Path Bridges Guide

Path Bridges Path Bridges
planning, design, construction and maintenance planning, design, construction and maintenance
Section one I Planning Ahead Section one I Planning Ahead
Section two I Site Assessment and Survey Section two I Site Assessment and Survey
Section three I Form and Function Section three I Form and Function
Section four I Design Considerations Section four I Design Considerations
Section five I Construction and Maintenance Section five I Construction and Maintenance
Section six I Technical Sheets Section six I Technical Sheets
Section seven I Standard Designs Section seven I Standard Designs
Section eight I Case Studies Section eight I Case Studies
Section nine I Glossary Section nine I Glossary
Section ten I Further Information Section ten I Further Information
Path Bridges - planning design construction and maintenance Path Bridges - planning design construction and maintenance
Produced by the Paths for All Partnership with support from Scottish Natural Heritage and Forestry Civil Engineering Produced by the Paths for All Partnership with support from Scottish Natural Heritage and Forestry Civil Engineering
Contents Contents
Path Bridges I Contents

Introduction Introduction
Section one Section one

Planning Ahead Planning Ahead
1.1 Consider the Options 1.1 Consider the Options
1.2 Consultation - getting it right first time 1.2 Consultation - getting it right first time
1.3 Permissions and Legalities 1.3 Permissions and Legalities
1.4 Design Parameters 1.4 Design Parameters
Section two Section two

Site Assessment and Survey Site Assessment and Survey
2.1 Initial Assessment 2.1 Initial Assessment
2.2 Detailed Site Survey 2.2 Detailed Site Survey
Section three Section three

Form and Function Form and Function
3.1 The Basic Bridge 3.1 The Basic Bridge
3.2 Bridge Types 3.2 Bridge Types
3.3 Loadings 3.3 Loadings
Section four Section four

Design Considerations Design Considerations
4.1 Abutments 4.1 Abutments
4.2 Main Beams 4.2 Main Beams
4.3 Deck 4.3 Deck
4.4 Handrails and Toeboards 4.4 Handrails and Toeboards
4.5 Joints and Fasteners 4.5 Joints and Fasteners
4.6 Materials 4.6 Materials
Section five Section five

Construction and Maintenance Construction and Maintenance
5.1 Health and Safety 5.1 Health and Safety
5.2 Construction Options 5.2 Construction Options
5.3 Installation Techniques 5.3 Installation Techniques
5.4 Site Planning 5.4 Site Planning
5.5 Contract Management 5.5 Contract Management
5.6 Maintenance 5.6 Maintenance
5.7 Upgrading Existing Structures 5.7 Upgrading Existing Structures
November 2006 Path Bridges - planning design construction and maintenance November 2006 Path Bridges - planning design construction and maintenance

Section six Section six
Technical Sheets Technical Sheets
6.1 Site Survey Example 6.1 Site Survey Example
6.2 Flood Level Estimation 6.2 Flood Level Estimation
6.3 Loads 6.3 Loads
6.4 Abutment Design Options 6.4 Abutment Design Options
6.5 Using Concrete 6.5 Using Concrete
6.6 Specifying Timber Decking 6.6 Specifying Timber Decking
6.7 Specifying Beams 6.7 Specifying Beams
6.8 Handrail Specification and Fixing Details 6.8 Handrail Specification and Fixing Details
6.9 Nuts, Bolts and Other Connectors 6.9 Nuts, Bolts and Other Connectors
6.10 Visual Timber Stress Grading 6.10 Visual Timber Stress Grading
6.11 Timber Bridges - Susceptibility and Detailing 6.11 Timber Bridges - Susceptibility and Detailing
6.12 Steel Specification 6.12 Steel Specification
6.13 Contract Documentation 6.13 Contract Documentation
Section seven Section seven

Standard Designs Standard Designs
7.1 Using the Designs 7.1 Using the Designs
7.2 Log Bridge 7.2 Log Bridge
7.3 Sawn Timber Bridge 7.3 Sawn Timber Bridge
7.4 Glentrool Bridge - Steel 7.4 Glentrool Bridge - Steel
7.5 Glentrool Bridge - Timber 7.5 Glentrool Bridge - Timber
Section eight Section eight

Case Studies Case Studies
8.1 Bedfordshire’s Crash Barrier Bridges 8.1 Bedfordshire’s Crash Barrier Bridges
8.2 Dollar Glen Aerial Mast Bridge 8.2 Dollar Glen Aerial Mast Bridge
8.3 Puck’s Glen Bridges 8.3 Puck’s Glen Bridges
8.4 On-site Conversion of Log to Bridge 8.4 On-site Conversion of Log to Bridge
8.5 Forestry Commission Inspection Regime 8.5 Forestry Commission Inspection Regime
8.6 Forth and Achray Stress Laminated Timber Bridges 8.6 Forth and Achray Stress Laminated Timber Bridges
8.7 Drummuir 21 - A Creative Low Cost Solution 8.7 Drummuir 21 - A Creative Low Cost Solution
Section nine Section nine

Glossary Glossary
Section ten Section ten

Further Information Further Information
10.1 Bibliography 10.1 Bibliography
10.2 Relevant Standards and Codes of Practice 10.2 Relevant Standards and Codes of Practice
10.3 Contacts 10.3 Contacts
10.4 Image Locations and Credits 10.4 Image Locations and Credits
Path Bridges - planning design construction and maintenance November 2006 Path Bridges - planning design construction and maintenance November 2006
Path Bridges I Introduction

