Unit 1 Sentence Patterns: General Objective

UNIT 1
SENTENCE PATTERNS
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
Students are able to write correct English sentences based on basic sentence patterns.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Students are able to write English sentences using English sentence patterns.
2. Students are able to write English sentences in correct grammar and spelling.
3. Students are able to write English sentences in statement, yes/no question,
question with question word, and passive voice.
SENTENCE
What is a sentence?
A sentence makes a complete statement or asks a question.
Statements
All statements consist of two parts:
• the subject, the word or words the sentence makes a statement about
• the predicate, the word (or, in most cases, words) that make the statement about the
subject
Questions
Questions reverse the order of the subject and the verb. Often the verb is split, with the
helping verb preceding the subject and the remainder of the verb following the subject.
Many questions begin with question words such as who, where, what, or why.
THE FOUR BASIC SENTENCE PATTERN

Although you’ll be looking at nine sentence patterns, let’s begin with the four that are
used most frequently.
Pattern 1: Subject + Verb

In this first pattern, the subject is followed by an intransitive verb, which cannot take an
object. Many intransitive verbs, however, are followed by a prepositional phrase or
modified by adverbs:
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EXERCISE I : Writing Sentences in Pattern 1
Write sentences using the verbs in parentheses. One of your sentences should be a
question.
1. (went) I went to the store.
2. (fell) _______________________________________________ ____
3. (am talking) _______________________________________________ ____
4. (travelled) _______________________________________________
5. (is lying) _______________________________________________
6. (spoke) _______________________________________________
Pattern 2: Subject + Verb + Direct Object

The second pattern includes a transitive verb, which almost always takes a direct object.
Descriptive words or phrases may follow the verb and its object:
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EXERCISE 2 : Writing Sentences in Pattern 2
question.
1. (heard) I heard you noise.
2. (gave) ___________________________________________________
3. (took) ___________________________________________________
4. (am making) ___________________________________________________
5. (wilt do) ___________________________________________________
6. (want) ___________________________________________________
Pattern 3: Subject + Linking Verb + Subject Complement

This pattern includes a linking verb (be, become, appear, seem, feel, taste, and smell),
which does not express an action. Instead it links the subject to a subject complement—
an adjective that describes the subject or a noun that renames it:

question.
1. (sounds) The music sounds great.
2. (is) ___________________________________________________
3. (became) ___________________________________________________
4. (acts) ___________________________________________________
5. (was) ___________________________________________________
6. (seemed) ___________________________________________________
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Pattern 4: Subject + Verb + Indirect Object+ Direct Object
In this pattern, the transitive verb is followed by both an indirect object and a direct
object. The direct object receives the action of the verb. The indirect object receives the
direct object. It’s the person or thing to whom or for whom the action was done:

question.
1. (made) ____________________________________________________
2. (gave) ____________________________________________________
3. (will send) ____________________________________________________
4. (are taking) ____________________________________________________
5. (mailed) ____________________________________________________
6. (served) ____________________________________________________
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OTHER SENTENCE PATTERNS
The five remaining sentence patterns are used less often than the first four.
Some, but not all, place the verb before the subject.
Pattern 5: There/It + Verb + Subject

In this pattern, the word there or it begins the sentence, and the subject comes after the
verb. There and it are not the subjects but are simply ways of starting the sentence:
In the first example, the real subject is some pencils. In the second example, the subject
is to do the job (an infinitive and a phrase).

Complete the sentences using the words in parentheses. One of your sentences should
be a question.
1. (to sing) It _______________________________________________
2. (a lot to do) There ___________________________________________
3. (ten o’clock) It _______________________________________________
4. (more than one hundred irregular verbs) It_________________________
5. (sad to hear) It _______________________________________________
6. (difficult) It _______________________________________________
Pattern 6: Verb + Remainder of Predicate

This pattern is called a command or an imperative sentence. Its implied subject (you) is
omitted, and the verb is the partial infinitive (without to). The sentence gives advice,
directions, or orders. The pattern cannot be used for questions:
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Write sentences using the verbs in parentheses. At least one sentence should use a
negative.
1. (touch) _____________________________________________________
2. (sit) _____________________________________________________
3. (go) _____________________________________________________
4. (take) _____________________________________________________
5. (run) _____________________________________________________
6. (swim) _____________________________________________________
Pattern 7: Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Infinitive

In this pattern, which uses verbs such as tell, ask, make, have, or get, the subject causes
the object to act in some way. A partial or full infinitive following the object expresses
that action:
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question.
1. (told) ____________________________________________________
2. (asked) ____________________________________________________
3. (made) ____________________________________________________
4. (wilt get) ____________________________________________________
5. (had) ____________________________________________________
6. (ordered) ____________________________________________________
Pattern 8: Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Partial Infinitive

or Gerund
In this pattern, the subject observes the object as it acts. Some examples of verbs
following the subject include see, hear, notice,feel, look at, listen to, and observe. The
action of the object is expressed by a partial infinitive or a gerund:

question.
1. (felt) _________________________________________________
2. (see) _________________________________________________
3. (noticed) _________________________________________________
4. (heard) _________________________________________________
5. (looked at) _________________________________________________
6. (is listening to) _________________________________________________
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Pattern 9: Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object + Object
Complement
In this pattern, the direct object is followed by an object complement—an adjective that
describes the object or a noun that renames it. Typical verbs for this pattern are make,
name, find, appoint, and elect:
EXERCISE 9: Writing Sentences in Pattern 9;0]

Write sentences using the words in parentheses. One of your sentences should be a
question.
1. (made) ______________________________________________
2. (will name) ______________________________________________
3. (elected) ______________________________________________
4. (appointed) ______________________________________________
5. (found/interesting) ______________________________________________
6. (leave) ______________________________________________
These nine basic patterns form simple sentences—those with only one clause.
EXERCISE 10 : Writing Questions

Respond to each of the statements with a question. Begin your response with a question
word.
1. Wilfredo is working. _______________________________
2. Maria is leaving tomorrow. _______________________________
3. Amir wants some help soon. _______________________________
4. Silvia gave me something to eat. _______________________________
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5. Someone told me a lie. _______________________________
6. He saw something move in the alley. _______________________________
PATTERN IN THE PASSIVE VOICE

All the patterns in this chapter have been in the active voice, in which the subject
performs the action of the verb. However, Patterns 2, 4, and 7 can be transformed into
the passive voice, in which the subject passively receives the action of the verb. In these
cases, the object becomes the subject, and the verb includes some form of to be
+ past participle.
Generally, we use the passive voice when the object of the action is more important
than the person or thing that performs it. Note that the person who performs the action
is not mentioned in two of the passive voice sentences in the examples:
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Here are examples of the passive voice in a number of tenses:
EXERCISE 11 : Writing Sentences in Passive Voice

Rewrite the active voice sentences in the passive voice. Be sure the verb tense is
correct.
1. Someone prepares breakfast for the guests every morning. Breakfast is
prepared for the guests every morning.
2. People speak Spanish in Mexico.
3. Someone fixed my car last week.
4. Someone will invite all the students to the meeting.
5. Someone has already fed the dog its meal.
6. Juan’s boss promoted him to manager last week.
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UNIT 2
TYPES OF SENTENCE
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
Students are able to write correct English sentences.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Students are able to write English simple sentences.
2. Students are able to write English compound sentences.
3. Students are able to write English complex sentences.
SIMPLE SENTENCE
A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and
it expresses a complete thought.
1. Some students like to study in the morning.

2. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon.
3. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day
The three examples above are all simple sentences. Note that sentence 2 contains a
compound subject, and sentence 3 contains a compound verb. Simple sentences,
therefore, contain a subject and verb and express a complete thought, but they can also
contain a compound subjects or verbs.
The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only one clause.
A simple sentence can be as short as one word:
Run!
Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both the subject
and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are simple sentences,
because each contains only one clause:
Melt!
Ice melts.
The ice melts quickly.
The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the river melts quickly
under the warm March sun.
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As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long - it is a mistake to think that you
can tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a complex sentence simply by
its length.
The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the first kind which
children learn to speak, and it remains by far the most common sentence in the spoken
language of people of all ages. In written work, simple sentences can be very effective
for grabbing a reader's attention or for summing up an argument, but you have to use
them with care: too many simple sentences can make your writing seem childish.
When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to connect them
to the surrounding sentences
COMPOUND SENTENCE
A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses, but no

dependent clauses. The clauses are joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction,
a comma and a correlative conjunction, or a semicolon with no conjunction.
Examples:
He finally read the book, or so I thought.
The two independent clauses are joined by a comma and the coordinating conjunction
"or."
Either he goes, or I go.
The compound sentence is held together by a comma and the correlative conjunction
"either ... or."
Mary understands math; she has studied it for years.
Here, the two are joined by a semicolon, with no conjunction.
Compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The

coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter
of each of the coordinators spells FANBOYS.) Except for very short sentences,
coordinators are always preceded by a comma.
A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.

B. Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.
C. Alejandro played football, for Maria went shopping.
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The above three sentences are compound sentences. Each sentence contains two
independent clauses, and they are joined by ‘a coordinator’ with a comma preceding it.
Note how the conscious use of coordinators can change the relationship between the
clauses. Sentences B and C, for example, are identical except for the coordinators. In
sentence B, which action occurred first? Obviously, "Alejandro played football" first,
and as a consequence, "Maria went shopping. In sentence C, "Maria went shopping"
first. In sentence C, "Alejandro played football" because, possibly, he didn't have
anything else to do, for or because "Maria went shopping." How can the use of other
coordinators change the relationship between the two clauses? What implications
would the use of "yet" or "but" have on the meaning of the sentence?
Special Cases of Compound Sentences

There are two special types of compound sentences which you might want to note.
First, rather than joining two simple sentences together, a co-ordinating conjunction
sometimes joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence and one complex
sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compound-complex sentence:
Compound-complex
The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could check the
contents.
The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible to join two originally
separate sentences into a compound sentence using a semicolon instead of a co-
ordinating conjunction:
Sir John A. Macdonald had a serious drinking problem; when sober, however, he could
be a formidable foe in the House of Commons.
Usually, a conjunctive adverb like "however" or "consequently" will appear near the
beginning of the second part, but it is not required:
The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west.
Create a compound sentence by using the two independent clauses and the
conjunction!
COMPLEX SENTENCE
A complex sentence consists of one independent clause, and one or more dependent
clauses. The clauses are connected through either a subordinate conjunction or a relative
pronoun. The dependent clause may be the first or second clause in the sentence. If the
first clause in the sentence is dependent, a comma usually separates the two clauses.
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Example:
We had to go inside when it started raining.

