1-1

1. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

The specific objectives are:

1. At the end of Section 1.1, the trainee will be able to:

a) define the nature of non-destructive testing;

b) list the characteristics of NDT technology

c) reasons for using NDT;

d) Compare the different types of NDT methods, with particular reference to

the application and uses of each method;

e) understand the limitations of radiographic testing;

2. At the end of Section 1.2, the trainee will be able to:

a) explain the difference between defect and discontinuity;

b) define the properties of materials, especially of metals;

c) recognize how defects affect the properties of materials;

3. At the end of Section 1.3, the trainee will be able to:

a) list the various processes of fabrication and bandings;

b) describe the possible defects associate with each type of process;

c) describe the possible defects associated with the performance of a

component in service.
 1-2

1. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

1.1 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)

1.1.1 Definition and Nature of NDT

Non-destructive testing is the use of physical methods which will test materials, components
and assemblies for flaws in their structure without damaging their future usefulness. NDT is
concerned with revealing flaws in the structure of a product. It, however, cannot predict
where flaws will develop due to the design itself.

Compared to destructive testing (DT) methods, NDT methods are indirect in nature that is
the physical attribute, which is to be measured, is not measured directly. The measurement
of the physical attributed is co-related with the measurement of some other physical
quantity. NDT methods, therefore, require to be performed by highly trained, experienced
and skilled manpower. On the other hand since these methods are non-destructive in
nature so these can be performed before, during and after fabrication and also NDT
methods are also less expensive and time consuming than destructive methods.

1.1.2 Characteristics of NDT

All NDT methods have the following common characteristics:

i) The application of a testing medium to the product to be tested.
ii) The changes in the testing medium due to the defects in the structure of the product.
iii) A means by which it detects these changes.
iv) Interpretation of these changes to obtain information about the flaws in the structure
of the product.

1.1.3 Reasons for Using NDT

NDT plays an important role in the quality control of a product. It is used during all the
stages of manufacturing of a product. It is used to monitor the quality of the:
i) Raw materials which are used in the construction of the product;
ii) Fabrication processes which are used to manufacture the product;
iii) Finished product before it is commissioned;
iv) Pre-service Inspection (PSI);
v) In-service Inspection (ISI).
Use of NDT results in the following benefits:
i) It decreases the cost of the product by reducing scrap (i.e. by conserving materials,
labour and energy);
ii) It enhances the reputation of the manufacturer as producer of quality goods;
iii) Boosting the sales of the product thus bringing more economic benefits to the
manufacturer;
iv) It increases the safety and reliability of the products and plants during operation.
 1-3

1.1.4 Types of NDT Methods

NDT methods which are commonly used, are: Visual or Optical Inspection, Dye Penetrant
Testing, Magnetic Particle Testing, Eddy Current Testing, Radiographic Testing, Ultrasonic
Testing and Leak Testing. These methods are known as conventional NDT methods.
Compare to these, NDT methods like neutron radiography, thermal and infrared testing and
acoustic emission etc are known as non-conventional NDT methods. A brief description of
the conventional NDT methods is given below:

1.1.4.1 Visual testing (VT)

Often overlooked in any listing of NDT methods, visual inspection is one of the most
common and most powerful means of non-destructive testing. Visual testing requires
adequate illumination of the test surface and proper eye-sight of the tester. To be most
effective visual inspection does however, merit special attention because it requires training
(knowledge of product and process, anticipated service conditions, acceptance criteria,
record keeping, for example) and it has its own range of equipment and instrumentation.
Visual testing can be classified as direct visual testing, remote visual testing and translucent
visual testing. Often the equipment needed is simple (Figure 1.1): a portable light, a mirror
on stem, a 2 x or 4 x hand lens, one illuminated magnifier with magnification 5x or 10x. For
internal inspection, light lens systems such as borescopes allow remote surfaces to be
examined. More sophisticated devices of this nature using fibre optics permit the
introduction of the device into very small access holes and channels. Most of these systems
provide for the attachment of a camera to permit permanent recording.

Figure 1.1: Various Optical Aids used in Visual Inspection.

A Mirror on stem: may be flat for normal view or concave for limited magnification.
B Hand magnifying glass (magnification usually 2-3x).
C Illuminated magnifier; field of view more restricted than D (magnification 5-10x).
D Inspection glass, usually fitted with a scale for measurement; the front surface is
placed in contact with the work (magnification 5-10x).
E Borescope or intrascope with built-in illumination (magnification 2-3x).

The applications of visual testing include:

1) Checking of the surface condition of the test specimen.

2) Checking of alignment of matting surfaces.

 1-4

3) Checking of shape of the component.

4) Checking for evidence of leaking.

5) Checking for internal surface defects.

1.1.4.2 Liquid penetrant testing (PT)

This is a method which can be employed for the detection of open-to-surface discontinuities
in any industrial product which is made from a non-porous material. This method is widely
used for testing of non-magnetic materials. In this method a liquid penetrant is applied to the
surface of the product for a certain predetermined time, after which the excess penetrant is
removed from the surface. The surface is then dried and a developer is applied to it. The
penetrant which remains in the discontinuity is absorbed by the developer to indicate the
presence as well as the location, size and nature of the discontinuity. The process is
illustrated in Figure 1.2.