Design matters Design matters
Bridges are an integral part of paths. They are Bridges are an integral part of paths. They are
needed in many different settings, to perform needed in many different settings, to perform
a range of functions and cater for a variety of a range of functions and cater for a variety of
users. Crossing roads, railways, rivers or burns users. Crossing roads, railways, rivers or burns
each bridge poses a different set of design issues. each bridge poses a different set of design issues.
A bridge carrying a low-usage recreational path A bridge carrying a low-usage recreational path
is a different proposition to one carrying a high- is a different proposition to one carrying a high-
usage route for people to get to school, work or usage route for people to get to school, work or
shops. Pedestrians, cyclists and horse riders shops. Pedestrians, cyclists and horse riders
and those passing under bridges each have their and those passing under bridges each have their
specific needs. specific needs.
Recent legislation has changed the context Recent legislation has changed the context
within which bridges will be built in the future. within which bridges will be built in the future.
Under the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 Under the Disability Discrimination Act 1995
(DDA), service providers may break the law if they (DDA), service providers may break the law if they
treat a disabled person less favourably because treat a disabled person less favourably because
of their disability. Designers and managers will of their disability. Designers and managers will
have to consider on a case-by-case basis if it is have to consider on a case-by-case basis if it is
reasonable to install a bridge which is not fully reasonable to install a bridge which is not fully
accessible. The Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 accessible. The Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003
(LRA) gives people in Scotland the right of non- (LRA) gives people in Scotland the right of non-
motorised access to most land and water as long motorised access to most land and water as long
as they exercise that right responsibly. This is as they exercise that right responsibly. This is
likely to increase the number of multi-use bridges likely to increase the number of multi-use bridges
that are installed and stimulate new designs that that are installed and stimulate new designs that
satisfy a broader range of users. satisfy a broader range of users.
Bridges tend to be costly, so each one must be fit Bridges tend to be costly, so each one must be fit
for purpose and not a barrier that unreasonably for purpose and not a barrier that unreasonably
limits path use. Knowing who the users will be limits path use. Knowing who the users will be
and what their needs are is the first crucial step to and what their needs are is the first crucial step to
getting your bridge design right. getting your bridge design right.
In 1979 the Countryside Commission for In 1979 the Countryside Commission for
Scotland (CCS) published Footbridges in the Scotland (CCS) published Footbridges in the
Countryside. It has remained the definitive (and Countryside. It has remained the definitive (and
only) guide to path bridge construction. Scotland, only) guide to path bridge construction. Scotland,
and much further afield is peppered with the and much further afield is peppered with the
designs it promoted - a legacy to the quality of designs it promoted - a legacy to the quality of
the publication. This guide builds on the CCS the publication. This guide builds on the CCS
publication, offers new designs evolved from the publication, offers new designs evolved from the
experience of the intervening years and hopefully experience of the intervening years and hopefully
takes account of the needs of today’s bridge takes account of the needs of today’s bridge
users, designers and builders. users, designers and builders.

Using the guide Using the guide
The guide is designed to help you negotiate the complex factors involved in The guide is designed to help you negotiate the complex factors involved in
planning, designing, constructing and maintaining bridges, whether you have planning, designing, constructing and maintaining bridges, whether you have
a technical background or not. a technical background or not.
If you have no technical knowledge, these factors can be daunting. However, If you have no technical knowledge, these factors can be daunting. However,
the guide will help you to: the guide will help you to:
(i) think through the options available for undertaking a project, (i) think through the options available for undertaking a project,
(ii) decide the key design parameters, and (ii) decide the key design parameters, and
(iii) determine whether you need professional engineering input. (iii) determine whether you need professional engineering input.
In particular, it will help you to select a suitable design from the guide, or In particular, it will help you to select a suitable design from the guide, or
an ‘off the shelf’ proprietary span, to use a contractor for construction or to an ‘off the shelf’ proprietary span, to use a contractor for construction or to
prepare a brief for a consultant to design a more complex structure. prepare a brief for a consultant to design a more complex structure.
Those who do have some technical knowledge and experience will be able to Those who do have some technical knowledge and experience will be able to
use this guide in accordance with their level of competence and the scale of use this guide in accordance with their level of competence and the scale of
the project. The guide gives a number of Standard Designs for which some the project. The guide gives a number of Standard Designs for which some
simple calculations will be required. Where longer and more complex bridges simple calculations will be required. Where longer and more complex bridges
are needed, experienced designers and engineers will find information that are needed, experienced designers and engineers will find information that
will help shape their design solution. will help shape their design solution.
The guide has been designed to help people gain a rounded understanding The guide has been designed to help people gain a rounded understanding
of path bridges. To aid this process much of the technical detail and of path bridges. To aid this process much of the technical detail and
background information has been kept separate from the main text and background information has been kept separate from the main text and
can be found in the Technical Sheets. There is much to be gained from real can be found in the Technical Sheets. There is much to be gained from real
examples and so a range of Case Studies have been included to both inspire examples and so a range of Case Studies have been included to both inspire
and provoke. and provoke.
Technical Verification - The technical information in the guide, including Technical Verification - The technical information in the guide, including
the Standard Designs, has been verified by Dr Geoff Freedman, Head of the Standard Designs, has been verified by Dr Geoff Freedman, Head of
Design, Forestry Civil Engineering. Health and Safety advice has been Design, Forestry Civil Engineering. Health and Safety advice has been
endorsed by John Morris, Health and Safety Advisor to the Paths for All endorsed by John Morris, Health and Safety Advisor to the Paths for All
Partnership (PFAP). Partnership (PFAP).
To help draw attention to particular items you will find the text punctuated To help draw attention to particular items you will find the text punctuated
with the following symbols. with the following symbols.
Practical tips Practical tips
Key information Key information
References have been coloured to aid navigation throughout the document. References have been coloured to aid navigation throughout the document.