Independent clause Dependent clause
The independent clause comes first, and is linked to The subordinate (dependent) clause
with the subordinating conjunction "when."
Example:
As long as it isn't cold , it doesn't matter if it rains.

Dependent clause Independent clause
The dependent clause is in first position, so there is a comma separating the two. The
dependent clause begins with the subordinating conjunction "as long as."
A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent

clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after,
although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. In the following
complex sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the subordinators and
their commas (when required) are in red.
A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.
C. The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow.
D. After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies.
E. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they finished studying.
When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such as sentences A and D, a

comma is required at the end of the dependent clause. When the independent clause
begins the sentence with subordinators in the middle as in sentences B, C, and E, no
comma is required. If a comma is placed before the subordinators in sentences B, C,
and E, it is wrong.
Note that sentences D and E are the same except sentence D begins with the dependent
clause which is followed by a comma, and sentence E begins with the independent
clause which contains no comma. The comma after the dependent clause in sentence D
is required, and experienced listeners of English will often hear a slight pause there. In
sentence E, however, there will be no pause when the independent clause begins the
sentence.
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COMPLEX SENTENCES / ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
Finally, sentences containing adjective clauses (or dependent clauses) are also complex
because they contain an independent clause and a dependent clause. The subjects,
verbs, and subordinators are marked the same as in the previous sentences, and in these
sentences, the independent clauses are also underlined.
A. The woman who(m) my mom talked to sells cosmetics.

B. The book that Jonathan read is on the shelf.
C. The house which Abraham Lincoln was born in is still standing.
D. The town where I grew up is in the United States.
Complex Sentence Structure Exercises
1. And wouldn't it be nice to live together

In the kind of world _______ we belong
A. which
B. that
C. where
D. to
2. And so I cry sometimes

______ I'm lying in bed
A. where
B. when
C. how
D. what
3. You got to do _____ you should.

A. that
B. which
C. what
D. how
4. (We're) caught in a trap, I can't walk out

_______ I love you too much, baby
A. Because
B. Why
C. That
D. Therefore
5. I know that you can love me

______ there's no one left to blame
A. While
B. When
C. What
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D. That
6. I just want you to know ____ I am.

A. who
B. whom
C. that
D. when
7. I swear _____ I really want to know.

A. that
B. what
C. how
D. who
8. Feeling good was easy, Lord

______ he sang the blues
A. What
B. When
C. That
D. How
9. He’s plain ugly to me,

and I wonder ___ he’s ever had a day of fun in his whole life
A. which
B. that
C. what
D. if
10. There's a lady ____ sure

All that glitters is gold
A. whose
B. whom
C. who
D. who's
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UNIT 3
PUNCTUATION MARKS
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
Students are able to use punctuation marks in writing compound, complex, and compound-
complex sentences.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Students are able to use punctuation marks in writing compound sentences.
2. Students are able to use punctuation marks in writing complex snetences.
3. Students are able to analyze the use and misused of punctuation marks in a paragraph.
PUNCTUATION MARKS
Punctuation is the conventional graphic system that uses symbols—punctuation marks—to

separate or link sentences and their parts in order to make written English grammatically
clear. Some aspects of punctuation are meant to suggest graphically what intonation makes
clear in speech; other sorts of punctuation are visual signals only, often conveying meanings
that cannot be signalled in speech.
Commonly Used and Misused Punctuation Marks
Comma (,)
1. Use commas to separate items in a series.

2. Example: Our itinerary included Rome, London, and Madrid.
3.
4. Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet, when they join independent clauses
(unless the clauses are short).
5. Example: The story gets off to a slow start, but it gets exciting toward the end.
6.
7. Use commas to set off nonessential clauses and phrases.
8. Example: My father, who started this company, really knows his stuff.
9.
10. Use a comma after introductory elements.
11. Examples: Well, how do you do?
12. Before you leave, turn off the lights.
13.
14. Use commas to set off an expression that interrupts a sentence.
15. Examples: The article in The Herald, our local paper, is about writing skills. Cabs in New
York, I'm certain, obey the speed limit.
16.
17.
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18. Use a comma in certain conventional situations (to separate items in dates and addresses,
after the salutation and closing of a letter, and after a name followed by a title).
Examples: January 1, 1992
19. New York, NY
20. Dear Shirley,
21. Cordially,
22. Albert Schweitzer, Ph.D.
23.
Don't use unnecessary commas. Use them sparingly and only to clarify issues. Commas in
the wrong places can be confusing.
Apostrophe (')
1. To form the possessive case of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an s.
2. Examples: Bob's car; One's home.
3.
If the addition of an "s" produces an awkward sound, add only the apostrophe.
4. Usually, this is when there is already a double "s" sound.
5. Examples: Moses'; for old times' sake; for goodness' sake.
6.
7. To form the possessive case of a plural noun, add an apostrophe after the s.
8. Example: girls' teams.
9.
If the plural form of the word does not end in s, add an apostrophe and an s.
10. Example: women's team.
11.
12. Use an apostrophe to show where letters have been omitted in a contraction.
13. Examples: can't = cannot; it's = it is.
Semicolon (;)
1. Use a semicolon between independent clauses not joined by and, but, nor, for, yet, and so.
2. Example: Read what you've written; don't just pass it on.
3.
4. Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by such words as for example,
besides, nevertheless, etc.
5. Example: I think he's right; however, it's difficult to know.
6.
7. Use a semicolon between items in a series if the items contain commas.
8. Example: Winners in the competition were Bill, first place; Amy, second place; and Jeff,
third place.
9.
Colon (:)
1. Use a colon to mean "note what follows."
2. Example: When you go to training, take these items: paper, pencil, and an alert mind.
3. Use a colon before a long, formal statement or quotation.
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4. Example: We remember Lincoln's Gettysburg Address: Four score and seven years
5. ago....
Hyphen (-)
1. Use a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a line.
2. Example: If you are not sure where to hyphen-
3. ate a word, look it up in the dictionary.
4.
5. Hyphenate a compound adjective when it precedes the word it modifies.
Examples: fast-moving train, long-distance runner.
Dash (--)
1. Use a dash to indicate an abrupt break in thought.
2. Example: The truth is--and you probably know it--we can't do without you.
3.
4. Use a dash to mean namely, in other words, or that is before an explanation.
5. Example: It was a close call--if he had been in a worse mood, I don't think I'd still be here.
Quotation Marks (" ")

1. Put periods and commas inside quotes.
2. Put colons and semicolons outside quotes.
Vary placement of exclamation and question marks according to meaning.
The sentence and the full stop

The full stop is the most important punctuation mark. It shows the end of the sentence. The
English language also uses capital letters at the beginning of sentences.
For example:
The first schools in what is now British Columbia were established by the Hudson’s Bay
Company in about 1853 on Vancouver Island. The present public school system originated
with the Public School Act of 1872. Education is free and compulsory for children ages 7 to
15. Schools are funded by the provincial government and local property taxes. The province’s
75 school districts are administered by locally elected boards.
The comma
The comma is the most important punctuation mark after the full stop. Its main use is for
separating parts of sentences. Commas function in five main ways:
1. Before or after adverbial clauses and groups.
2. Before various connectives to join two independent clauses.
3. To separate some non-defining phrases from the rest of the sentence.
4. To separate words, groups and clauses in a series.
5. To separate adjectives that separately modify the same noun.
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Explanation :
1. Before or after adverbial clauses and phrases

For example:
Recently, the number of service enterprises in wealthier free-market economies has grown
rapidly.
Subsequently, the aircraft underwent numerous design changes before it was incorporated into
the Type 4 jet aircraft.
To visit his brother, he drove through the night.
After dinner, he walked around the town.
Although it might seem highly unlikely, there are considerable similarities between the male
and female body.
Similar feelings influenced middle-class shareholders and directors, too.
2. Before various connectives to join two independent clauses

(and, but, or, so nor, for yet)
For example:
What we require is a National Emergency Government, but no two men I meet can agree how
this can be formed.
The house badly needed painting, and the roof needed repairing.
These experiments led to theories about how development was controlled in terms of cell and
tissue properties, but it was very difficult to link these theories with gene action.
3. To separate certain phrases from the rest of the sentence

For example:
Malaria, once a widespread disease, is under control.
Day-to-day television, in its regularity and its availability, seems regulated by repetition and
modulated by acceptable difference.
Mr Clinton, the President, said that he would give his full support to the proposal.
The Conservatives, who had gained more votes than Labour in the 1929 general election,
were only the second largest party.
The chairman, getting to his feet, began to describe his plans.
The opposition parties, however, were unwilling to accept any programme of economies
which did not involve a cut in the standard rate of benefit.
.
4. To separate words, phrases and clauses in a series

For example:
Many U.S. firms attempt to tap emerging markets by pursuing business in China, India, Latin
America, and Russia and other Eastern European countries.
Life-support machines are no different in principle from medicines, surgery, or other
treatment.
A policeman has to be able to work at night, at weekends and on holidays.
The industrial power generator, electronics, and appliance manufacturer Westinghouse
Electric Corporation purchased media production company CBS Inc.
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5. To separate adjectives that separately modify the same noun.
For example:
Critics praise the novel's unaffected, unadorned style.
It was conceived of by all those who participated in it as a temporary, emergency government.
He walked with long, slow, steady, deliberate strides.
Common mistakes
A comma cannot separate subject from predicate. The following sentences are not possible:
*A man of his great abilities, would always be successful.
*The number of service enterprises in wealthier free-market economies, has grown rapidly.
*Only occupants of the deep oceans or the darkest recesses of caves, will escape such
rhythmic influences.
*Experience indicates that, these rhythms do not result wholly from our life-style.
A comma cannot be used to join grammatically separate sentences. The following sentences
are not possible:
*London is a very cosmopolitan city, there are people from many culture living there.
*Learning a new language is like learning to swim, it takes a lot of practice.
*Students in Higher Education face many problems, for example, they have to cope with a
new culture.
The apostrophe
The apostrophe has two main functions in English, but only one in academic writing. It is
used mainly to show possession or relationship. It is also used in informal writing to show
contraction or letters left out.
Possession or relationship
The apostrophe precedes the 's' in singular words and plurals that do not end in 's'. It follows
the 's' in plurals that end in 's'. The apostrophe is not used with the possessive pronouns 'hers',
'yours', 'theirs' and 'its'.
For example:
Two years earlier, The Economist had described gambling, as Britain's second biggest
industry.
By then Leonardo's expertise with paint brush and palette, pen and pencil was already well
advanced.
In contrast to the all-inclusiveness of other countries' socialised medical services, 40m
Americans have no coverage at all.
The third and main reason is the process of extracting fibre from the plant's stem.
Common mistakes
An apostrophe cannot be used to make plurals. The following are not possible: CD’s,
Thank’s.
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Quotation marks
In academic writing, quotation marks are used to show that you are quoting directly from
another author's work. The quotation marks should enclose the actual words of the author and
all bibliographical information must be given.
For example:
Hillocks (1986) similarly reviews dozens of research findings. He writes, " The available
research suggests that teaching by written comment on compositions is generally ineffective"
(p. 167).
For example, McCawley stated in 1968, " ... a full account of English syntax requires a fairly
full account of semantics to just as great an extent as the converse is true" (p. 161).
Hatch (1978, p. 104) wonders whether a more accurate portrayal might be that the learner "
learns how to do conversation, how to interact verbally and out of this interaction syntactic
structures are developed" .
Note the punctuation before the quotation marks:

When a reporting verb is used to introduce the quotation, a comma is used.
He stated, " The ‘placebo effect,’ ... disappeared when behaviours were studied in this
manner" (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviours were studied.
When the quotation is integrated into the structure of your sentence, no punctuation is used.
Richterich and Chancerel (1980, p. 5) maintain that " assessment should be an integral part of
the learning material" .
When the quotation is independent of the structure of the main sentence, a colon is used.
Miele (1993, p. 276) found the following: " The placebo effect ... disappeared when behaviors
were studied in this manner" .
Colon
Colons are used to add extra information after a clause. This can be divided into three main
categories.
a. Lists
A colon can introduce a list.
We need three kinds of support: economic, moral and political.
The Labour government found itself under pressure from three directions: from the left wing,
from the TUC, and from Sir Oswald Mosley and his supporters.
b. Explanations
A colon can be used before an explanation.
We decided not to go on holiday: we had too little money.
It was conceived of by all those who participated in it as a temporary, emergency government,
formed for a single limited purpose: to balance the budget through drastic economies and
increases in taxation.
It was something very rarely seen in Britain, or in other democracies: an emergency
government.
c. Quotations
A colon is used before a quotation when the quotation is independent of the structure of the
main sentence.
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Miele (1993, p. 276) found the following: " The placebo effect ... disappeared when behaviors
were studied in this manner."
Note
Do not use a colon directly after a verb or a preposition that introduces the list, explanation or
quotation.
Semi-Colon
Semi-Colons have two main uses in academic writing.
a. To separate closely-related sentences
A semi-colon can be used to separate two sentences which could be written as independent
sentences but are very closely related in meaning.
A thorough and detailed biography of Arthur Henderson is also badly needed; the recent short
studies by F. M. Leventhal and Chris Wrigley add little in so far as the events of 1931 are
concerned.
Clearly, as the concentration of P rises, so will the proportion of enzyme molecules to which
P is bound; hence the rate of conversion of S to A, and thence to P, will fall.
In both cases a full stop would be acceptable. A comma would not.
b. Complicated Lists
A semi-colon can also be used to separate items in lists, especially if the items are long and
complicated and already contain commas.
Labour was the largest party with 288 MPs; the Conservatives, who had gained more votes
than Labour in the 1929 general election, were, nevertheless, only the second largest party
with, by 1931, 262 MPs; and the Liberals had fifty-nine MPs.
Latin literature continued to be copied by Christian aristocrats; classical learning survived in
the teaching
Capital letters
Capital letters have two main uses in English: they are used at the beginning of sentences and
for proper names.
a. At the beginning of a sentence
If football was a business, it was a very peculiar one. Clubs did not compete with one another
to attract larger crowds by reducing their prices. Nor did they make any serious efforts to
derive income from a huge fixed asset, which was used for only a few hours a week.
b. Proper names
Personal names: John, Ms Smith, Dr Brown, Mr Gates, Elizabeth,
Titles: Mr, Ms, Dr, Colonel, Professor, President, Prime Minister, Judge
Geographical names: Argentinian, Europe, China, Mount Everest, Lake Michigan Skye,
Borneo, London, Bangkok, the River Thames, the Pacific Ocean, the Panama Canal,
Baker Street, Cambridge Road, Raffles Hotel, St George's Hall
Company/Organisation names: Shell, Woolworths, Microsoft, Boots, World Trade
Organisation, World Health Organisation, Federal Trade Commission, British
Broadcasting Corporation
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University/School names: Oxford University, University of Hertfordshire, Royal College
of Music
Religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam
Days, months, festivals - but not seasons: Monday, July, Christmas, summer,
Magazines: Newsweek, Vogue, The Times, New Scientist
Languages: English, Hindi
Nationalities: English, French, Spanish, Japanese, American
EXERCISES
This exercise will test your understanding of all kinds of different punctuation marks,
particularly commas, colons, semi-colons and apostrophes. Select the correctly punctuated
sentence.
1. A) Spain is a beautiful country; the beache's are warm, sandy and spotlessly clean.
B) Spain is a beautiful country: the beaches are warm, sandy and spotlessly clean.
C) Spain is a beautiful country, the beaches are warm, sandy and spotlessly clean.
D) Spain is a beautiful country; the beaches are warm, sandy and spotlessly clean.
2. A) The children's books were all left in the following places: Mrs Smith's room, Mr
Powell's office and the caretaker's cupboard.
B) The children's books were all left in the following places; Mrs Smith's room, Mr
C) The childrens books were all left in the following places: Mrs Smiths room, Mr
Powells office and the caretakers cupboard.
D) The children's books were all left in the following places, Mrs Smith's room, Mr
3. A) She always enjoyed sweets, chocolate, marshmallows and toffee apples.

B) She always enjoyed: sweets, chocolate, marshmallows and toffee apples.
C) She always enjoyed sweets chocolate marshmallows and toffee apples.
D) She always enjoyed sweet's, chocolate, marshmallow's and toffee apple's.
4. A) I can't see Tim's car, there must have been an accident.

B) I cant see Tim's car; there must have been an accident.
C) I can't see Tim's car there must have been an accident.
D) I can't see Tim's car; there must have been an accident.
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5. A) That tall man, Paul's grandad, is this month's winner.
B) That tall man Paul's grandad is this month's winner.
C) That tall man, Paul's grandad, is this months winner.
D) That tall man, Pauls grandad, is this month's winner.
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UNIT 4
WRITING A PARAGRAPH
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
Students are able to write a good paragraph.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Students are able to define a paragraph
2. Students are able to explain the parts of a paragraph.
3. Students are able to write a paragraph consisting of topic sentence, supporting
sentences, and closing/concluding sentences.
PARAGRAPH
A paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group of sentences

develops one main idea. The number of sentences a paragraph contains is not important.
It can be as short as one sentence or as long as nine sentences, the most important thing
is that the idea stated at the beginning is clearly developed.
Parts of a Paragraph
Three essential parts compose any paragraph: a topic sentence, supporting sentences
and a concluding sentence.
1. Topic Sentence: it states the main idea of the paragraph. It contains the name of
the topic that is to be carried out. This sentence has to be precise, but avoid
telling everything in the first sentence or your reader will lose interest. The topic
sentence serves to limit the topic to one or two areas that will be discussed
entirely in the space of one paragraph. The area is what we call the controlling
idea.
2. Supporting Sentences: they come after the topic sentence, making up the body
of a paragraph. They help develop the topic sentence. It means that these
sentences explain the topic by giving reasons, examples, facts, statistics, and
quotations.
3. Closing Sentences: it is the last sentence in a paragraph, it indicates that the
paragraph is ending and sums up important points to remember or reprises the
main idea. You write it restating the main idea of a paragraph but using different
words.
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TOPIC SENTENCE
A topic sentence usually comes at the beginning of a paragraph; that is, it is usually the
first sentence in a formal academic paragraph. (Sometimes this is not true, but as you
practice writing, please keep to this rule unless you are instructed otherwise.) Not only
is a topic sentence the first sentence of a paragraph, but, more importantly, it is the most
general sentence in a paragraph. What does "most general" mean? It means that there
are not many details in the sentence, but that the sentence introduces an overall idea that
you want to discuss later in the paragraph.
Topic Sentence
 usually the first sentence in the paragraph

 states the main idea of the paragraph
 usually an opinion rather than a fact
 anchors the rest of the paragraph
 defines your job as a writer
 tells the reader what to expect
Good topic sentences have two parts:
1. The first part states the subject or topic. (My senior year of high school . . . )
2. The second part expresses an attitude or says something about the topic. ( . . .
was challenging.)
For example, suppose that you want to write a paragraph about the natural landmarks of
your hometown. The first part of your paragraph might look like this:
My hometown is famous for several amazing

natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton
River, which is very wide and beautiful. Also, on the
other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is
unusual because it is very steep.
(Notice how the first sentence begins with "My hometown..." a few spaces to the right
of the paragraph edge. This is an indentation. All paragraphs in English MUST begin
with an indentation.)
Note how the first sentence, My hometown, Wheaton, is famous for several amazing
geographical features,is the most general statement. This sentence is different from the
two sentences that follow it, since the second and third sentences mention specific
details about the town's geography, and are not general statements.
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Here are some examples of sentences that cannot be used as topic sentences. Can you
figure out why they are inappropriate?
1. My hometown is famous because it is

located by Wheaton River, which is very
wide, and because it is built near an
unusually steep hill called Wheaton Hill.
2. There are two reasons why some people like

to buy cars with automatic transmission and
two reasons why others like cars with
manual transmission.
3. Clouds are white.
The problem with sentence #1 is that it contains too many details. Topic sentences are
general, and details should appear later in the paragraph. A better topic sentence would
be like the one mentioned above, My hometown is famous for several amazing
geographical features.
Sentence #2 is not appropriate as a topic sentence because it mentions two topics, not
just one. Paragraphs are usually about one main thing and so their topic sentences
should also be about only one main thing.
The problem with sentence #3 is that it is too general. It is also very boring! Would you
like to read a paragraph with this topic sentence? Most people would not.
 We can rewrite sentences #2 and #3 in the

following ways to make it better:
There are two reasons why some people like
to buy cars with automatic transmission.
OR (in a different paragraph):
 There are two reasons why some people like

cars with manual transmission.
 The shapes of clouds are determined by

various factors.
Examples
The population as a whole was unevenly distributed. The north was

particularly thinly settled and the east densely populated, but even in
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counties like Warwickshire where there were substantial populations,
some woodland areas were sparsely peopled. There was already
relatively dense settlement in the prime arable areas of the country like
Norfolk, Suffolk and Leicestershire. Modern estimates of England's
total population, extrapolated from Domesday patterns, vary between 1
and 3 million.
(Asa Briggs, (1983). A social history of England, p. 58)
Atoms of all elements consist of a central nucleus surrounded by a