Penetrants used in liquid penetrant are either visible dye penetrant or fluorescent dye
penetrant. The inspection of the presence of indications dye visible by penetrant is made
under white light while inspection of presence of indications by fluorescent dye penetrant is
made under ultraviolet (or black) light under darkened conditions. The liquid penetrant
processes are further sub-divided according to the method of washing of the specimen. The
penetrants can be: (i) water-washable, (ii) post-emulsifiable, i.e. an emulsifier is added to the
excess penetrant on surface of the specimen to make it water-washable, and (iii) solvent
removable, i.e. the excess penetrant is needed to be dissolved in a solvent to remove it from
the test specimen surface. In order of decreasing sensitivity and decreasing cost, the liquid
penetrant processes can be listed as:

1) Post emulsifiable fluorescent dye penetrant.

2) Solvent removable fluorescent dye penetrant.
3) Water washable fluorescent dye penetrant.
4) Post emulsifiable visible dye penetrant.
5) Solvent removable visible dye penetrant.
6) Water washable visible dye penetrant.
 1-5

Figure 1.2: Different stages of liquid penetrant process.

 1-6

1.1.4.3 Magnetic particle testing (MT)

Magnetic particle testing is used for the testing of materials which can be easily magnetized.
This method is capable of detecting open to surface and just below the surface flaws. In this
method the test specimen is first magnetized either by using a permanent or an
electromagnet or by passing electric current through or around the specimen. The magnetic
field thus introduced into the specimen is composed of magnetic lines of force. Whenever
there is a flaw which interrupts the flow of magnetic lines of force, some of these lines must
exit and re-enter the specimen. These points of exit and re-entry form opposite magnetic
poles. Whenever minute magnetic particles are sprinkled onto the surface of such a
specimen, these particles are attracted by these magnetic poles to create a visual indication
approximating the size and shape of the flaw. Figure 1.3 illustrates the basic principles of
this method.

Figure 1.3: Basic principle of magnetic particle testing.

Depending on the application, there are different magnetization techniques used in magnetic
particle testing. These techniques can be grouped into the following two categories:

a) Direct current techniques: These are the techniques in which the current flows
through the test specimen and the magnetic field produced by this flow of current is
used for the detection of defects. These techniques are shown in Figure 1.4(a, b & c).

b) Magnetic Flux Flow Techniques: In these technique magnetic flux is induced into
the specimen either by the use of a permanent magnet or by flowing current through
a coil or a conductor. These techniques are shown in Figure 1.4 (d - g).
 1-7

Figure 1.4: Different magnetizations used in magnetic particle testing.

1.1.4.4 Radiographic testing method (RT)

The radiographic testing method is used for the detection of internal flaws in many different
materials and configurations. An appropriate radiographic film is placed behind the test
specimen (Figure 1.5) and is exposed by passing either X-rays or gamma rays through it.
The intensity of the X-rays or gamma rays while passing through the product is modified
according to the internal structure of the specimen and thus the exposed film, after
processing, reveals the shadow picture, known as a radiograph, of the product. It is then
interpreted to obtain data about the flaws present in the specimen. This method is used on
wide variety of products such as forgings, castings and weldments.
 1-8

Figure 1.5: Arrangement for radiographic testing method.

X-rays and gamma rays are ionizing radiation and as such they are harmful to human
beings. If received in higher doses these radiation can be lethal. The most dangerous thing
about
X-rays and gamma rays is that their presence cannot be felt even if being received in large
doses and causing damage to the human body. For example, a lethal dose of radiation will
cause a 0.002 C rise in temperature of human body which cannot be perceived by the
human senses. The effects of ionizing radiation on human beings can be classified as
somatic effects and genetic effects.

1.1.4.4.1 Somatic effects

The damage caused by the ionizing radiation to the exposed individual is known as somatic
effect. These effects can be further divided into immediate and delayed somatic effects.
Immediate somatic effects are the effects which are apparent in the exposed individual
within hours or a few days. The effects include vomiting, nausea, fatigue, paleness, loss of
hair, loss of appetite, etc. The delayed somatic effects may appear in the exposed individual
years after the exposure. These effects may include:

i) Cataract of the lenses of the eyes which may cause partial or total blindness,
ii) Cancer such as bone and lung cancer and leukaemia,
iii) A plastic anemia caused by radiation damage to bone marrow, and
 1-9

iv) Shortening of life span and premature ageing.

1.1.4.4.2 Genetic effects

Genetic effects, which are caused by the damage to the genes of the exposed individual,
affect the off-spring of the exposed individual. This is the most important of long term
effects of low level radiation exposure. Genetic effects are significant only if gonads receive
radiation exposure.

1.1.4.5 Ultrasonic testing (UT)

Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive method in which high frequency sound waves are
introduced into the material being inspected. Most ultrasonic inspection is done at
frequencies between 0.5 and 20 MHz, well above the range of human hearing which is about
20 Hz to 20 kHz. The sound waves travel through the material with some loss of energy
(attenuation) due to material characteristics. The intensity of sound waves is either
measured, after reflection (Pulse echo) at interfaces (or flaw) or is measured at the opposite
surface of the specimen (Pulse transmission). The reflected beam is detected and analyzed to
define the presence and location of flaws. The degree of reflection depends largely on the
physical state of matter on the opposite side of the interface, and to a lesser extent on
specific physical properties of that matter, for instance, sound waves are almost completely
reflected at metal-gas interfaces. Partial reflection occurs at metal-liquid or metal-solid
interfaces. Ultrasonic testing has a superior penetrating power than radiography and can
detect flaws deep in the test specimen (say up to about 6 to 7 metre of steel). It is quite
sensitive to small flaws and allows the precise determination of the location and size of the
flaws. The basic principle of ultrasonic testing is illustrated in Figure 1.6.