Now over to you... Now over to you...
Bridges are a serious business. The designer is responsible for the health Bridges are a serious business. The designer is responsible for the health
and safety of the bridge builders and users. Always be aware of your own and safety of the bridge builders and users. Always be aware of your own
abilities and how they relate to the type of structure you are planning. The abilities and how they relate to the type of structure you are planning. The
designs provided in this guide have been used in many different situations designs provided in this guide have been used in many different situations
across the United Kingdom. However, every situation has its own specific across the United Kingdom. However, every situation has its own specific
issues, all of which cannot be adequately covered in a guide such as this. issues, all of which cannot be adequately covered in a guide such as this.
If you have any doubt about the requirements of a particular site, seek If you have any doubt about the requirements of a particular site, seek
specialist engineering advice - it is readily available. Where there is a British specialist engineering advice - it is readily available. Where there is a British
or European Standard covering either an element of bridge design or a or European Standard covering either an element of bridge design or a
material, it is listed in the guide. It is up to the designer to look up the listed material, it is listed in the guide. It is up to the designer to look up the listed
Standard and make sure of the recommendations. Standard and make sure of the recommendations.
Bridge design is continuously developing. New designs and materials are Bridge design is continuously developing. New designs and materials are
being tried and tested to find more efficient, appropriate and sustainable being tried and tested to find more efficient, appropriate and sustainable
solutions. Recycled materials are becoming increasingly common, and local solutions. Recycled materials are becoming increasingly common, and local
sourcing is being encouraged. Wherever possible, the guide takes account of sourcing is being encouraged. Wherever possible, the guide takes account of
these trends. these trends.
Designing and building bridges is an exciting part of developing paths and Designing and building bridges is an exciting part of developing paths and
improving access. We hope this guide will help you understand more about improving access. We hope this guide will help you understand more about
the process….and get out there building bridges that look good and make the the process….and get out there building bridges that look good and make the
outdoors more accessible to more people. outdoors more accessible to more people.
Thanks Thanks

The production of this document has only been made possible with the help The production of this document has only been made possible with the help
and support of a number of people to whom sincere thanks are due. They and support of a number of people to whom sincere thanks are due. They
include the following members of the focus group which helped to steer include the following members of the focus group which helped to steer
the project. the project.
• Frank McCulloch - Forestry Civil Engineering (Scotland) • Frank McCulloch - Forestry Civil Engineering (Scotland)
• Bridget Jones - Loch Lomond and Trossachs National Park Authority • Bridget Jones - Loch Lomond and Trossachs National Park Authority
• Brenda Clough - Perth and Kinross Council • Brenda Clough - Perth and Kinross Council
• Rowena Colpitts - Sustrans • Rowena Colpitts - Sustrans
• John Duffy - Clackmannanshire Council • John Duffy - Clackmannanshire Council
• Rob Garner - Scottish Natural Heritage • Rob Garner - Scottish Natural Heritage
• Ron McCraw - Scottish Natural Heritage • Ron McCraw - Scottish Natural Heritage
Many other people have contributed comments, ideas and material. These Many other people have contributed comments, ideas and material. These
have been much appreciated and have helped make the document what it is. have been much appreciated and have helped make the document what it is.
Special thanks go to Special thanks go to
• Ali Hibbert - Paths for All Partnership • Ali Hibbert - Paths for All Partnership
• Dr Geoff Freedman - Forestry Civil Engineering (GB) • Dr Geoff Freedman - Forestry Civil Engineering (GB)
• Phil Clarke - Fife Council and Paths for All Partnership • Phil Clarke - Fife Council and Paths for All Partnership
for the considerable amount of time and technical expertise they have given. for the considerable amount of time and technical expertise they have given.
Consider the Options 1.1 Consider the Options 1.1
Section one I Planning Ahead I Consider the Options

There are several different ways of going about a bridge construction project. There are several different ways of going about a bridge construction project.
Consultants, contractors, in-house staff and volunteers all have potential roles Consultants, contractors, in-house staff and volunteers all have potential roles
to play. Choosing the best combination will depend on the complexity and size to play. Choosing the best combination will depend on the complexity and size
of the project and your own experience, skills, resources and confidence. Your of the project and your own experience, skills, resources and confidence. Your
choice will influence the work you have to do and the level of responsibility choice will influence the work you have to do and the level of responsibility
you have to carry. In making a decision, it is useful to break the project down you have to carry. In making a decision, it is useful to break the project down
into different stages (set out below) and to work out where you might need into different stages (set out below) and to work out where you might need
help. The guide itself will act as a more detailed checklist of the tasks and help. The guide itself will act as a more detailed checklist of the tasks and
responsibilities involved. responsibilities involved.
• Planning and permissions • Planning and permissions

