Haldia Institute of Technology

Name: Shresth Sanskar

University Roll No: 00719123
Semester: 4th
Subject Name: Materials Engineering
Subject Code: ES-ME401
Assignment No: 1
Submitted to: Dr. Nilabha Sankar Mitra

2021-06-25
Q1. What is a crystal defect and how the crystal defects are classified?

Ans) Any disturbance in the periodical arrangement of crystal structure is referred as crystal defect.
These defects can be classified as 0, 1D, 2D, etc.

 0 dimensional defects are vacancies and/or impurity particles present at various lattice sites in the
crystal.
 1 dimensional defect is called as line defects or dislocations. The movement of these dislocations
strongly influences the mechanical properties of the material.
 2 dimensional defects are called as planar defects or stacking faults. The fault changes the stacking
sequence of atomic sheet in the crystal. For example, the atomic stacking sequence of FCC crystal is
ABCABCABC. Let say if we remove one of the atomic sheet ‘C’, and it leads to ABABCABC. The
ABAB stacking sequence corresponds to HCP.
 Other defects are grain boundaries. The metal contains huge number of grains which are oriented
in different crystallographic directions with respect to each other. The boundary between two grains
is called as grain boundary and is accommodated with dislocations.

Q2. Distinguish between substitution and interstitial atoms.

Ans)

Substitutional atom Interstitial atom

For substitutional type, solute or impurity atom
replaces or substitutes for the host.
Substitutional atoms are usually chemically similar
and are similar in size to the host atom
Consequence is that they creates substitutional lattice
and new phase will form.
For interstitial type, impurity atom fills the voids or
interstices among the host atom.
Interstitial atoms are smaller atoms than the host
atom.
Consequence is that they introduce some lattice
strain on adjacent host atom.

Q3. Distinguish between tilt boundaries and twin boundaries.

Ans)

Tilt boundaries Twin boundaries

A tilt boundary, between two slightly miss-aligned
grains appears as an array of edge dislocation.
Described as set of parallel, equally spaced edge
dislocation of same sign located one above other.
These are the boundaries in the grains at which the
atomic arrange on one side of the boundary is the
mirror image of the atom on the other side.
A special case of a large angle grain boundary for
which there is no atomic misfit.

Q4. What is a Burger’s vector? Discuss the significance of Burger’s Vector in edge
dislocation?
Ans) The Burger’s Vector is the amount by which the lattice of the crystal have been displaced with
respect to the other lattices.
Significance of the Burger’s Vector in edge dislocation is that in edge dislocations, the Burger’s
vector and dislocation line are perpendicular to one another. The Burgers vector is significant in
determining the yield strength of a material by affecting solute hardening, precipitation hardening
and work hardening.
Q5. What is solid solution strengthening? How concentration of the solute atoms
Influence the process of solid solution strengthening?
Ans) Solid solution strengthening is the method of improving the strength of the metal by adding solute
atom from another element to impede the movement to dislocation in the crystal lattice of the metal.

Higher concentrations of the solute increase the strength proportionately in the process of solid
solution strengthening.
Larger concentration of solute atom produces more obstacles to dislocation movement, and
strength is proportional to √C , where C stands for concentration.

Q6. Why ductile fracture is preferred than brittle fracture? Explain different stages
of cup and cone type fracture?
Ans) Ductile fracture is preferred more than brittle fracture because a brittle fracture takes much less
energy to propagate than a ductile fracture. In practice, something designed on yield strength or
ultimate tensile strength will fail at much lower stresses if the fracture mode is changed to brittle.
A classic example is lowering the temperature of a ferrite steel may put it below the ductile/brittle
transition temperature, leading to brittle failure. Additionally, brittle fractures are fast. There is no
pre failure deformation as in ductile failure, just a sudden break.

The steps of the cup and cone fracture (tensile fracture) can be as follows:

 Necking – The applied tensile force on the metal causes elastic strain in the body.
The elastic strain comes with a reduction in the cross-sectional area of
the metal. When the reduction in the cross-section of metal occurs,
neck formation can be observed.

 Formation of Small Cavities - As a result of the applied force, small voids or shelters form in the
neck of the metal. The actual reason for the formation of small cavities
is the separation of inclusions or other particles from the matrix of the
metal. Applied tensile stress causes the separation of particles from the
matrix. The formation of voids start at hydrostatic tension reaches its
maximum values. The peak of the pressure is usually observed at the
center of the neck.

 Cracks Formation - The formed cavities coalescence with each other. The linking up
cavities cause the formation of crack. The formed crack locates at the
fracture surface. A newly formed crack is generally perpendicular to
the direction of the applied tensile stress.

 Cup and Cone Failure -
As the applied tensile force has remained on the metal, the internal
crack propagates until the final failure of the edges. The failure of the
edges are often caused by shear stresses. The shear of the edges is also
occurred by the formation and growth of micro voids. This total failure
of the metal part is called the cup and cone fracture because of the
shape of the fracture surfaces. The direction of the shear makes an
angle of 45°with the applied stress.

Q7. Explain different and important points and stages in a stress strain curve for
mild steel. Also explain the reasons of the presence of upper yield point and
lower yield point in case of mild steel.
Ans)
 Below is a stress-strain graph that reviews the properties of steel in detail

Important points:

 Point A: Elastic limit, this is the point up to which material will regain its original shape and
geometry when unloaded.
 Point B: Upper yield point.
 Point C: Lower yield point.
 Point D: Ultimate point, the maximum load which it can take.
 Point F: Fracture point where metal will break.

Reasons for the presence of upper yield point and lower yield point is the phenomenon associated with
interstitial and substitutional impurities in case of mild steel. Interstitial carbon and nitrogen are much larger
when compared to void they occupy in ferrite. So they tend to segregate to the voids in order to minimize
their distortion energy thereby creating an atmosphere around the dislocations famously known as Cottrell
Atmosphere. The breakaway stress required for dislocation to cut through the solute atom becomes large and
this gives rise to upper yield point. When sufficient amount of stress is applied and dislocation lines are
freed from the solute atom, slip occurs at a lower stress. The dislocations released into the slip planes piles
up at the grain boundaries and stress produced by applied stress in next grain unlock more source of
dislocations causing a lower yield point.