(a) Pulse echo method.

 1-10

(b) Through transmission method.

Figure 1.6: Basic components of an ultrasonic flaw detection system.

Ultrasonic testing method is:

1) Mostly used for detection of flaws in materials.

2) Widely used for thickness measurement.
3) Used for the determination of mechanical properties and grain structure of materials.
4) Used for the evaluation of processing variables on materials.

1.1.4.6 Eddy current testing (ET)

This method is applicable to electrically conductive materials only. In this method eddy
currents are produced in the product by bringing it close to an alternating current carrying
coil. The alternating magnetic field of the coil is modified by the magnetic fields of the eddy
currents. This modification, which depends on the condition of the part near to the coil, is
then shown as a meter reading or cathode ray tube presentation. Figure 1.7 gives the basic
principles of eddy current testing.

Figure 1.7 (a): Generation of eddy currents in the test specimen,

 1-11

Figure 1.7 (b): Distortion eddy currents due to defect.

There are three types of probes (Figure 1.8) used in eddy current testing. Internal probes are
usually used for the in-service testing of heat exchanger tubes. Encircling probes are
commonly used for the testing of rods and tubes during manufacturing. The uses of surface
probes include the location of cracks, sorting of materials, measurement of wall and coating
thickness, and case depth measurement.

(a) Internal Coil

(b) Encircling Coil

(c) Surface Probe

 1-12

Figure 1.8: Types of probes used in eddy current testing.

This method is used:

1) For the detection of defects in tubings

2) For sorting materials

3) For measurement of thin wall thicknesses from one surface only

4) For measuring thin coatings and

5) For measuring case depth

1.1.4.7 Leak testing (LT)

Since many structures are designed to be pressurized or pressure tight, defect is often a leak.
There are several methods (Table 1.1) for locating leaks ranging from simple liquid seepage
onto a dry surface, perhaps mixed with a dye, to highly precise measurement of the escape
of helium or radioactive gas. The level of sensitivity depends upon the methods used and is
chosen in relation to the severity of the application.
Table 1.1: COMPARISON OF LEAK TESTING METHODS.

Method Detector Relative

sensitivity
Air/soap solution Visual bubbles 1x
Air/water
Air Sound of escaping gas 10 x
(Ultrasonic detector)
Hydrogen/Methanol Visual bubbles 100 x
Hydrogen Pirani gauge 100 x
Halogen gas Heated anode 700 x
(Electron capture gauge)
Hydrogen or helium Mass spectrometer 800 x
Radioactive gas (Krypton-85) Counter 800 x

1.1.5 Limitations of Radiographic Testing

Some of the limitations of radiographic testing method are:

1) X-Rays and gamma-rays are hazardous to human health.

2) It cannot detect planar defects readily.

3) Access to both sides of the specimen is required in this method.

 1-13

4) Thickness range that can be inspected with this method is limited.

5) Certain areas in many items cannot be radiographed because of the geometric

consideration.

6) Sensitivity of inspection decreases with thickness of the test specimen.

7) It is more costly.

8) It cannot be easily automated.

9) It requires considerable skill for the interpretation of the radiographs.

1-14
 1-15

1.2 MATERIALS

1.2.1 Properties of Materials

1.2.1.1 Physical properties

1.2.1.1.1 Specific gravity

Specific gravity is a unit of measurement based on the mass of a volume of material

compared with the mass of an equal volume of water. Aluminium has a specific gravity of
2.70. Thus it is almost 3 times heavier than water. When two molten metals are mixed
together the metal with the lower specific gravity will be forced to the top. The metal with
the higher specific gravity will sink to the bottom.

1.2.1.1.2 Density

A metal is said to be dense when it is compact and does not contain defects such as slag
inclusions and gas pockets. Density is expressed as the quantity per unit volume. The
density of low carbon steel, for example, is 0.238 pounds per cubic inch (7.85 gm per cm 3).
The density of aluminium, a much lighter metal, is only 0.096 pounds per cubic inch (2.7
gm per cm3). The density of depleted uranium is 19 gm per cm 3 which is used as shielding
of gamma sources.

1.2.1.1.3 Porosity

Porosity is the opposite of density. Some materials are porous by their nature and allow
liquids under pressure to leak through them. Materials that are porous have an internal
structure that lacks compactness or has other defects that leave voids in the metal.

1.2.1.1.4 Melting point

The melting point is the temperature at which a substance passes from a solid to a liquid
condition. For water this is 32F (0C). Steel has a melting point around 2700F (1482C)
depending upon the carbon range. Higher the melting point, greater the amount of heat
needed to melt a given volume of metal.

1.2.1.1.5 Fusibility

Fusibility is the ease with which a metal may be melted. In general soft metals are easily
fusible, whereas harder metals melt at higher temperatures. For example tin lead, and zinc
are more easily fused than iron, chromium, and molybdenum.

1.2.1.1.6 Volatility

Volatility is the ease with which a substance may be vaporized. A metal which has a low
melting point is more volatile than a metal with a high melting point. Volatility is measured
by the temperature at which a metal boils under atmospheric pressure.

1.2.1.1.7 Weldability

Weldability is the capacity of a metal substance to form a strong bond of adherence while
under pressure or during solidification from a liquid state.
 1-16

1.2.1.1.8 Electrical conductivity

The electrical conductivity of a substance is the ability of the substance to conduct electrical
current. The unit for electrical conductivity in SI is Siemens per metre.