• Site survey and assessment • Site survey and assessment
• Bridge design • Bridge design
• Bridge construction • Bridge construction
• Certification • Certification
Although the options and permutations for organising a bridge project are Although the options and permutations for organising a bridge project are
more extensive than can be listed here, there are broadly three main choices more extensive than can be listed here, there are broadly three main choices
to consider and these are discussed below. But don’t forget, no one size to consider and these are discussed below. But don’t forget, no one size
fits all, so use the resources you have and the expertise you need to best fits all, so use the resources you have and the expertise you need to best
advantage, not only to get a good job done but also to build capacity and skills advantage, not only to get a good job done but also to build capacity and skills
within your own organisation. within your own organisation.
Do It Yourself Do It Yourself
If your bridge is a short span with low levels of risk and complexity, the DIY If your bridge is a short span with low levels of risk and complexity, the DIY
option might be perfectly feasible. Carrying out all of these tasks ‘in-house’ option might be perfectly feasible. Carrying out all of these tasks ‘in-house’
brings the greatest control over the project and you will be most likely to get brings the greatest control over the project and you will be most likely to get
the bridge you want at a reasonable cost. Practical expertise may be available the bridge you want at a reasonable cost. Practical expertise may be available
within your own organisation (some Countryside and Ranger Services have within your own organisation (some Countryside and Ranger Services have
developed a lot of bridge construction experience) so always check what developed a lot of bridge construction experience) so always check what
help you might be able to garner from within. Alternatively, you might wish help you might be able to garner from within. Alternatively, you might wish
to involve local volunteers in the construction. Although these projects may to involve local volunteers in the construction. Although these projects may
be less expensive financially, they can be very time consuming, so don’t be less expensive financially, they can be very time consuming, so don’t
underestimate the amount of time you will need to commit to supervising underestimate the amount of time you will need to commit to supervising
volunteers or organising other people. Involving local people brings its own volunteers or organising other people. Involving local people brings its own
rewards in terms of community ownership. rewards in terms of community ownership.
Use contractors Use contractors

Contractors can be involved in a bridge project in a variety of ways. A good Contractors can be involved in a bridge project in a variety of ways. A good
option is to select and survey a suitable site following the advice in this guide, option is to select and survey a suitable site following the advice in this guide,
use a Standard Design, draw up a tender, get it checked by a civil engineer use a Standard Design, draw up a tender, get it checked by a civil engineer
and select a contractor. If you work for a local authority, there may be a civil and select a contractor. If you work for a local authority, there may be a civil
1.1 Section one I Planning Ahead I Consider the Options
Consider the Options 1.1 Consider the Options

engineer in your transportation department who may be willing to do this engineer in your transportation department who may be willing to do this
for little or no cost. Relatively inexperienced people will be reliant on the for little or no cost. Relatively inexperienced people will be reliant on the
contractor doing a good job without too much in the way of supervision. In contractor doing a good job without too much in the way of supervision. In
view of this, it is a good idea to use a contractor recommended by other view of this, it is a good idea to use a contractor recommended by other
access practitioners. As you build experience, you will start to get a feel for access practitioners. As you build experience, you will start to get a feel for
the difference between a good and a bad job, and will be able to be more the difference between a good and a bad job, and will be able to be more
proactive in contract management. proactive in contract management.
Some contractors provide proprietary spans (bridges built to their own design Some contractors provide proprietary spans (bridges built to their own design
and with their own certification) and will construct a bridge as a design and and with their own certification) and will construct a bridge as a design and
build contract based on survey information supplied by the client. Sometimes build contract based on survey information supplied by the client. Sometimes
it makes sense to consider abutments separately. They can be put in as it makes sense to consider abutments separately. They can be put in as
part of the proprietary span, or they could be built ‘in-house’ or a separate part of the proprietary span, or they could be built ‘in-house’ or a separate
contractor engaged. contractor engaged.
Hand it over to consultants Hand it over to consultants

Using consultants to do the whole lot is likely to be the most expensive Using consultants to do the whole lot is likely to be the most expensive
method, and will still take time to manage. For a small bridge project done in method, and will still take time to manage. For a small bridge project done in
isolation, the consultants’ costs could be prohibitive. If the bridge project is isolation, the consultants’ costs could be prohibitive. If the bridge project is
part of a larger path construction project, however, then the consultants’ fees part of a larger path construction project, however, then the consultants’ fees
for the bridge design will simply be a small addition to their overall fee. Large for the bridge design will simply be a small addition to their overall fee. Large
or specialist bridge projects justify the use of consultants more, as overall or specialist bridge projects justify the use of consultants more, as overall
costs will be high anyway and there will be higher risks to accommodate as costs will be high anyway and there will be higher risks to accommodate as
well as more complex design requirements. Use the advice in this guide to well as more complex design requirements. Use the advice in this guide to
steer the consultant in the direction you require. steer the consultant in the direction you require.
Long spans or complex situations will always require professional help Long spans or complex situations will always require professional help
Consultation - getting it right 1.2 Consultation - getting it right 1.2
first time first time
Section one I Planning Ahead I Consultation
Section one I Planning Ahead I Consultation

Working closely with land managers Working closely with land managers
Early consultation and agreement with the land manager is essential. Try to Early consultation and agreement with the land manager is essential. Try to
work closely together throughout the project. As well as getting permission to work closely together throughout the project. As well as getting permission to
build the bridge you should also discuss in detail how and when the work will build the bridge you should also discuss in detail how and when the work will
be done to minimise impact on land management operations. Furthermore, be done to minimise impact on land management operations. Furthermore,
you should discuss the land manager’s own access needs in relation to the you should discuss the land manager’s own access needs in relation to the
new structure. Often, making a bridge accessible to land managers’ vehicles new structure. Often, making a bridge accessible to land managers’ vehicles
increases costs by a surprisingly increases costs by a surprisingly
small amount. Where liability for the small amount. Where liability for the
bridge will lie must be clarified at an bridge will lie must be clarified at an
early stage (see 1.3). early stage (see 1.3).
Land managers can provide Land managers can provide

invaluable site information when invaluable site information when
undertaking the site survey, undertaking the site survey,
saving time and money. The LRA saving time and money. The LRA
and proposed changes to land and proposed changes to land
management incentives mean that management incentives mean that
land managers are likely to be land managers are likely to be
increasingly proactive in planning access to the ground they manage. The increasingly proactive in planning access to the ground they manage. The
Scottish Rural Property and Business Association’s publication Managing Scottish Rural Property and Business Association’s publication Managing
Access - Guidance for Owners and Managers of Land gives useful advice. Access - Guidance for Owners and Managers of Land gives useful advice.
Meeting needs Meeting needs