"cloud" containing one or more electrons. The electrons can be thought
of as occupying a series of well-defined shells. The behaviour of a
particular element depends largely on the number of electrons in its
outermost shells. Other factors, such as the total number of electron
shells, also play a part in determining behaviour but it is the dominance
of the outer electron configuration that underlies the periodic law and
justifies the grouping of the elements into groups or families.
(The sciences: Michael Beazley Encyclopaedias (1980), p. 118)
In general, Victorian families were big. In 1851 their average size was
4.7, roughly the same as it had been in the seventeenth century, but the
1½ million couples who married during the 1860s, which the historian
G. M. Young described as the best decade in English history to have
been brought up in, raised the figure to 6.2. Only one out of eight
families had one or two children, while one in six had ten or more, so
that the counsel 'little children should be seen and not heard' was
prudent rather than simply authoritarian advice.
(Asa Briggs, (1983). A social history of England, p. 244)
The spoken word (whether conversation or oratory or the coy mixture

of the two which is now familiar to us on television) is a very different
thing from the written word. What is effective or allowable or
desirable in the one may be quite the reverse in the other, and the
extempore speaker cannot correct himself by revision as the writer can
and should. It is therefore not fair to take a report of a speech or of an
oral statement and criticise it as if it were a piece of considered
writing.
(Ernest Gowers, (1973) The complete plain words, p. 26)
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SUPPORTING SENTENCES
 provide the main supporting points for the paragraph's main idea (topic
sentence)
 should be directly tied to the topic sentence
 usually 2 - 4 in a paragraph
 usually general claims
 arranged in logical order
 should be proven using concrete, specific evidence
Consider again the above-mentioned, short paragraph:
My hometown, Wheaton, is famous for several

amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the
Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful.
Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill,
which is unusual because it is very steep.
(Again, note how this paragraph is indented on the first line, about five or seven spaces
in from the left-hand edge of the paragraph. Always remember to indent your
paragraphs!)
When a reader reads a topic sentence, such as My hometown, Wheaton, is famous for
several amazing natural features,a question should usually appear in the reader's
mind. In this case, the question should be like, "What are the natural features that make
Wheaton famous?" The reader should then expect that the rest of the paragraph will
give an answer to this question.
Now look at the sentences after the topic sentence. We can see that the second sentence
in the paragraph, First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide and
beautiful,indeed gives an answer to this question. That is, the second sentence gives
some explanation for the fact that Wheaton is a famous town. Similarly, we can see that
the third sentence also gives some explanation for the fact that Wheaton is famous by
giving another example of an "amazing natural feature," in this case, Wheaton Hill.
The second and third sentences are called supporting sentences. They are called
"supporting" because they "support," or explain, the idea expressed in the topic
sentence. Of course, paragraphs in English often have more than two supporting
ideas. The paragraph above is actually a very short paragraph. At minimum, you
should have at least five to seven sentences in your paragraph. Here we can see our
paragraph about Wheaton with a few more supporting sentences in bold font:

unusual because it is very steep. The third amazing
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feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two
hundred feet tall and is probably about six
hundred years old.
CONCLUDING SENTENCE
In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of the paragraph
which summarizes the information that has been presented. This is the concluding
sentence. You can think of a concluding sentence as a sort of topic sentence in reverse.
You can understand concluding sentences with this example. Consider a hamburger
that you can buy at a fast-food restaurant.* A hamburger has a top bun (a kind of
bread), meat, cheese, lettuce, and other elements in the middle of the hamburger, and a
bottom bun. Note how the top bun and the bottom bun are very similar. The top bun, in
a way, is like a topic sentence, and the bottom bun is like the concluding
sentence. Both buns "hold" the meat, onions, and so on. Similarly, the topic sentence
and concluding sentence "hold" the supporting sentences in the paragraph. Let's see
how a concluding sentence (in bold font) might look in our sample paragraph about
Wheaton:

unusual because it is very steep. The third amazing
feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two
hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred
years old. These three landmarks are truly
amazing and make my hometown a famous place.
Notice how the concluding sentence, These three landmarks are truly amazing and
make my hometown a famous place,summarizes the information in the
paragraph. Notice also how the concluding sentence is similar to, but not exactly the
same as, the topic sentence.
Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the paragraph
is very short. However, if your paragraph is very long, it is a good idea to use a
concluding sentence.
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HOW TO WRITE A PARAGRAPH
Prewriting a Paragraph
The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for your
paragraph before you begin writing. There are six steps involved in this process. They
are the following:
1. Think carefully about what you are going to write. Ask yourself: "What question
am I going to answer in this paragraph or essay? How can I make this paragraph
interesting? What facts can be stated to support this topic?
2. Write your answers to the above questions and do not need to spend a lot of time
doing this. Just write enough to help you remember why and how you are
writing.
3. Collect facts related to your topic. Write down facts that will help you answer
your questions.
4. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What other things can I include about
this topic? Why should people be interested in this topic? Why is this topic
important?
5. Find the main idea of your paragraph: Chose the most important point. If you
cannot decide which is the most important one, just chose one and stick to it
throughout your paragraph.
6. Organize your facts and ideas to develop your topic, find the best way to tell the
reader about it. Decide which facts will support the main idea.
Writing a Paragraph
The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences and you communicate
them. Some important steps are the following:
 Write a topic sentence, some supporting sentences, and one closing sentence
 Make sure that the sentences are clear, simple, and they express what you really
mean
 Focus on the main idea of your paragraph
 Re-read what you wrote and see if the idea is clear and you can read it with ease
Editing a Paragraph
The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and correct them. Do
not forget to do the following:
 Check your grammar and spelling

 Read your text again and make sure each sentence makes sense
 See if your paragraph is interesting to read
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Rewriting tips
After you have written your first draft you need to revise your work. Here you have
some suggestions:
 Check subject-verb agreement in every sentence.

 Check spelling rules, capital letters and punctuation.
 Check word-order in the sentence; remember "every sentence MUST have a
subject" and the adjective usually precedes the noun.
 Check tense coherence: for instance if you are talking in the present check that
verbs are formed correctly in their present form. Check adding -s, -ed, -ing, etc.
 Check adjectives: Remember that adjectives have no plural in English.
 Is your text well organized?
 Do you have a clear introduction and conclusion?
EXERCISES
Exercise I : Topic Sentences

Objective: Given a paragraph, the student will select the topic sentence.
Directions: Read each paragraph and select the sentence which best expresses the main
idea.
1. Birds eat with their beaks. Different kinds of birds eat different foods. Some birds
open their beaks and eat food from the air. Some birds have long beaks to cut holes in
trees and dig out food. Some birds have strong hooks on their beaks so that they can
tear their food. Birds have different kinds of beaks because they eat different foods.
The topic sentence of this paragraph is:

(a) Birds eat with their beaks.
(b) Birds have different kinds of beaks because they eat different foods.
(c) Some birds open their beaks and eat food from the air .
(d) Some birds have strong beaks to cut holes in trees and dig out food.
2. For many years people have wished they could fly through the air like birds.
Skydivers have found a way to fly without a machine. They jump from an airplane and
fall at the rate of 120 miles an hour. The fall is so smooth that they don't feel like they're
moving at all. When they pull the ripcord on their parachute they float the rest of the
way to the ground.

(a) Skydivers have found a way to fly without a machine.
33
(b) The fall is so smooth that they don't feel like they're moving at all.
(c) For many years people have wished they could fly through the air like birds.
(d) They jump from an airplane and fall at the rate of 120 miles an hour.
3. Wilma Rudolph was very sick when she was four. She could not move her left leg.
Her mother rubbed her leg for a long time every night. When Wilma was six she would
hop a little. Wilma worked hard to learn to walk and run. When she went to high school
she ran on the girls' track team and won. Then she ran track in college. Wilma was so
good that she went to the Olympics and won two gold medals. The little girl who could
not walk grew up to be a winner through hard work.

(a) She could not move her left leg.
(b) Wilma Rudolph was very sick when she was four.
(c) Then she ran track in college.
(d) The little girl who could not walk grew up to be a winner through hard work.
4. Today, boys try to prove they are men in many different ways. Long ago, it was not
hard for some boys to know they had become men. American Indians had ceremonies
and tests for boys to prove they were men. In one tribe, boys were given drugs which
made them see visions of the gods. Having a vision was the first step toward being a
man. In another tribe, boys had to prove that they could stand pain. They had to lie still
on ground covered with ants and let the ants bite them again and again. When the
Indian boys had been through these cermonies and tests, they knew they were men.

(a) Today, boys try to prove they are men in many different ways.
(b) In another tribe, boys had to prove that they could stand pain.
(c) They had to lie still on ground covered with ants and let the ants bite them again and
again.
(d) When the Indian boys had been through the ceremonies and tests, they knew they
were men.
5. Dinosaurs, sabre-tooth tigers, and other prehistoric animals lived long before people
knew how to write How do we know about these animals if people couldn't write books
about them? Fossils give us clues. Fossils are footprints and leaves pressed into rock,
bones, teeth, and even whole animals which have been preserved in ice or tar. Scientists
have put fossil clues together to discover the size, weight, habits, and descriptions of
early animals.

(a) Dinosaurs, sabre-tooth tigers, and other prehistoric animals lived long before people
knew how to write.
(b) Fossils give us clues.
34
(c) Fossils are footprints and leaves. . .
(d) How do we know about these animals if people couldn't write about them?
6. When we think of communication, we often think of radio or television.