1.2.1.1.9 Electrical resistance

The opposition to electric current as it flows through a wire is termed as the resistance of the
wire. Resistance is measured by a unit called the "ohm".

1.2.1.1.10 Thermal conductivity

The thermal conductivity of a substance is the ability of substance to carry heat. The heat
that travels to both sides of the scarves during the welding of a bevel butt join is a proof that
metals conduct heat. The heat is rapidly conducted away from the scarves in a good thermal
conductor, but slowly in a poor one.

1.2.1.1.11 Coefficient of thermal expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansion is the amount of expansion a metal undergoes when it
is heated and the amount of contraction that occurs when it is cooled. The higher the
coefficient, the greater the amount of expansion and therefore, greater the contraction upon
cooling.

1.2.1.1.12 Hot shortness

Hot shortness is the brittleness in a metal in hot forming range during the forging, rolling,
etc. processes.

1.2.1.1.13 Overheating

A metal is said to be overheated when the temperature exceeds its critical range, that is,
when the metal is heated to such a degree that its properties are impaired.

1.2.1.2 Mechanical properties

1.2.1.2.1 Plasticity

The ability of a material to deform without breaking is its plasticity. Strength combined with
plasticity is the most important combination of properties a metal can have. Metals having
these properties can be used in structural fabrication. For example, if a part of a bridge is
overloaded, plasticity permits the load to be shared by other parts of the bridge.

1.2.1.2.2 Strength

Strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation. It is usually expressed as the

ultimate tensile strength in pounds per square inch. The ultimate tensile strength of a
material is its resistance to breaking. Cast iron has an approximate tensile strength of 15,000
psi (193 MPa). One type of stainless steel, on the other hand, has reached a strength of
400,000 psi (2758 MPa).
 1-17

1.2.1.2.3 Hardness

The ability of one material to penetrate another material without fracture of either is known
as hardness. The greater the hardness, the greater the resistance to marking or deformation.
A hard material is also a strong material, but it is not very ductile. The opposite of hardness
is softness.

1.2.1.2.4 Elastic limit

Loading a material will cause it to change its shape. The ability of the material to return to
its original shape after the load has been removed is known as elasticity. The elastic limit is
the greatest load that may be applied after which the material will return to its original
condition.

1.2.1.2.5 Modulus of elasticity

To stretch, some materials require higher stresses than others. To compare the stiffness of
one metal with that of another, we must determine what is known as the modulus of
elasticity for each of them. The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of the stress to the strain. It
is a measure of relative stiffness. If the modulus is high the material is more likely to resist
movement or distortion. A material that stretches easily has a low modulus.

1.2.1.2.6 Yield point

When a sample of low or medium carbon steel is subjected to a tension test, a curious thing
happens. As the load on the test specimen is increased slowly, a point is found at which a
definite increase in the length of the specimen occurs with no increase in the load. The load
at this point, expressed as pounds per square inch is called yield point of the material. Non
ferrous metals and types of steel other than low and medium carbon steels do not have a
yield point.
 1-18

1.2.1.2.7 Resilience

Resilience (springiness) is the energy stored in a material under strain (within its elastic
limit) that causes it to resume its original shape when the load is removed. Resilience is a
property of all spring steels.

1.2.1.2.8 Toughness

A material may be assumed to be tough if it has high tensile strength and the ability to
deform permanently without breaking. Toughness may be thought of as the opposite of
failure through deformation whereas a brittle material breaks without any warning. Copper
and nodular iron and steel are tough materials.

1.2.1.2.9 Shock (impact) resistance

Shock resistance may be defined as the ability of a material to withstand a maximum load
applied suddenly. The shock resistance of a material is often taken as an indication of its
toughness.

1.2.1.2.10 Brittleness

Brittle materials fail without any warning through deformation, elongation, or a change of
shape. It may be said that a brittle material lacks plasticity and toughness. A piece of chalk is
very brittle.

1.2.1.2.11 Ductility

Ductility is the ability of materials to be permanently deformed (stretched) by loading, and

yet resist fracture. When this happens, both elongation and reduction in area take place in
the material. The amount of stretching is expressed as the percent of elongation. Metals with
high ductility may be stretched, formed, or drawn without tearing or cracking. Gold, silver,
copper and iron are metals with good ductility. A ductile metal is not necessarily a soft
metal. A metal may be ductile and also possess hardness.

1.2.1.2.12 Malleability

The ability a material possesses to deform permanently under compression without breaking
or fracturing is known as the malleability of the metal, or its ability to bend. Metals that
possess this characteristic can be rolled or hammered into thinner form. Metals must have
malleability in order to be forged.