Bridges are part of path infrastructure - often the most expensive part - and Bridges are part of path infrastructure - often the most expensive part - and
likely to last many years once installed. It is important to get it right first time likely to last many years once installed. It is important to get it right first time
and to ensure that any new construction does not introduce an unreasonable and to ensure that any new construction does not introduce an unreasonable
barrier to legitimate users, now or in the future. Ensure any path consultation barrier to legitimate users, now or in the future. Ensure any path consultation
process covers bridge proposals. Consulting all user groups will determine process covers bridge proposals. Consulting all user groups will determine
the desired use and help you get the best solution for the intended purpose. the desired use and help you get the best solution for the intended purpose.
Horses have a significant effect on bridge design. The large point loads they Horses have a significant effect on bridge design. The large point loads they
impose require careful consideration. In the recent past, most path bridges impose require careful consideration. In the recent past, most path bridges
were not designed to carry horses; in some cases they were used to control were not designed to carry horses; in some cases they were used to control
and restrict equestrian access. However, under the LRA, equestrian use and restrict equestrian access. However, under the LRA, equestrian use
can no longer be disregarded. Bridges need to be as accessible as they can no longer be disregarded. Bridges need to be as accessible as they
reasonably and practicably can be for the widest range of non-motorised reasonably and practicably can be for the widest range of non-motorised
users. It is likely that where a new bridge cannot be used by horses a users. It is likely that where a new bridge cannot be used by horses a
reasonable alternative should be available. As access rights also extend to reasonable alternative should be available. As access rights also extend to
inland water, care must be taken to ensure that bridges or other crossings do inland water, care must be taken to ensure that bridges or other crossings do
not unreasonably impede access along water courses. not unreasonably impede access along water courses.
1.3 Section one I Planning Ahead I Permissions and Legalities
Permissions and Legalities 1.3 Permissions and Legalities
Section one I Planning Ahead I Permissions and Legalities

Planning Permission and Building Warrant Planning Permission and Building Warrant
The Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1997 and the Building The Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1997 and the Building
(Scotland) Regulations apply to bridges. Whether planning permission and/or (Scotland) Regulations apply to bridges. Whether planning permission and/or
building warrant will actually be required in any given case depends on a building warrant will actually be required in any given case depends on a
number of factors that call for a professional judgement. If a bridge that is to number of factors that call for a professional judgement. If a bridge that is to
be repaired or modified is ‘listed’ as being of architectural or historic interest, be repaired or modified is ‘listed’ as being of architectural or historic interest,
a special kind of planning permission known as ‘listed building consent’ may a special kind of planning permission known as ‘listed building consent’ may
be required. These approval procedures all take time. The planning and be required. These approval procedures all take time. The planning and
building control staff in the local authority or National Park Authority should building control staff in the local authority or National Park Authority should
therefore always be consulted, and the sooner the better. therefore always be consulted, and the sooner the better.
Highways, railways and waterways Highways, railways and waterways

Consent from a Highways Authority is required to span a road, and from Consent from a Highways Authority is required to span a road, and from
Network Rail to span a railway line. Trunk roads are managed by the Scottish Network Rail to span a railway line. Trunk roads are managed by the Scottish
Executive and all other highways by the relevant local authority. To span a Executive and all other highways by the relevant local authority. To span a
river or canal, consent must be sought from those with navigation or fishing river or canal, consent must be sought from those with navigation or fishing
rights and from the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA). rights and from the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA).
Designated Areas Designated Areas

Scottish Natural Heritage must Scottish Natural Heritage must
be consulted at an early stage be consulted at an early stage
about proposed works on Sites about proposed works on Sites
of Special Scientific Interest, of Special Scientific Interest,
Special Areas of Conservation, Special Areas of Conservation,
Special Protection Areas, Special Protection Areas,
National Scenic Areas, National National Scenic Areas, National
Nature Reserves and Natura Nature Reserves and Natura
2000 sites. 2000 sites.
Environmental protection Environmental protection

SEPA will also be interested in whether a bridge may have a detrimental SEPA will also be interested in whether a bridge may have a detrimental
effect on the flow of a watercourse, especially in flood, and in the materials effect on the flow of a watercourse, especially in flood, and in the materials
proposed for construction. The Water Environment (Controlled Activities) proposed for construction. The Water Environment (Controlled Activities)
(Scotland) Regulations 2005 cover almost any work that could affect the (Scotland) Regulations 2005 cover almost any work that could affect the
water environment. Some activities do not require formal approval from water environment. Some activities do not require formal approval from
SEPA, as long as they are carried out in accordance with the regulations, but SEPA, as long as they are carried out in accordance with the regulations, but
others do: it is important to check. The Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act others do: it is important to check. The Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act
2004 and the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 need to be considered in 2004 and the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 need to be considered in
project planning. project planning.
Permissions and Legalities 1.3 Permissions and Legalities 1.3