Communication also may be simple sounds and movements made by animals and
humans. You communicate by writing, drawing, speaking, smiling, laughing, or
frowning. You communicate by waving your hand or by a look on your face.
Communication is simply telling or showing someone your ideas and feelings.

(a) When we think of communication, we often think of radio and television.
(b) Communication is simply telling or showing someone your ideas and feelings.
(c) Communication also may be simple sounds and movements.
(d) You communicate by waving your hands or by the look on your face
7. Astronauts who travel to the moon have to wear special space suits to protect them
from extreme heat and cold. Days and nights last for two weeks on the moon. The two-
week-long days have temperatures of 212 degrees. The two-week-long nights have
temperatures of 270 degrees below zero.

(a) Temperatures on the moon reach 212 degrees during the days.
(b) Astronauts must wear special space suits to the moon to protect them from extreme
heat and cold.
(c) Days and nights last for two weeks on the moon.
(d) Temperatures on the moon are as low as 270 degrees below zero during the nights.
8. All insects have six legs and a body. The head, thorax, and abdomen are the three
parts of the body. An insect does not have any bones. It has a thick coat or shell. It can't
grow larger until is loses its shell and grows a bigger one. Even though there are many
different sizes, shapes, and colors of insects, they all have basically the some body.

(a) An insects does not have any bones.
(b) Insects come in many different sizes, shapes, and colors.
(c) Insects all have basically the same body.
(d) All insects have six legs and a body.
9. Animals that give milk to their young are called mammals. Mammals that carry their
babies in their pouches are marsupials. Even though there are not many marsupials in
the world, there are many different kinds of marsupials. Some look like cats, some look
like mice, and others look like monkeys. Some marsupials are meat-eating while others
eat grass and plants. Perhaps the most well-known marsupial is the kangaroo. All
marsupials are alike in one way: they all carry their babies in a pouch.
35
(a) There are many different kinds of marsupials.
(b) The most well-known marsupial is the kangaroo.
(c) Animals that give milk to their young are called mammals.
(d) All marsupials carry their babies in their pouch.
Exercise II : Recognizing Topic Sentences
Remember, the topic sentence indicates the main idea of a paragraph and is the most
general statement in the paragraph.
STEP 1 : Decide which of the following sentences is the topic sentence of the
paragraph.
STEP 2 : Write TS on the line next to that sentence.
STEP 3 : Decide the order of the supporting sentences and number them SS1, SS2, SS3,
and so on.
Paragraph 1
______ a. It enables customers to do several banking transactions twenty-four hours
a day.
______ b. In addition, a customer can transfer funds between accounts or get a cash
advance on a credit card.
______ c. An automated teller machine (ATM) is a convenient miniature bank.
______ d. For example, a customer can use an ATM to deposit money and withdraw
a limited amount of cash.
Paragraph 2
_____ a. After an attack by a great white, 462 stitches were required to sew up an
Australian scuba diver.
_____ b. With their razor-sharp teeth and strong jaws, great white sharks are very
dangerous.
_____ c. Nevertheless, one did just that near a public beach in Australia in 1985.
_____ d. Even when they attack humans, however, great whites do not usually eat
them.
_____ e. It bit in half and totally devoured’ a young female swimmer.
_____ f. Great whites do not usually attack humans, but when they do, they always
cause serious injury and even death.
Paragraph 3
______ a. Another important change was that people had the freedom to live and
work wherever they wanted.
______ b. The earliest significant change was for farming families, who were no
longer isolated.
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______ c. The final major change brought by the automobile was the building of
superhighways, suburbs, huge shopping centers, and many theme parks
such as Disney World in Florida.
______ d. The automobile revolutionized the American way of life.
______ e. The automobile enabled them to drive to towns and cities comfortably and
conveniently.
______ f. In fact, people could work in a busy metropolitan city and drive home to
the quiet suburbs.
Paragraph 4
______ a. In time, this melted part rises as a magma.
______ b. The formation of a volcanic eruption is a dramatic series of events.
______ c. As the plate3 sinks, friction and the earth’s heat cause part of it to melt.
______ d. The magma produces heat, steam, and pressure.
______ e. First of all, most volcanoes are formed where two plates collide.
______ f. Then one of the plates is forced under the other and sinks.
______ g. When the heat, steam, and pressure from the magma finally reach the
surface of the Earth, a volcanic eruption occurs.
Exercise III : Writing Concluding Sentences
STEP 1 Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph.

STEP 2 Determine the main idea of each paragraph.
STEP 3 Add a good concluding sentence to each. You may either paraphrase the topic
sentence or summarize the main points.
STEP 4 Begin each concluding sentence with an end-of-paragraph signal.
Paragraph I
You can be a good conversationalist by being a good listener. When you are conversing
with someone, pay close attention to the speaker’s words while looking at his or her
face. Show your interest by smiling and/or nodding. Furthermore, don’t interrupt while
someone is speaking; it is impolite to
S do so. If you have a good story, wait until the speaker is finished. Also, watch your
body language; it can affect your communication whether you are the speaker or the
listener. For instance, don’t sit slumped in a chair or make nervous hand and foot
movements. Be relaxed and bend your body slightly forward to show interest in the
person and the conversation.____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____
Paragraph 2
Modern communication technology is driving workers in the corporate world crazy.
They feel buried under the large number of messages they receive daily. In addition to
37
telephone calls, office workers receive dozens of E-mail and voice mail messages daily.
In one company, in fact, managers s receive an average of 100 messages a day. Because
they don’t have enough time to respond to these messages during office hours, it is
common for them to do so in the evenings or on weekends at home.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____
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UNIT 5
PARAGRAPH UNITY AND COHERENCE
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
Students are able to write unified and coherent paragraph
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Students are able to define a good paragraph; its unity and coherence.
2. Students are able to write a good paragraph using appropriate transition for each
sentence or paragraph.
3. Students are able to write a good paragraph using appropriate time signal.
A good paragraph also needs two important elements: unity and coherence. Unity: it
means that in your paragraph you discuss one and only one main idea which is stated in
the topic sentence and then developed by the supporting sentences. Coherence: it means
that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because:
 your supporting sentences are in logical order
 your ideas are connected by the use of a appropriate transition signals
PARAGRAPH UNITY
Unity refers to whether or not the text is on topic. Having unity is important at both the
paragraph level and the essay level. A paragraph is unified when all of its sentences
work towards the same end. Each phrase and sentence should illustrate, clarify, explain,
support and/or address the idea that the topic sentence puts forward. An essay is unified
when all of the paragraphs illustrate, clarify, explain, support and/or address the idea
expressed in the essay's thesis statement.
There may, of course, be more than one idea in a paragraph or an essay, but all are
focused on one overall theme.
Example of a Unified Paragraph:

"An attempt to address this issue by encouraging captive breeding programs has also
met with difficulties. Firstly, despite modern technology and research, many species are
still reluctant to breed in artificial surroundings. In the rare breeds, this creates a vicious
downward spiral as wild birds are caught to start breeding programs, but viable
populations cannot be maintained. Secondly, captive populations are finite units, and
careful management of breeding stock is necessary to prevent weakening the genetic
base. This level of dedication and expertise, however, requires a great deal of money--
something most of us cannot access and relevant institutions are reduced to begging
for."
(Marina Smith, student)
[In the paragraph above, each sentence supports the idea set out in the topic sentence.]
Example of a Disunified Paragraph:
39
"Horror films have made an impressive comeback with young movie goers in the
1990s. Sequels to new films like the Scream and I know What You Did Last Summer
have already hit the screens with much success, headlined with youthful stars from
popular television shows. Neve Campbell, Courtney Cox, and Jennifer Love Hewitt
have all parlayed their TV celebrity into Scream Queen status. Hollywood is taking
advantage of resurgence of interest by remaking several old horror films as well. In
1998, a remake of Psycho introduced a new generation to the amazing film capabilities
of Alfred Hitchcock. Another sequel causing excitement is George Lucas' "prequel" to
the Star Wars saga."
[In the paragraph above, the unity is undermined by the last sentence, which goes
off on to a tangent having little to do with the topic sentence]
PARAGRAPH COHERENCE
A paragraph is coherent when it flows smoothly in a clear direction and when all the
sentences are logically arranged.
There are several ways to undermine paragraph coherence:
 Using too many short, choppy sentences.
 Organizing your sentences in an illogical sequence.
 Using weak transitions that fail to suit your purposes, or not using transitions at
all.
Example of Incoherent Paragraph:

Canadian software companies face several tough challenges in the new millennium
because of "brain drain," the weak Canadian dollar, and the monopoly held by their
American counterparts. However, the Canadian dollar continues its downward spiral
even today. "Brain drain" is a bad thing. Our greatest resources are leaving. Microsoft is
squeezing out its competitors. In comparison, if the "brain drain" continues, Canadian
companies will find it difficult to produce innovative software. The weak dollar will
hurt us. It will help the Americans.
[The paragraph above is incoherent because it uses choppy sentences ineffectively, it
arranges the ideas illogically, and it uses transition words in improper contexts.]
Example of a Coherent Paragraph:

Canadian software companies face several tough challenges in the new millenium
because of "brain drain," the weak Canadian dollar, and the monopoly held by
American corporations. "Brain drain" is a catchy new term for the practice of American
companies enticing brilliant Canadian doctors, scientists, researchers, programmers, and
business people to cross over the border into the United States. The U.S. firms lure the
Canadian talent with the strong American dollar and the competitive research and
business edge that many such companies have as a result of industry monopolies.
Simply put, Canadian companies are being soundly beaten because they find
themselves on a playing field that is no longer level.
[Notice how each sentence flows logically into one another. The paragraph stays
consistent with both the content and the organization of the topic sentence.]
40
COHERENCE
In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or
controlling idea, but there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent,
each sentence flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or jumps. A coherent
paragraph also highlights the ties between old information and new information to make
the structure of ideas or arguments clear to the reader.
Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph’s coherence may also be related
to its length. If you have written a very long paragraph, one that fills a double-spaced
typed page, for example, you should check it carefully to see if it should start a new
paragraph where the original paragraph wanders from its controlling idea. On the other
hand, if a paragraph is very short (only one or two sentences, perhaps), you may need
to develop its controlling idea more thoroughly, or combine it with another paragraph.
A number of other techniques that you can use to establish coherence in paragraphs are
described below.
Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in which you define or

identify an important idea or theory, be consistent in how you refer to it. This
consistency and repetition will bind the paragraph together and help your reader
understand your definition or description.
Create parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by constructing two or more
phrases or sentences that have the same grammatical structure and use the same parts of
speech. By creating parallel structures you make your sentences clearer and easier to
read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive sentences helps your
reader see the connections between ideas. In the paragraph above about scientists and
the sense of sight, several sentences in the body of the paragraph have been constructed
in a parallel way. The parallel structures (which have been emphasized) help the reader
see that the paragraph is organized as a set of examples of a general statement.
Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number. Consistency in point of view,
verb tense, and number is a subtle but important aspect of coherence. If you shift from
the more personal "you" to the impersonal “one,” from past to present tense, or from “a
man” to “they,” for example, you make your paragraph less coherent. Such
inconsistencies can also confuse your reader and make your argument more difficult to
follow.
Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between paragraphs.