1.2.1.2.13 Fatigue failure

Failure of metals under repeated or alternating stresses is known as fatigue failure. When a
metal is broken in a tensile machine, it is found that a certain load is required to break it. The
same material, however, will fail when a much smaller load has been applied and removed
many times. The fatigue limit is that load, usually expressed in pounds per square inch,
which may be applied for an indefinite number of cycles without causing fatigue failure.
 1-19

1.2.1.3 Chemical properties

1.2.1.3.1 Resistance to corrosion
Corrosion is the gradual wearing away or disintegration of material by a chemical process.
The ability of metals to resist atmospheric corrosion and corrosion by liquids or gases is
often very important. The action of oxygen on steel to form rust is a form of slow corrosion.
1.2.1.3.2 Oxidation
Oxidation is caused by the formation of metal oxides that occur when oxygen combines
with a metal. Oxides caused by excess oxygen and nitride caused by excess nitrogen cause
porosity, reduced strength, and reduced ductility in the metal.
1.2.2 Discontinuity
The term 'Discontinuity' is used to describe any breakage in the normal physical structure of
a material. A discontinuity in a product may or may not be harmful to the safe operation of
the product. A discontinuity may grow into a defect due to the cyclic loading (fatigue) of the
product or due to the corrosive environment in which the product is working. A small
discontinuity started by corrosion, a slight scratch, or a defect that is inherent in the material,
may develop into a crack from the stress concentration that, under varying loads, propagates
with time until there is no longer sufficient solid material to carry the load. Sudden total
failure by fracture then occurs.
1.2.3 Defect
A discontinuity is called a defect when it is of such size, shape and location that it creates a
substantial chance of failure of the product in service.
Defects may be classified as follows:
1.2.3.1 Inherent defects
These defects are usually formed when the metal is in a molten state. These can be further
classified into categories of (a) inherent wrought defects, and (b) inherent cast defects.
Inherent wrought defects are those defects which occur during the melting and solidification
of the original ingot, while the inherent cast defects are those defects which occur during
melting, casting and solidification of a cast article.
1.2.3.2 Processing defects
These are defects which occur during various manufacturing processes such as welding,
forging, rolling, machining, heat treatment etc.
1.2.3.3 Service defects
These are defects which occur due to various service conditions such as corrosion, stress,
fatigue etc.
 1-20

1.3 PROCESSES AND DEFECTS

1.3.1 Primary Processes and Related Defects

Typical defects found in an ingot (Figure 1.9) are nonmetallic inclusions, porosity and pipe.

Figure 1.9: Typical defects in an ingot.

1.3.1.1 Non-metallic inclusion

These are inclusions due to the entrapment of impurities formed during the refining process
of the metal. Because the impurities are lighter than the metal, they rise to the surface during
solidification of the ingot, and thus the non-metallic inclusions are usually found in the
upper portion of the ingot. Some of the non metallic inclusions might be found in the
interior of the ingot due to the fact that some impurities did not have time to reach the
surface before the metal hardened above. The non metallic inclusions are of irregular
shapes.

1.3.1.2 Porosity

When a metal is melted in a furnace, gases are formed. These gases form bubbles inside the
molten metal. These bubbles, because of their lightness, rise to the surface of the metal as
the ingot hardens. Most of these bubbles reach the surface but some of them are trapped by
the hardening metal. An entrapped gas bubble in the ingot is called a pore and a collection of
such pores in the ingot is called porosity. Pores usually have round shapes.

1.3.1.3 Pipe

Metals shrink as they solidify, therefore, usually a shrinkage cavity in top portion of the
ingot is formed. This shrinkage cavity is called a pipe. Most of these defects in the ingot are
in the upper portion and can be easily eliminated by cropping off the top of the ingot.
 1-21

Figure 1.10: Ingot with a cropped head.

The ingot after the hot top is cropped off is called a bloom. The blooms then can be further
processed to form slabs and billets. The slab or billet is normally the starting point for actual
forming of articles or materials.

1.3.2 Processing and Related Defects

1.3.2.1 Casting Processes and Related Defects

A commonly used method of forming metal objects of complex shapes is by pouring molten
metal into a mould in which it sets to the required shape. The mould is then broken away to
expose the casting, or the design of the mould is such that is can be separated without
damage and re-used. The moulds are usually formed from patterns which can be used many
times over, if necessary, and their design is critical in that `feed' and `vent' holes must be
carefully positioned in the mould to permit the metal to flow freely into all parts. Problems
that can occur are interaction on cooling. It is also unlikely that the crystal structure of a
casting will be optimum in all parts so that its strength may be less than with other methods
of fabrication. Various casting processes include `sand die casting', `permanent mould
casting', `centrifugal casting', and `shell mould casting'. Casting steps are illustrated in
Figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11: Casting steps.

 1-22

Comparisons of different casting processes are given in the Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 : COMPARISON OF CASTING PROCESSES (APPROXIMATE)

Sand casting Permanent Die casting Centrifugal Investment Shell mould

mould casting casting casting casting
Relative cost in quantity Medium Low Lowest High Highest Medium
Relative cost for small Lowest High Highest Medium Low Low
number
Permissible weight of Unlimited 100 300 Several tons 5 Limited
casting Ib Ib Ib
Thinnest section castable 3.25 3.25 01 12.50 0.25 3.25
(mm)
Typical dimensional 1.60 0.75 0.25 1.60 0.25 0.25
tolerance, (mm)
Relative surface finish Poor Good Best Fair Very good Good
Relative mechanical Fair Good Very good Best Fair Good
properties
Relative ease of casting Fair Fair Good Poor Best Fair
complex design
Relative ease of Best Poor Poorest Good Good Good
changing design in
production
Range of alloys that can Unlimited Copper base and Aluminium base Unlimited Unlimited Unlimited
be cast lower melting and lower
preferable melting
preferable

A variety of defects may occur in castings. These may be classified in five groups, namely
voids, cracks, cold shut, segregation and inclusions. All these are described below in some
detail.