Liability and insurance Liability and insurance
Legal Position Legal Position
The legal position on liability is largely based on the Occupiers’ Liability The legal position on liability is largely based on the Occupiers’ Liability
(Scotland) Act 1960 and common law. Under the 1960 Act, an occupier has (Scotland) Act 1960 and common law. Under the 1960 Act, an occupier has
a duty to take reasonable care to make sure that people entering the land a duty to take reasonable care to make sure that people entering the land
that is under their control will not suffer injuries or damages arising through that is under their control will not suffer injuries or damages arising through
negligence. For any case to succeed under the 1960 Act, it must be negligence. For any case to succeed under the 1960 Act, it must be
shown that: shown that:
• the person who allegedly caused the injury or damage owed a duty of care • the person who allegedly caused the injury or damage owed a duty of care
to the person who was injured or whose property was damaged; to the person who was injured or whose property was damaged;
• this duty was breached by a failure to take reasonable care; and • this duty was breached by a failure to take reasonable care; and
• the failure caused the injury or damage. • the failure caused the injury or damage.
Under Section 5(2) of the LRA, the extent of the duty of care owed by Under Section 5(2) of the LRA, the extent of the duty of care owed by
an occupier towards people on their land is not affected by the Act or its an occupier towards people on their land is not affected by the Act or its
operation. operation.
An introduction to liability law in relation to public outdoor access is provided An introduction to liability law in relation to public outdoor access is provided
in the SNH publication, A Brief Guide to Occupiers’ Legal Liabilities in in the SNH publication, A Brief Guide to Occupiers’ Legal Liabilities in
Scotland. This highlights relevant statutory and common law for land Scotland. This highlights relevant statutory and common law for land
managers, including health and safety legislation. managers, including health and safety legislation.
Management Responsibility Management Responsibility

If you are undertaking a bridge project, it is vital to clarify who will have If you are undertaking a bridge project, it is vital to clarify who will have
responsibility for the safety and management of the structure and individuals responsibility for the safety and management of the structure and individuals
at all stages. During and following construction, and until a completion at all stages. During and following construction, and until a completion
certificate is signed (see over), a contractor will normally have responsibility certificate is signed (see over), a contractor will normally have responsibility
for the bridge and will be liable for any defects or accidents. Following for the bridge and will be liable for any defects or accidents. Following
formal completion, any structure generally becomes the legal property of formal completion, any structure generally becomes the legal property of
the landowner, regardless of who built it and, unless specified otherwise, the landowner, regardless of who built it and, unless specified otherwise,
the landowner will be responsible for exercising the occupier’s duty of care the landowner will be responsible for exercising the occupier’s duty of care
towards its users. It is therefore good practice to agree from the outset who towards its users. It is therefore good practice to agree from the outset who
will be the agreed manager and therefore liable for maintenance and for will be the agreed manager and therefore liable for maintenance and for
addressing any claims arising from accidents associated with the bridge. addressing any claims arising from accidents associated with the bridge.
If not the owner, this agreed manager might be the Access Authority (Local If not the owner, this agreed manager might be the Access Authority (Local
Authority or National Park Authority), a countryside trust or a conservation Authority or National Park Authority), a countryside trust or a conservation
body. This will need to be agreed in writing - perhaps for instance through body. This will need to be agreed in writing - perhaps for instance through
a path agreement under the LRA - if the access authority is to be the a path agreement under the LRA - if the access authority is to be the
agreed manager. agreed manager.
1.3 Section one I Planning Ahead I Permissions and Legalities
Permissions and Legalities 1.3 Permissions and Legalities

The agreed manager should be satisfied that the bridge was designed and The agreed manager should be satisfied that the bridge was designed and
built to a suitable standard and, to this end, must keep a record of all design built to a suitable standard and, to this end, must keep a record of all design
and contract details, and the completion certificate in the Construction Health and contract details, and the completion certificate in the Construction Health
and Safety file (see Section 5.1). The agreed manager should undertake a and Safety file (see Section 5.1). The agreed manager should undertake a
risk assessment to identify all risks, and devise and implement a programme risk assessment to identify all risks, and devise and implement a programme
of safety inspections, monitoring and maintenance to ensure safe use and to of safety inspections, monitoring and maintenance to ensure safe use and to
create a record of all risk management activity (see Section 5.6). create a record of all risk management activity (see Section 5.6).
Completion Certificate Completion Certificate

Following construction and before use, a bridge should be certified by a Following construction and before use, a bridge should be certified by a
Chartered Civil Engineer to ensure the bridge has been suitably constructed Chartered Civil Engineer to ensure the bridge has been suitably constructed
to fulfil its requirements. It is vital to plan how this will be achieved at the start to fulfil its requirements. It is vital to plan how this will be achieved at the start
of a project - at the end you might not find anyone willing to give a signature. of a project - at the end you might not find anyone willing to give a signature.
If you use a proprietary span the manufacturer will generally issue the If you use a proprietary span the manufacturer will generally issue the
certification. Bridges constructed from the Standard Designs in this guide still certification. Bridges constructed from the Standard Designs in this guide still
require certification and a suitable consultant or in-house engineer should be require certification and a suitable consultant or in-house engineer should be
contacted early to determine how certification will be achieved. contacted early to determine how certification will be achieved.
Some organisations choose not to formally certificate some very short Some organisations choose not to formally certificate some very short
span bridges where the risk of accident is low. This decision must be firmly span bridges where the risk of accident is low. This decision must be firmly
based on risk assessment and on a competent person ensuring that the based on risk assessment and on a competent person ensuring that the
bridge has been built to specification. A competent person can be thought bridge has been built to specification. A competent person can be thought
of as someone with experience of implementing the planning, design and of as someone with experience of implementing the planning, design and
construction principles contained in this guide. construction principles contained in this guide.
Permissions and Legalities 1.3 Permissions and Legalities 1.3