Transitional expressions emphasize the relationships between ideas, so they help
readers follow your train of thought or see connections that they might otherwise miss
or misunderstand. The following paragraph shows how carefully chosen transitions
(CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion of
the paragraph.
I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-
bodied "stegosaurus" houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy
perspective, BUT I do wish to assert that we should not expect more of
the beast. FIRST OF ALL, large animals have relatively smaller brains
than related, small animals. The correlation of brain size with body size
41
among kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is
remarkably regular. AS we move from small to large animals, from mice
to elephants or small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size increases,
BUT not so fast as body size. IN OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster
than brains, AND large animals have low ratios of brain weight to body
weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as bodies.
SINCE we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently
stupider than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals
require relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF we do
not recognize this relationship, we are likely to underestimate the mental
power of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.
Stephen Jay Gould, “Were Dinosaurs Dumb?”
SOME USEFUL TRANSITIONS

(modified from Diana Hacker, A Writer’s Reference)
To show addition:
again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further,
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too
To give examples:
for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate
To compare:
also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly
To contrast:
although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in
contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still,
though, yet
To summarize or conclude:
all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on the whole, that
is, therefore, to sum up
To show time:
after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier, finally,
formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently,
then, thereafter, until, when, while
To show place or direction:

above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to the
left (north, etc.)
To indicate logical relationship:

accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if,
otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus
42
SIGNALLING WORDS
Time/order
at first, eventually, finally, first, firstly, in the end, in the first place, in the
second place, lastly, later, next, second, secondly, to begin with
Comparison/similar ideas
in comparison, in the same way, similarly
Contrast/opposite ideas
but, despite, in spite of, even so, however, in contrast, in spite of this,
nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, whereas, yet
Cause and effect

accordingly, as a consequence, as a result, because, because of this,
consequently, for this reason, hence, in consequence, in order to, owing to this,
since, so, so that, therefore, thus
Examples
for example, for instance, such as, thus, as follows
Generalisation
as a rule, for the most part, generally, in general, normally, on the whole, in
most cases, usually
Stating the obvious

after all, as one might expect, clearly, it goes without saying, naturally,
obviously, of course, surely
Attitude
admittedly, certainly, fortunately, luckily, oddly enough, strangely enough,
undoubtedly, unfortunately
Summary/conclusion
finally, in brief, in conclusion, in short, overall, so, then, to conclude, to sum up
Explanation/equivalence
in other words, namely, or rather, that is to say, this means, to be more precise,
to put it another way
Addition
apart from this, as well as, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover, nor, not
only...but also, too, what is more
Condition
in that case, then
43
Support
actually, as a matter of fact, in fact, indeed
Contradiction
actually, as a matter of fact, in fact
Emphasis
chiefly, especially, in detail, in particular, mainly, notably, particularly
Examples
1. Time/order
At first
At first the freemen of both town and country had an organization and a type of
property which still retained something of the communal as well as something
of the private, but in the town a radical transformation was taking place.
Eventually
Eventually the group did manage to buy some land in a village not far from
London, but the project had to be abandoned when the villagers zoned their land
against agricultural use.
Finally
Finally, there have been numerous women altogether outside the profession,
who were reformers dedicated to creating alternatives.
First
First I went to see the editor of the Dispatch.
Firstly
There are two reasons.Firstly I have no evidence whatever that the original
document has been destroyed.
In the end
In the end, several firms undertook penicillin production on a massive scale, but
hardly any ever came to Florey himself for the clinical trials which he was
desperate to extend.
In the first place/in the second place
If we try to analyse the conception of possession, we find two elements. In the
first place, it involves some actual power of control over the thing possessed. In
the second place, it involves some intention to maintain that control on the part
of the possessor.
Lastly
Lastly, we may notice that even a wrongful possession, if continued for a certain
length of time, matures into what may be, for practical purposes,
indistinguishable from ownership.
Later
Later she went up to the office.
Next
Next, I'd like to show you some pictures.
44
Second
And second, this kind of policy does not help to create jobs.
Secondly
He was first of all an absolute idiot, and secondly he was pretty dishonest.
To begin with
To begin with, the ratio between attackers and defenders was roughly the same.
2. Comparison
In comparison
The vast majority of social encounters are, in comparison, mild and muted
affairs.
In the same way
Every baby's face is different from every other's. In the same way, every baby's
pattern of development is different from every other's.
Similarly
You should notify any change of address to the Bonds and Stock Office.
Similarly, savings certificates should be re-registered with the Post Office.
3. Contrast
But
In 1950 oil supplied only about 10% of our total energy consumption; but now
it's up to about 40% and still rising.
Despite
Despite the difference in their ages they were close friends.
Even so
This could lead you up some blind alleys. Even so, there is no real cause for
concern.
However
The more I talked the more silent Eliot became. However, I left thinking that I
had created quite an impression.
In spite of this
My father always had poor health. In spite of this, he was always cheerful.
Nevertheless
He had not slept that night. Nevertheless, he led the rally with his usual vigour.
On the contrary
I have never been an enemy of monarchy. On the contrary, I consider
monarchies essential for the well-being of new nations.
On the other hand
John had great difficulties playing cricket. But on the other hand, he was an
awfully good rugby player.
Still
He's treated you badly. Still he's your brother and you should help him.
Yet
45
Everything around him was blown to pieces, yet the minister escaped without a
scratch.
4. Cause/effect
Accordingly
She complained of stiffness in her joints. Accordingly she was admitted to
hospital for further tests.
As a consequence
The red cross has not been allowed to inspect the camps, and as a consequence
little is known about them.
The Cold War has ended. As a consequence the two major world powers have
been able to reduce their arms budgets dramatically.
As a result
Many roads are flooded. As a result there are long delays.
Because
Because these were the only films we'd seen of these people, we got the
impression that they did nothing else but dance to classical music.
Because of this
The cost of running the club has increased. Because of this, we must ask our
members to contribute more each week.
Consequently
Japan has a massive trade surplus with the rest of the world. Consequently it can
afford to give more money to the Third World.
For this reason
The traffic was very heavy. For this reason he was late.
Hence
The computer has become smaller and cheaper and hence more available to a
greater number of people.
In consequence
The fastest these animals can run is about 65 kph and in consequence their
hunting methods have to be very efficient indeed.
In order that
They are learning English in order that they can study a particular subject.
In order to
He had to hurry in order to reach the next place on this schedule.
Owing to this
The rain was terrible. Owing to this, the match was cancelled.
So
He speaks very little English, so I talked to him through an interpreter.
So that
You take some of the honey and replace it with sugar so that the bees have
something to eat.
Therefore
I'm not a member of the Church of England myself. Therefore it would be rather
impertinent of me to express an opinion.
Thus
46
If I am to accept certain limitations on my freedom, I must be assured that others
are accepting the same restraints. Thus, an incomes policy has to be controlled if
it is to be effective.
5. Example
For example
Many countries are threatened by earthquakes. For example, Mexico and Japan
have large ones this century.
For instance
Not all prices have increased so dramatically. Compare, for instance, the price of
oil in 1980 and the price now.
Such as
There are many reasons why the invasion failed, such as the lack of proper food
and the shortage of ammunition.
Thus
Plants as well as stones can be charms. The Guyana Indians have many plant
charms, each one helping to catch a certain kind of animal. The leaves of the
plant usually look like the animal it is supposed to help to catch. Thus the charm
for catching deer has a leaf which looks like deer horns.
6. Generalisation
As a rule
As a general rule, the less important tan executive is, the more status-conscious
he is likely to be.
For the most part
The New Guinea forest is, for the most part, dark and wet.
In general
The industrial processes, in general, are based on man-made processes.
Normally
Meetings are normally held three or four times a year.
On the whole
One or two were all right but on the whole I used to hate going to lectures.
Usually
She usually found it easy to go to sleep at night.
7. Stating the obvious