1.3.2.1.1 Voids

Void is defined as a cavity produced by (a) entrapped gas evolved from the metal, (b)
entrapped air, (c) entrapped gas evolved from the mould (d) shrinkage of metal. Voids have
been classified depending on their shape and size. These classes are described below:

i) Microporosity

A fine form of the defect due to shrinkage, or gas or both in which a number of cavities
occur either around the grain boundaries (intercrystalline) or between the dendrite arms
(interdendritic). In non-ferrous alloys these fine cavities may occur in layers (layer porosity).

ii) Sponginess

A system of intercrystalline or interdendritic cavities of a coarse and usually localized form.

iii) Pinhole porosity

Small cavities of less than about 1.6 mm (1/16 inch) diameter occurring throughout the
casting or localized within a particular area. This defect occasionally arises from the
injection of air during pressure die casting.
 1-23

iv) Gas hole

A discrete cavity greater than about 1.6 mm (1/16 inch) diameter due to gas evolved from
the metal, mould or core. A particular form called wormhole, occurs as a tube like cavity
usually normal to and almost reaching the surface of the casting.

v) Airlock

A cavity formed by air which has been entrapped in the mould by the metal during pouring.

vi) Shrinkage cavity

A discrete cavity caused by contraction during solidification.

vii) Filamentary shrinkage

A coarse form of shrinkage defect in which the cavities are branching, interconnected and
extensive.

1.3.2.1.2 Cracks

A crack is a discontinuity due to the fracture of the metal during or after solidification.
Depending upon the cause, cracks have been classified as under:

i) Hot tear

This type of crack develops near solidification temperature when the metal is weak. The
defect occurs mainly at, or near to, a change of section and may not be continuous.

ii) Stress cracks

A well defined and approximately straight crack, formed due to large stresses after the metal
has become completely solid.

1.3.2.1.3 Cold shut

It is a discontinuity caused by the failure of a stream of molten metal to unite with confluent
stream or solid metal, such as a chaplet, internal chill or pouring splash. This may often be
caused if the pouring is interrupted.

1.3.2.1.4 Segregation

Segregation is a condition resulting from the local concentration of any of the constituents of
an alloy.

i) General segregation

It extends over a considerable part of a casting.

ii) Local segregation

When the shrinkage voids or hot tears are wholly or partially filled with a constituent of low
melting point.
 1-24

iii) Banded segregation

This is mainly associated with centrifugal castings but can occasionally occur in static
castings also.

1.3.2.1.5 Inclusions

An inclusion is a foreign matter entrapped in the casting. This may be of different types
i.e. sand, slag, flux or dross.

1.3.2.2 Welding processes and related defects

Welding can be defined as the metallurgical method of joining, applied to the general
problem of construction and fabrication. It consists of joining two pieces of metal by
establishing a metallurgical atom-to-atom bond, as distinguished from a joint held together
by friction or mechanical interlocking. This metallurgical atom-to-atom bond is achieved by
the application of heat and sometimes pressure.

Different welding processes along with their abbreviation are listed below:

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), flux cored arc welding (FACW), gas metal welding
(GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), submerged arc welding (SAW), resistance
welding (RW), stud welding (SW), electroslag welding (ESW), plasma arc welding
(PAW), oxyfuel welding (OFW), torch brazing (TB) and electron beam welding (EBW)

A variety of defects occur in welds. Some of these are discussed below:

1.3.2.2.1 Gas inclusions

Gas may develop during welding due to many factors like the quality of the parent metal,
the electrodes used, poor regulation of the arc current, etc. The gas may get entrapped and
take various forms.

i) Gas pore

It is a small bubble of gas entrapped within the molten metal. It has a diameter usually less
than 1.6 mm (1/16 inch). A group of gas pores is termed as porosity. The type of porosity
within a weld is usually designated by the amount and distribution of the pores. Some of the
types are classified as follows:

 Uniformly Scattered Porosity: It is characterized by pores scattered uniformly

throughout the weld.

 Cluster porosity: It is characterized by cluster of pores that are separated by porosity free
areas.

 Linear Porosity: It is characterized by pores that are linearly distributed and which
generally occurs in the root pass and is associated with lack of penetration.

ii) Blow hole

It is similar to a gas pore except that it is a little larger in dimension.

 1-25

iii) Pipe or wormhole

Some gas inclusions have an elongated form known as wormholes or pipes. They are
usually almost perpendicular to the weld surface. They can result from the use of wet
powdered flux or from inadequate regulation of the welding current. Another typical form of
pipe has the appearance of a branch of a tree. These can be caused by use of wet welding
electrodes.

1.3.2.2.2 Slag inclusions

Most weld inclusions contain slag that has been trapped in the deposited metal during
solidification. The slag may come from the electrode coating or flux employed. The purpose
of the flux is to remove impurities from the metal. If the metal fails to remain molten for a
period sufficient to allow the slag to rise to the surface some slag may be trapped within the
metal. In multipass welding insufficient cleaning and brushing of the bead between passes
may not remove all the slag coating. This may then be trapped in the metal by a subsequent
pass. Dirty and irregular surfaces, ripple and undercut will contribute to slag entrapment.
Slag inclusions are frequently associated with lack of penetration, poor fusion, oversize root
faces, too narrow a groove and faulty electrode manipulation.

1.3.2.2.3 Lack of penetration

Frequently the root of a weld will not be adequately filled with weld metal and a void is left.
This inadequate penetration may be caused by too small a root opening, too large an
electrode, insufficient weld current, excessive welding speed, improper groove preparation
etc. In joints requiring complete penetration this type of defect is generally not acceptable
and requires complete removal and rewelding.