Insurance Insurance
Insurance will be required for the different phases of the bridge construction Insurance will be required for the different phases of the bridge construction
and management. and management.
The contractor will require insurance for the site, employees and the public The contractor will require insurance for the site, employees and the public
during the construction phase, and will require cover for the period of defects during the construction phase, and will require cover for the period of defects
liability. Where voluntary labour is involved, volunteers should either be liability. Where voluntary labour is involved, volunteers should either be
directly insured or be covered by other arrangements for the overall project. directly insured or be covered by other arrangements for the overall project.
The designer will require Professional Indemnity insurance to protect The designer will require Professional Indemnity insurance to protect
against compensation sought by a client because of mistakes or negligence against compensation sought by a client because of mistakes or negligence
in design. in design.
The agreed manager will require insurance for public liability and other risks The agreed manager will require insurance for public liability and other risks
of loss or damage arising within the manager’s responsibility. Sometimes of loss or damage arising within the manager’s responsibility. Sometimes
organisations (and many local authorities do this) choose to ‘self insure’ organisations (and many local authorities do this) choose to ‘self insure’
structures. In these cases the organisation bears the cost internally, and structures. In these cases the organisation bears the cost internally, and
includes the structure within its broader insurance coverage in case of any includes the structure within its broader insurance coverage in case of any
liability claims. liability claims.
1.4 Section one I Planning Ahead I Design Parameters
Design Parameters 1.4 Design Parameters
Section one I Planning Ahead I Design Parameters

Working through the issues discussed in this section will help you to Working through the issues discussed in this section will help you to
assemble a list of design parameters for a bridge. This involves working out assemble a list of design parameters for a bridge. This involves working out
what functions a bridge will perform so that a structure can be chosen or what functions a bridge will perform so that a structure can be chosen or
designed to do its job. These functions will of course include consideration designed to do its job. These functions will of course include consideration
of the people and vehicles that will use the bridge but function goes beyond of the people and vehicles that will use the bridge but function goes beyond
that. The design parameters might also include the sort of ‘look’ you want to that. The design parameters might also include the sort of ‘look’ you want to
achieve or what contribution the bridge should make to the landscape. achieve or what contribution the bridge should make to the landscape.
Clearly setting out design parameters is particularly important when Clearly setting out design parameters is particularly important when
commissioning a fresh design. You must be clear on what you want and commissioning a fresh design. You must be clear on what you want and
set the boundaries for the designer or engineer to work within. Giving set the boundaries for the designer or engineer to work within. Giving
insufficient thought to this at the outset can result in a lot of misdirected effort, insufficient thought to this at the outset can result in a lot of misdirected effort,
disappointing results and wasted money. disappointing results and wasted money.
Path users and numbers Path users and numbers

Determining who will use a bridge, and in what Determining who will use a bridge, and in what
sort of numbers, will probably - through the loads sort of numbers, will probably - through the loads
they impose - have the biggest influence on they impose - have the biggest influence on
bridge selection and design. Deck width, handrail bridge selection and design. Deck width, handrail
height and strength, and approach ramp design height and strength, and approach ramp design
will all vary with user types. Consider will all vary with user types. Consider
the following: the following:
• Pedestrians (tourists, experienced walkers, • Pedestrians (tourists, experienced walkers,

local people, commuters) local people, commuters)
• People with disabilities • People with disabilities
• People with pushchairs • People with pushchairs
• Children and older people • Children and older people
• Horse riders or stalking ponies • Horse riders or stalking ponies
• Cyclists (commuters, mountain bikers) • Cyclists (commuters, mountain bikers)
• Livestock • Livestock
• Farm or forestry machinery • Farm or forestry machinery
• Authorised vehicles • Authorised vehicles
• Unauthorised vehicles • Unauthorised vehicles
• Path construction and maintenance plant • Path construction and maintenance plant
• Emergency vehicles • Emergency vehicles
• Watercourse users • Watercourse users
Design Parameters 1.4 Design Parameters 1.4

Volume of traffic is an important consideration, especially in determining the Volume of traffic is an important consideration, especially in determining the
load that a bridge must carry and therefore the load class it must be built load that a bridge must carry and therefore the load class it must be built
for. A bridge in a remote upland glen may not get large numbers crossing at for. A bridge in a remote upland glen may not get large numbers crossing at
one time, whereas a busy commuter route can be expected to be crowded one time, whereas a busy commuter route can be expected to be crowded
at some times of the day. Section 3.3 explains loads and their assessment in at some times of the day. Section 3.3 explains loads and their assessment in
more detail. more detail.
Access for All Access for All