As one might expect
There are, as one might expect, several other methods for carrying out the
research.
After all
They did not expect heavy losses in the air. After all they had superb aircraft.
Clearly
Clearly, there is no point in continuing this investigation until we have more
evidence.
47
It goes without saying
It goes without saying that I am grateful for all your help.
Naturally
Naturally, publishers are hesitant about committing large sums of money to such
a risky project.
Obviously
Obviously, I don't need to say how important this project is.
Of course
There is of course an element of truth in this argument.
Surely
In defining an ideology, the claims which seek to legitimate political and social
authority are surely as important as the notion of authority itself.
8. Attitude
Admittedly
Admittedly, economists often disagree among each other.
Certainly
Ellie was certainly a student at the university but I'm not sure about her brother.
Fortunately
Fortunately such occurrences are fairly rare.
Luckily
Luckily, Saturday was a fine day.
Oddly enough
Oddly enough, it was through him that I met Carson.
Strangely enough
It has, strangely enough, only recently been discovered.
Undoubtedly
Undoubtedly, many families are victims of bad housing.
Unfortunately
He couldn't wait to tell Judy. Unfortunately, she had already left for work.
9. Summary/conclusion
Finally
Let's come finally to the question of pensions.
In brief
In brief then, do you two want to join me?
In conclusion
In conclusion, let me suggest a number of practical applications.
In short
In short, the report says more money should be spent on education.
Overall
Overall, imports account for half our stock.
So
So if a woman did leave the home, she was only supposed to concern herself
with matters pertaining to domestic life.
48
Then
The importance of education, then, has been infinitely greater than in previous
centuries.
To conclude
To conclude, I'd like to say thank you to everyone who has worked so hard to
make this conference possible.
To sum up
To sum up, we cannot hope for greater success unless we identify our needs
clearly.
10. Explanation/equivalence
In other words
In other words, although the act of donating blood would increase the chances of
the donor dying, this increase was small compared with the increase in the
recipient's chances of surviving.
Namely
He could not do any thing more than what he had promised - namely, to look
after Charlotte's estate.
... three famous physicists, namely, Simon, Kurte and Mendelsohn.
Or rather
The account here offered is meant as a beginning of an answer to that question.
Or rather it contributes by setting the question in a certain way.
That is to say
The romans left Britain in 410 AD - that is to say England was a Roman
dependency for nearly 500 years.
This means
With syphilis and gonorrhoea, the ages are also recorded, and this means that an
accurate map of disease prevalence can be drawn and any trends or changes can
be recognized very quickly.
To be more precise
These reforms of Justinian in AD 529 proclaim that they are "imposing a single
nature" on trusts and legacies or, to be more precise, imposing it on legatees and
trust beneficiaries.
To put it another way
He was being held there against his will. To put it another way, he was a
prisoner.
11. Addition
Also
Sugar is bad for your teeth. It can also contribute to heart disease.
Apart from this
Eccleshall and Honderich find common cause in a desire to establish the
ideological nature of Conservative thought, but apart from this their approaches
to the study of Conservativism are very different.
As well as
Marx and Engels, as well as many of their contemporaries, believed that
pastoralism predated agriculture.
49
Besides
Besides being good test cases, Locke obviously finds these ideas intrinsically
interesting too.
Furthermore
Computer chess games are still a bit expensive, but they are getting cheaper all
the time. Furthermore their chess-playing strength is rising.
In addition
Our survey will produce the essential statistics. In addition, it will provide
information about people's shopping habits.
Moreover
The drug has powerful side-effects. Moreover, it can be addictive.
Nor
I could not afford to eat in restaurants. Nor could anyone I knew.
I couldn't understand a word they said, nor could they understand me.
Not only...but also
Meissner was not only commander of the army but also a close friend of the
President.
Too
Evans was not only our doctor. He was a friend too.
What is more
What is more, more machines will mean fewer jobs.
12. Condition
In that case
Of course the experiment may fail and in that case we will have to start again.
Then
Sometimes the computer system breaks down. Then you'll have to work on
paper.
13. Support
As a matter of fact
The company is doing very well. As a matter of fact, we have doubled our sales
budget.
In fact
The winter of 1940 was extremely bad. In fact most people say it was the worst
winter of their lives.
Indeed
This act has failed to bring women's earnings up to the same level. Indeed the
gulf is widening.
They continue to work throughout their short life. Indeed it is overwork which
eventually kills them.
50
14. Contradiction
Actually
There are many stories which describe wolves as dangerous, blood thirsty
animals, but actually they prefer to avoid human beings.
In fact
I thought he could speak the language fluently. In fact, that wasn't the case at all.
15. Emphasis
Chiefly
How quickly you recover from an operation chiefly depends on your general
state of health.
The experiment was not a success, chiefly because the machine tools were of
poor quality.
Especially
They don't trust anyone, especially people in our position.
I'm not attracted to Sociology, especially the way it's taught here.
In detail
The implications of this theory are examined in detail in chapter 12.
In particular
In particular, he was criticised for pursuing a policy of conciliation and reform.
Mainly
The political group will have more power, mainly because of their large
numbers.
Notably
Some people, notably his business associates, had learned to ignore his moods.
The organisation had many enemies, most notably among feminists.
Particularly
Many animal sources of protein are also good sources of iron. Particularly
useful are liver, kidney, heart, beef, sardines, pilchards (red fish generally), and
shellfish, including mussels and cockles.
EXERCISES
Decide which transitions to use from the list below the paragraph.
Second Also Another reason is that For example

Moreover However On the other hand First
One reason is that The best choise
There are three major airports near Washington, D.C., but the traveler to
Washington should be careful about which one he or she chooses. Baltimore-
51
Washington International Airport, which is located near the city of Baltimore,
is a good international airport. _________ it is not the best choice for a
traveler who wants to visit Washington. _________ it is relatively far from
the city of Washington itself. _________ a passenger bus trip between
Baltimore and Washington is somewhat expensive. Dulles International
Airport is a slightly better choice, since it is located closer to the city.
_________ if a traveler arrives in the early evening, he or she will encounter
rush-hour traffic, which is not a good way to begin a trip to the city.
_________ may be Washington-Reagan National Airport. There are two
reasons for this. _________ this airport is the closest to the city. _________ it
is located on the Metro train system, which is a convenient method of
transportation, allowing a traveler to travel almost anywhere he or she likes in
the city of Washington.
52
UNIT 6
WRITING NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
Students are able to write a good narrative paragraph/s
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Students are able to define narrative paragraph
2. Students are able to explain the process of writing a good narrative paragraph
3. Students are able to write a good personal narrative
NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH
Narration tells a story or sequence of events whether true or fictional. These events are
told in chronological order of what happening. However, a narrative paragraph most
often tells a story in order to illustrate or demonstrate a point.
A narrative should:
1. be unity - all the action developing a central idea
2. be interesting - it draws the readers into the action and makes them feel as if
they’re observing and listening to the events.
3. introduce the the four Ws of a setting (who, what, where, when) within the
context of the action.
4. be coherent; transitions indicates changes in time, location and characters.
5. follow a chronological order, with events happening in a time sequence.
6. builds toward a climax; this is the moment of the most tension or surprise – a
time when the ending is revealed or the importance of events becomes clear.
Diagram for writing narration
Topic sentence : overview the subject and point the story

Setting : who, what, where, when
Body : action and dialogue of story, arranged in chronological order.
Action 1
Action 2
Action 3
Conclusion : climax of action, surprise, revelation, reflection
An example of the process of writing a narrative

1. Generating the materials
- Choose a story that is small enough for you to tell in one or more paragrph
53
- Start by lsiting three, four, or more details that occur to you
- Specify details
- Explore your topic through freewriting or brainstorming and then arrange your
ideas chronologically
2. Writing the first draft

- A clear, unifying idea
- Information to establish the setting: who, what, where, and when
- Enough detail to develop the unifying idea interestingly and clearly
- An arrangement of the details in chronological order
- A progression to a climax or dramatic conclusion
3. Revising the first draft

Revision checklist
- Does the story have a clear unifying idea? If not, what could that idea be?
- If the story does not include a topic sentence, is the unifying idea of the story
clear without it?
- Does the setting cover the four Ws?
- Is the story unified, with all the details contributing to the central idea?
- Is the story arranged chronologically? If not, is the organization of ideas and
events still effective?
- Do the transitions show the movement from idea to idea and scene to scene?
- Are there enough details?
- Is ther dialogue at important moment?
- Is there a climax to the story - a moment at which the action is resolved or a key
idea is revelaed?
4. Further revising and editing

Review and revise your story again. Edit and proofread, check for misspelled words,
and any other errors you notice.
Here is an example of a narrative paragraph:
This past weekend I had the time of my life. First, Friday night, I had my best friend
over and we made a delicious, mouth-watering pizza. After we ate, we had a friendly
video game competition. On Saturday, my dad took us out on the boat. The weather was
perfect and the water was warm. It was a great day to go for a swim. Later that night,
we went to the movies. We saw an action packed thriller and ate a lot of popcorn.
Finally, on Sunday, we rode our bikes all over town. By the end of the day, my legs
were very tired. I only hope that next weekend can be as fun as this one.
Notice the transition words that were used to move the paragraph along.
Everything is in the correct order. The paragraph provides details and stays on
topic.
54
Writing a personal narrative
The purpose in writing a personal narrative paragraph is to share personal thoughts or
experiences. In this type of paragraph, you relate an experience that taught you
something about yourself, about another person, or about life in general. You tell what
happened, but you also reveal how you reacted to the event. You may state this reaction
explicitly in the topic sentence, or you may imply it through the details of the story. If
you do write a topic sentence, you may find it more effective to put it at the end rather
than the beginning of the paragraph. This arrangement is inductive (moving from
specific details to a statement of the main point).
Because you are writing about a personal experience, you will use first-person pronouns
such as I and me. As well, you will most often tell the story in chronological order. You
must take care in deciding how much detail to include_remember that in this case you
are writing a paragraph, not an entire narrative essay, so you will have to focus on a
very narrow and specific incident. You can incorporate a narrative paragraph into a
longer piece of writing that explains or persuades. For instance, if you wanted to
convince your reader of the importance of keeping his or her car in good running order,
you could tell about a difficult time you had when your car broke down. Or if you
wanted to convince your reader that spelunking is a wonderful hobby, you could
describe a time when you visited a particularly fascinating cave.
EXERCISE
Directions: Write a narrative paragraph on one of the following topics. You can express
the main point in a topic sentence, or you can the details imply the main point. If you
write a topic sentence, decide whether the paragraph works better with the topic
sentence at the beginning or at the end.
1. a frightening experience
2. a lucky day
3. a important ceremony, such as graduation
4. a memorable event
5. your birthday party
6. the strangest thing you have experience
7. beginning a new school
8. the death of a close friend or relative
55
UNIT 7
WRITING DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
Students are able to write a good descriptive paragraph.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Students are able to define descriptive paragraph.
2. Students are able to explain the process of writing a good descriptive paragraph.
3. Students are able to write a good descriptive paragraph on favourite place.
DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH
When you write a descriptive paragraph, you are describing something. When you do
this, you must use wording that will allow your readers to be able to see what you are
writing about without being able to actually "see" it.
Descriptive transition words signal that the details follow a logical order based on one
or more of the following elements:
1. The arrangement in space of a person, place, object, or scene
2. The starting point from which the writer chooses to begin the description
3. The time frame as relevant to the description (see Chapter 5 for information about
time order)
Diagram for describing a scene

Topic sentence : statement of the main idea
Body : elements of scene, arranged in spatial order
Overview of scene
Special detail (and activity) 1
Conclusion : restatement of the main idea, call for action, or summary
An example of the process of writing a description

