city. The market of agricultural products is available
to farmers and they are able to sell their products via e-commerce. Food processing
industry is increasing the added value of agricultural products. Increase in transportation
further enhances the mobility of people to urban areas.
Meanwhile, the authors noticed that urbanization in Xichang city has an enormous
adverse impact on rural livelihoods mainly in areas close to the urban center. It has
decreased rural livelihood options (e.g. agricultural practices), increasing the unemploy-
ment in rural areas. There is a reduction of 35.43 km2 arable land in rural areas because of
the construction of urban infrastructural facilities. As a result, production of crops has
decreased, leading to increasing food scarcity and malnutrition. Further, grazing land in
rural areas located nearby Xichang city has decreased and thus people engaged in livestock
rearing are facing food scarcity. The city administration has declared large areas of

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Vishwambhar Prasad SATI et al.

grasslands surrounding the perennial lake as the “reserved zone.” Reduction in grazing land
have also caused decrease in livestock population. The young people are shifting their
occupation from practicing agriculture to non-farm activities and as a result, farming
activities have decreased. Increase in urban service flow further implies decreasing agri-
cultural activities. During the last two decades, about 14.02 km2 urban area and about
20.65 km2 lands under public transit construction have been added whereas about
16.56 km2 paddy fields have disappeared. A large proportion of land has been transformed
for cultivating vegetables and fruits, mainly walnut, onion and garlic, and thus food de-
mand has increased. As a result, about 20% households live below poverty. Some villages,
which are located relatively far from the city, grow tobacco. However, its production has
decreased recently. All these have put rural livelihood at risk. Medical facilities have
increased, but poor people cannot afford them. Therefore, health condition of rural people
is poor.

5. Conclusion and Suggestions

Although urbanization of XCA has increased substantial infrastructural facilities (trans-
portation facilities, industries and educational and medical institutions) in rural areas, it has
also caused sharp decrease in agricultural presence and its allied activities, forests and
grasslands and other rural livelihood options. Educational and medical facilities have
become expensive, prices of food commodities have increased and environmental quality
has decreased due to severe pollution. As a result, poor rural communities are facing food
scarcity and poverty.
An adequate and sound policy at the local level is essentially required to achieve a
sustainable society and sound environment in both urban and rural areas. All the stake-
holders of urban development — the government, urban planning officials and the local
people — should come together to frame policy measures for improving the quality of
urban environment and to ensure socio-economic development of rural people. This study
suggests several policy measures for the development of rural areas and rural livelihoods
of XCA. First, development of agricultural activities should be promoted, mainly for
cultivating rice, vegetables and fruits as agro-climatic conditions are suitable and the
market is accessible. Livestock development can also be enhanced for improving rural
livelihood. Second, degraded grasslands should be restored to develop village tourism.
These activities altogether can increase the income of farmers, curb out-migration and
improve socio-economic and environmental quality. The study further suggests that rural
people can also be benefited by providing ecological services (e.g. clean water and healthy
air) to urban centers. Rural people should have their fair share in various development
activities to promote income equality. The affected people should be entitled to share
benefits generated by urban expansion/development in peripheral rural areas. Urban ex-
pansion has put young generation of rural areas in jeopardy as they have migrated to the
Xichang city for satisfactory employment. Thus, it is imperative to provide them with
adequate job opportunities, both skilled and unskilled works, for equitable development of
the region.

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 Urbanization and Its Impact on Rural Livelihoods

Acknowledgments
This research is funded by CAS-PIFI Visiting Science Programme (Grant No.
2016VEA057), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41471469) and
the Humanities and Social Sciences Youth Project, Ministry of Education of the People’s
Republic of China (Grant No. 14YJCZH130). The authors acknowledge their support, and
take sole responsibility for their views in this paper.

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