1.3.2.2.4 Lack of fusion

This is due to the lack of union in a weld between the weld metal and parent metal or
between parent metal and parent metal or between weld metal and weld metal.
Consequently the lack of fusion can be of three types namely lack of side fusion, lack of root
fusion and lack of inter-run fusion.

1.3.2.2.5 Tungsten inclusions

Tungsten inclusions are characteristic of the inert atmosphere welding methods. If the
tungsten electrode which supports the electric arc comes into contact with the weld metal,
some tungsten particles are trapped in the deposited metal. These may be in the form of
small splinters or even as pieces of the tungsten wire.
 1-26

1.3.2.2.6 Cracks

A crack is a discontinuity due to the fracture of the metal during or after solidification.
Depending upon the cause, cracks have been classified as under:

i) Hot tear

This type of crack develops near solidification temperature when the metal is weak. The
defect occurs mainly at, or near to a change of section and may not be continuous.

ii) Stress cracks

A well defined and approximately straight crack, formed due to large stresses after the metal
has become completely solid.

1.3.2.2.7 Burn through

A burn through area is that portion of the weld bead where excessive penetration has caused
the weld pool to be blown into the pipe or vessel. It is caused by factors, such as high
current, slow rod speed, incorrect rod manipulation etc., that produce excessive heat in one
area. It is often accompanied by excessive drop through of the metal on the inside of the
weld.

1.3.2.2.8 Root pass oxidation

Oxidation is the result of insufficient protection of the weld and heat affected zone from the
atmosphere. Severe oxidation will occur on stainless steels, for example, reducing corrosion
resistance if the joint is not purged with an inert gas.

1.3.2.2.9 Root concavity

Root concavity is commonly produced by the FCAW process. This is a groove created in
the root of a butt weld welded from one side only. In overhead welding the molten metal
sinks into the weld preparation due to the force of gravity while in the flat weld position the
molten metal may be pulled up by surface tension into the weld preparation to create such a
cavity.

1.3.2.2.10 Undercut

During welding of the final or cover pass, the exposed upper edges of the bevelled weld
preparation tend to melt and run down into the deposited metal in the weld groove.
Undercutting occurs when insufficient filler metal is deposited to fill the resultant grooves at
the edge of the weld bead. The result is a groove that may be intermittent or continuous and
parallel to the weld bead. Undercutting may be caused by excessive welding current,
incorrect arc length, high speed, incorrect electrode manipulation etc.
 1-27

1.3.2.2.11 Change of electrode

At points where the electrodes are changed while making the cover pass an unskilled welder
may choose the wrong position for starting the new electrode. Sometimes slag inclusions
occur at the point at which electrodes were changed.

1.3.2.2.12 Excessive penetration

In welds, sometimes, molten metal runs through the root of the weld groove producing an
excessive reinforcement at the back side of the weld. In general this is not continuous but
has an irregular shape with characteristic hanging drops of the excess metal.

1.3.2.2.13 Electrode spatter

If improper electrodes or long arcs are used, droplets of molten metal are spattered about the
weld region. These drops stick to the metal surface near the weld seam.

1.3.2.2.14 Grinding marks

When weld reinforcements are not ground out smoothly, the resultant thickness varies above
and below that of the base metal.

1.3.2.3 Forging and rolling processes and related defects

Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing and is the
oldest of the metal forming processes. Most forging operations are carried out hot, although
some metals are cold-forged. The hot working of metals in the forging process results in an
improvement in the mechanical properties. This method of shaping is therefore used in the
manufacture of parts requiring good mechanical properties. Improvement in the mechanical
properties results from a general consolidation of the metal and closing of gas and
contraction cavities by means of mechanical pressure, a refinement of the crystal structure
and a destruction of the continuity of intergranular concentrations of impurities and
inclusions.

Some forging processes are shown in Figure 1.12.

The flattening of metal between rollers is used for the production of strip, sheet, plate, bar
and sections. Since the metal is formed by a squeezing action, rolling can be considered as a
continuous forging process with the rolls acting as hammers and the metal being drawn
down.
 1-28

Figure 1.12: Forging operations; (a, b) edging; (c) fullering; (d) drawing, (e) swaging,
(f) back extruding; (g) punching.

Another process which is similar to rolling is extrusion. In principle, extrusion is similar to

squeezing toothpaste from a toothpaste tube The raw material is a heated cast billet of the
required metal. The pressure necessary to force the metal through the die is provided by the
hydraulic ram. The process is shown in Figure 1.13.

Figure 1.13: Extrusion Process

 1-29

Defects in forging and rolling may originate in the slab or billet modified by the rolling and
forging of the material or may result from the process itself (Figure 1.14). The common
defects in forging and rolling processes are described below:

Figure 1.14: Rolling & forging and their defects.

1.3.2.3.1 Laminations

Large porosity, pipes and non-metallic inclusions in slabs or billets are flattened and spread
out during the rolling and forging processes. These flattened defects are known as
laminations.
 1-30

1.3.2.3.2 Stringer

Non-metallic inclusions in slabs or billets that are thinned and lengthened in the direction of
rolling by the rolling process, are called stringers.

1.3.2.3.3 Seams

Surface irregularities such as cracks in the slab or billet are stretched out and lengthened
during rolling and are then called seams. Seams may also be caused by folding of the metal
due to improper rolling. Seams are surface defects and on finished bars will appear as either
continuous or broken straight lines. On round bar stock they will appear as straight or
slightly spiral lines either continuous or broken.