1. Gathering the materials
- Where is the location? (and what is its name?)
- What are its dimensions and the most important features? Where is
each feature – on the right, in the middle, above something else,
close, or far away?
56
- How large or small are the objects you see?are they shaped? What
are their colors?
- What are people doing in the scene, and where are they? What do
they look like?
2. Arranging the materials
- Write a topic sentence and then select the materials to develop and
support it.
- Select and arrange material through additional brainstorming,
clustering, freewriting, or perhaps an informal outline. Then write a
topic sentence.
- A general description of the settin, including its location (and
probably the time of scene)
- Details that support the topic sentence; in the example above, those
details would show what is relaxing and pleasant, as well as how
people are meeting each other.
- More specific details about the scene, arranged in a logical order –
probably spatial or thematic (that is, supporting the main point or
calm)
- Transitional sentences or phrases that introduce the activities in the
scene.
- A description of those activities, including a few specific examples.
- Does the paragraph include a clear topic sentence that states a claim
or main idea?
- Does the paragraph have unity, with all the details contributing to
the main idea?
- Does the paragraph employ several of the five senses.
- Is he organization consistent, moving from front to back, left to
right, top to bottom, or some other way?
- Is there a clear transition between the description between the
description of the place and the people?
- Are there enough-or too many-details?
- Are the nouns and verbs specific?
57
Example of a descriptive paragraph
A Friendly Clown
On one corner of my dresser sits a smiling toy clown on a tiny unicycle--a gift I
received last Christmas from a close friend. The clown's short yellow hair, made of
yarn, covers its ears but is parted above the eyes. The blue eyes are outlined in black
with thin, dark lashes flowing from the brows. It has cherry-red cheeks, nose, and lips,
and its broad grin disappears into the wide, white ruffle around its neck. The clown
wears a fluffy, twotone nylon costume. The left side of the outfit is light blue, and the
right side is red. The two colors merge in a dark line that runs down the center of the
small outfit. Surrounding its ankles and disguising its long black shoes are big pink
bows. The white spokes on the wheels of the unicycle gather in the center and expand
to the black tire so that the wheel somewhat resembles the inner half of a grapefruit.
The clown and unicycle together stand about a foot high. As a cherished gift from my
good friend Tran, this colorful figure greets me with a smile every time I enter my
room.
EXERCISE
You will choose one of the following topics to describe:
1. A person that you admire (outside of your family)
2. A favorite piece of art or music
3. your favorite room in your home
4. A way to travel that interests you (by bicycle, train, car, subway, etc…)
58
UNIT 8
WRITING EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
Students are able to write a good expository paragraph
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Students are able to define expository paragraph
2. Students are able to explain the process of writing expository paragraph.
3. Students are able to write an expository paragraph of showing a certain process.
4.
EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH
When you read your textbook, the newspaper, magazine articles, or any other types of
publications, you are reading expository writing. When you write answers for an essay
test, you use the expository form.
In an expository paragraph, you give information. You explain a subject, give

directions, or show how something happens. In expository writing, linking words like
first, second, then, and finally are usually used to help readers follow the ideas.
This paragraph, like any other, organizes itself around three parts. A topic sentence
allows the reader to understand what you are writing about. The middle part of the
paragraph contains supporting sentences that follow one another in a logical sequence
of steps. The concluding sentence closes your subject with an emphasis on the final
product or process desired by the topic.
Remember that all paragraphs should contain a topic sentence. It may be even more
important in the expository paragraph because this is where the main idea of the
paragraph is expressed. This topic sentence lets the reader know what the rest of the
paragraph will discuss.
The goal of expository writing is to explain something to the reader. You can explain
something in mnay ways. Some of these are :
1. By comparing two things or people (eg. Buildings, political leaders, economic

theories)
2. By showing the steps in a process (e.g. how to increase profits, how to evaluate
a painting)
3. By analyzing something
- Dividing something into its parts (e.g. different theories of learning,
different kinds of governments)
59
- Analyzing a problem (e.g. global warming, nuclear power, high
divorce rates)
4. By persuading
- Trying to make others do something (e.g. stop smoking, sign a
petition, join an organization)
- Arguing for your opinion (e.g. American cars vs. Foreign cars, the
pros and cons of giving grades in school)
ELEMENT OF AN EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH
Expository paragraphs contain the following elements:
 Formal language – third person voice and scientific terms are used instead of
informal, emotive vocabulary;
 Evidence – includes references to research, naming of the author(s) of the
inquiry, practical examples, and comparisons;
 Explanation – the paragraph accounts for the variety of ailments characteristic of
a disease explaining the risks and symptoms;
 Background information – the paragraph relates to already conducted
researches and their preliminary results as well as provides information on
further medical inquiry. It also gives examples of possible medical
interventions;
An example of the diagram for describing a process

Topic sentence : process name and importance
Body : steps in the process, arranged in sequential order
Listing of tools/or materials
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Conclusion : summary, restatement of importance
Example of writing a process analysis

1. Gathering the materials
- All the materials needed to perform the task
- Any terms that need to be defined and explained
- All the steps in the process
2. Arranging the materials

- Topic idea
- Preliminary needed
- tools needed
- definition of terms
- Steps in the process
- Conclusion
60
- A topic sentence should identify the process and suggests or outlines
the steps
- One or more sentences that list the materials used in the process and
define any specialized terms
- A step-by-step description of the process, arranged in sequential
order

Revision checklist
- Does a topic sentence identify th eprocess and then outline or suggest
the steps involved in performing the process?
- Is the importance of the process clear?
- Does the paragraph identify the tools or materials needed to perform
the process?
- Does the paragraph clearly define any unusual or specialized terms?
- Are all the important steps in the process clearly explained and
presented in sequential order?
Example:
Going to college can be expensive. First, college tuition and room and board can cost
anywhere from $2,000 to more than $10,000 per semester. Other expenses make going
to college even more expensive. For example, books typically cost between $100 and
$500 each term. Second, materials are also very expensive. Paper, notebooks, writing
utensils, and other supplies required often cost more at the college bookstore than at any
local discount department store. For instance, a package of notepaper costing $2 at a
discount store might cost $5 at a college bookstore. Finally, there are all kinds of
special fees added onto the bill at registration time. A college student might have to pay
a $50 insurance fee, a $20 activity fee, a $15 fee to the student government association
and anywhere from $500 to $100 for parking. There is another fee if a student decides
to add or drop classes after registration. The fees required to attend college never seem
to end.
The topic sentence in the example lets the reader know that the paragraph will talk
about the expenses of going to college. Immediately following the topic sentence is the
first supporting sentence (underlined) and two detail/example sentences. Each support
sentence and its two detail/example sentences are shown in different colors so you can
see where one ends and the next begins. Finally, the closing sentence neatly ties back to
the topic sentence by rephrasing it.
61
Notice the use of transitional words to help the reader follow the ideas. Also, notice the
use of third person point of view in this paragraph. The third person point of view (he,
she, one) is most commonly used for expository writing, technical writing, and any
other sort of writing that has a business-minded or persuasive intention or purpose. For
our purposes in this class, you will always use third person point of view when writing
expository paragraphs, unless otherwise directed. This means there should be no "I" or
"you" words anywhere in the paragraph.
EXERCISES
Directions: Write an expository paragraph on one of the following topics.
1. Traveling can broaden one's outlook.

2. A good book beats a bad vacation.
3. Computer skills are essential for any job in the 21st century.
4. How to pass the exam
5. Sick people ought to stay home.
62
REFERENCES
Advanced Composition for Non-Native Speakers of English. http://eslbee.com
Boardman, Cynthia A & Jia Frydenberg. 2002. Writing to Communicate : Paragraphs

and Essays, 2nd Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. NY
Grow, Gerald. 1999. Seven Types of Paragraph Development. Florida A&M

University. http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/
http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_55.htm
Meyers, Alan. 2005. Gateways to Academic Writing: Effective Sentences, Paragraphs,

and Essays. Pearson Education, Inc. NY.
Oshima, Alice & Ann Hogue. 1991. Writing Academic English. 3rd Edition. Pearson
Education, inc. NY
Wishon, George E & Julia m. Burks. 1980. Let’s Write English. Revised Edition. Litton
Educational Publishing. Inc. Canada
63

Unit 1 Sentence Patterns: General Objective

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UNIT 1

THE FOUR BASIC SENTENCE PATTERN

Pattern 1: Subject + Verb

Pattern 2: Subject + Verb + Direct Object

Pattern 3: Subject + Linking Verb + Subject Complement

EXERCISE 3 : Writing Sentences in Pattern 3

EXERCISE 4 : Writing Sentences in Pattern 4

Pattern 5: There/It + Verb + Subject

EXERCISE 5 : Writing Sentences in Pattern 5

Pattern 6: Verb + Remainder of Predicate

Pattern 7: Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Infinitive

Pattern 8: Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Partial Infinitive

EXERCISE 8 : Writing Sentences in Pattern 8

EXERCISE 9: Writing Sentences in Pattern 9;0]

EXERCISE 10 : Writing Questions

PATTERN IN THE PASSIVE VOICE

EXERCISE 11 : Writing Sentences in Passive Voice

1. Some students like to study in the morning.

A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses, but no

He finally read the book, or so I thought.

Either he goes, or I go.

Mary understands math; she has studied it for years.

Here, the two are joined by a semicolon, with no conjunction.

Compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The

A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.

Special Cases of Compound Sentences

The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west.

We had to go inside when it started raining.

As long as it isn't cold , it doesn't matter if it rains.

A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent

When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such as sentences A and D, a

A. The woman who(m) my mom talked to sells cosmetics.

Complex Sentence Structure Exercises

1. And wouldn't it be nice to live together

2. And so I cry sometimes

3. You got to do _____ you should.

4. (We're) caught in a trap, I can't walk out

5. I know that you can love me

6. I just want you to know ____ I am.

7. I swear _____ I really want to know.

8. Feeling good was easy, Lord

9. He’s plain ugly to me,

10. There's a lady ____ sure

Punctuation is the conventional graphic system that uses symbols—punctuation marks—to

Commonly Used and Misused Punctuation Marks

1. Use commas to separate items in a series.

Quotation Marks (" ")

The sentence and the full stop

1. Before or after adverbial clauses and phrases

2. Before various connectives to join two independent clauses

3. To separate certain phrases from the rest of the sentence

4. To separate words, phrases and clauses in a series

Note the punctuation before the quotation marks:

3. A) She always enjoyed sweets, chocolate, marshmallows and toffee apples.

4. A) I can't see Tim's car, there must have been an accident.

A paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group of sentences

 usually the first sentence in the paragraph

Good topic sentences have two parts:

My hometown is famous for several amazing

1. My hometown is famous because it is

2. There are two reasons why some people like

3. Clouds are white.

 We can rewrite sentences #2 and #3 in the