1.3.2.3.4 Forging laps

Forging laps are the discontinuities caused by the folding of metal in a thin plate on the
surface of the forging. They are irregular in contour.

1.3.2.3.5 Forging burst

Forging bursts or cracks are ruptures caused by forging at too low a temperature. They may
be internal or may occur at the surface.

1.3.2.4 Other processes and related defects

1.3.2.4.1 Heat treatment

Heat treatment is the operation of heating and cooling of a solid metal or alloy in such a
way as to obtain desired conditions or properties. Annealing process is used for softening
and to release internal stresses. For annealing the steel is heated slowly to a temperature
between 800C and 1000C. It is then held at this temperature for sufficient time and then
cooled slowly in furnace and embeded in sand, ash or some other non-conducting material.
Normalizing process in done to refine the structure and to remove strains. For normalizing
the steel is slowly heated to about 1000C and allowed to cool in air. Hardening and
quenching process is used to increase the hardness. For hardening the steel is heated to
above the transformation temperature and then suddenly cooling it by dipping it in a bath
of cold water or oil.

Heat treatment cracks are often caused by stresses built up during heating and cooling.
Unequal cooling between light and heavy sections may cause heat treatment cracks.

1.3.2.4.2 Machining

Machining is a shape-producing process in which a power-driven device causes material

to be removed in chip form. Most machining is done with equipment that supports both
the workpiece and the cutting tool. Turning & boring, drilling, milling, planning, shaping
and surface grinding are some of the machining processes (Figure 1.15).
 1-31

Figure 1.15: Feed and cutting motions.

Machine tears are caused by dull machine tools. They will show up as short irregular lines
at right angles to the direction of machining. They are the result of the tool removing the
metal more through a tearing action than through a cutting action.

Grinding the surface of a part may cause the surface to heat up. If a coolant is not used,
excessive heating and cooling of the surface may result in fine sharp cracks which occur at
right angles to the direction of grinding.

1.3.2.4.3 Plating

Coating of many metals can be deposited on other metals, and on non-metals by

electroplating, when suitably prepared. The principle of the process is shown in
Figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16: Electroplating

Plating cracks may occur if, during the preplating cleaning process, the surface of the part
is disturbed sufficiently to cause the release of internal stresses. The result is a fine pattern
of cracks.
 1-32

1.3.3 Service Conditions and Related Defects

In this general group of defects we will deal with those which result from the load placed
upon a component and the environment in which it is used.

1.3.3.1 Overstress

It may happen that a part is accidentally exposed to a load which is much greater than its
design load. When this occurs the component should be checked for plastic deformation or
fracture, both of which may have occurred to relieve the high stress within the part.

1.3.3.2 Fatigue

Repeated or fluctuating stresses, well under the tensile strength of a material, may lead to
fatigue cracks. Such cracks tend to form as microscopic cracks, then to grow progressively.
Current maintenance practice is to use non-destructive testing frequently enough to monitor
fatigue crack growth, thus enabling the component to be removed from service before
failure occurs. The rate of crack propagation is the factor which determines the inspection
frequency. Fatigue cracks are usually open to the surface where they start from stress-
concentration points.

1.3.3.3 Corrosion

A metal may interact chemically with its environment, producing a deterioration of the
metal. This deterioration can either be uniform or localized. Corrosion can reduce the load
bearing area of a part and can cause the creation of pits which act as stress raisers.

1.3.3.4 Creep

A permanent change in the physical dimensions of a metal caused by the application of a

continuous stress usually at elevated temperature is known as creep. A component under
creep loading will eventually fracture (rupture) if the strain occurring during creep does
not relieve the stress. Depending on the alloy, the appearance of the stress-rupture fracture
(creep fracture) may be macroscopically brittle or ductile.

1.3.3.5 Brittle fracture

Brittle fracture occurs without any warning through deformation, elongation or a change of
shape. In brittle fracture the plastic flow is inhibited either by the effective locking of atomic
dislocations by precipitates or elements or by the pre-existence or formation of cracks and
imperfections acting as local stress raisers in the material. It usually has a characteristic
bright sparkling appearance when freshly fractured. Small quantities of hydrogen have a
great effect on the ductility of some metals and cause brittle fracture.

1.3.3.6 Other service conditions and defects

1.3.3.6.1 Stress corrosion cracking

Another serious problem occurs in situations where a component is under stress in a hostile
or corrosive environment. Both factors contribute to the rapid corrosion and growth of
cracks. For example austenite chromium-nickel steels that are highly stressed in tension may
transcrystalline or intercrystalline cracks when exposed to certain corrosive media.
 1-33

1.3.3.6.2 Intergranular corrosion cracking

Corrosion occurring preferentially at the grain boundaries is known as intergranular

corrosion. Often the grain boundaries form anodes and the grains themselves form cathodes,
causing a complete deterioration of the metal in which it simply crumbles when it fails. This
often occurs in stainless steels in which chromium carbides precipitate at the grain
boundaries.

1.3.3.6.3 Wear losses

Wear may be defined as undesired removal of material from contacting surfaces by

mechanical action. Wear is ordinarily slow process that is related to the friction between
two surfaces. Different types of wear include abrasive wear, erosive wear, corrosive wear
and surface fatigue. Wear is one of the most frequent causes of failure.