The Disability Discrimination Act (1995) or DDA makes it unlawful for people The Disability Discrimination Act (1995) or DDA makes it unlawful for people
who provide goods, services and facilities to the public to discriminate against who provide goods, services and facilities to the public to discriminate against
disabled people. The overriding principle of the DDA is that these service disabled people. The overriding principle of the DDA is that these service
providers take reasonable measures to provide access. A service provider providers take reasonable measures to provide access. A service provider
may break the law if they treat a disabled person, because of their disability, may break the law if they treat a disabled person, because of their disability,
less favourably than they treat someone else. Potential ‘service providers’ less favourably than they treat someone else. Potential ‘service providers’
unsure of their status should contact the Disability Rights Commission. unsure of their status should contact the Disability Rights Commission.
Remember that a bridge may represent the biggest restriction to access on Remember that a bridge may represent the biggest restriction to access on
a route. Even if the path on either side of a bridge is very inaccessible at a route. Even if the path on either side of a bridge is very inaccessible at
the time a new bridge is planned, building an inaccessible bridge just adds the time a new bridge is planned, building an inaccessible bridge just adds
another barrier. Once you have decided to install a bridge, the extra cost another barrier. Once you have decided to install a bridge, the extra cost
required to make it accessible may be minimal, whereas you may never have required to make it accessible may be minimal, whereas you may never have
another opportunity to upgrade or replace a restrictive bridge. another opportunity to upgrade or replace a restrictive bridge.
The Fieldfare Trust’s Countryside For All The Fieldfare Trust’s Countryside For All
Good Practice Guide identifies the levels Good Practice Guide identifies the levels
of accessibility (including minimum widths of accessibility (including minimum widths
and gradients, handrail heights) that are and gradients, handrail heights) that are
satisfactory for the vast majority of disabled satisfactory for the vast majority of disabled
people. Deck width and design, plus the people. Deck width and design, plus the
nature of the approaches, are key elements nature of the approaches, are key elements
that affect accessibility. that affect accessibility.
In situations where it is not reasonable In situations where it is not reasonable

to construct a fully accessible bridge, the to construct a fully accessible bridge, the
principles of ‘least restrictive option’ should always be applied, that is, by principles of ‘least restrictive option’ should always be applied, that is, by
removing or minimising barriers, providing access for the widest range of removing or minimising barriers, providing access for the widest range of
people. Make every bridge as accessible as you can. people. Make every bridge as accessible as you can.

The Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 - the right The Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 - the right
to responsible access to responsible access
The LRA gives a right of non-motorised access to most land and inland water The LRA gives a right of non-motorised access to most land and inland water
provided the right is exercised responsibly. The Scottish Outdoor Access provided the right is exercised responsibly. The Scottish Outdoor Access
Code provides details of what constitutes responsible behaviour. Always Code provides details of what constitutes responsible behaviour. Always
consider if a new bridge may unreasonably discourage or prevent legitimate consider if a new bridge may unreasonably discourage or prevent legitimate
access under the LRA. Details of the Code are available on access under the LRA. Details of the Code are available on
www.outdooraccess-scotland.com www.outdooraccess-scotland.com
Unauthorised users Unauthorised users

It is essential to consider who may wish to use the bridge, regardless of It is essential to consider who may wish to use the bridge, regardless of
the designer’s intention. So, for example, although you may not permit the designer’s intention. So, for example, although you may not permit
unauthorised vehicles along a route, you must assume that at some point unauthorised vehicles along a route, you must assume that at some point
they may try. You must either design the bridge to withstand such use or else they may try. You must either design the bridge to withstand such use or else
take positive measures to prevent it. take positive measures to prevent it.
What does the bridge cross? What does the bridge cross?
You must consider what will pass underneath the bridge. If it is a traffic route You must consider what will pass underneath the bridge. If it is a traffic route
(road, rail or river), clearances and safety measures are required. Statutory (road, rail or river), clearances and safety measures are required. Statutory
considerations apply to both road and rail. Watercourses may require considerations apply to both road and rail. Watercourses may require
clearances for canoeists, fishermen, sailing boats or commercial traffic. clearances for canoeists, fishermen, sailing boats or commercial traffic.
Contact Network Rail, the Local Authority Transportation Service, SEPA or Contact Network Rail, the Local Authority Transportation Service, SEPA or
British Waterways as appropriate (see Section 1.3). British Waterways as appropriate (see Section 1.3).
Landscape fit Landscape fit

A bridge must be appropriate to A bridge must be appropriate to
its surroundings, whether that’s its surroundings, whether that’s
a city centre, lowland farmscape a city centre, lowland farmscape
or mountainside. Well designed or mountainside. Well designed
and placed bridges can enhance and placed bridges can enhance
landscapes and add to people’s landscapes and add to people’s
experiences; ill-conceived ones can experiences; ill-conceived ones can
ruin a place. ruin a place.
Think about the following: Think about the following:

Location Location
Site selection plays an important role in fitting a bridge into the landscape. Site selection plays an important role in fitting a bridge into the landscape.
If you wish the bridge to be unobtrusive, try to select a site which is in a If you wish the bridge to be unobtrusive, try to select a site which is in a
dip or hollow so the bridge will not be sky-lined. Existing or new planting dip or hollow so the bridge will not be sky-lined. Existing or new planting
can be used creatively to either hide a bridge or reveal it from a desired can be used creatively to either hide a bridge or reveal it from a desired
vantage point. vantage point.
Approaches Approaches
Think of the path on either side as integral to the bridge itself. Make the Think of the path on either side as integral to the bridge itself. Make the
approaches work for you. If you wish the bridge to make a statement or approaches work for you. If you wish the bridge to make a statement or
showcase an attractive design, consider routeing the approach paths to give showcase an attractive design, consider routeing the approach paths to give
good views of the bridge. The path, approaches and bridge itself should all good views of the bridge. The path, approaches and bridge itself should all
link together as seamlessly as possible. link together as seamlessly as possible.
If you are placing a bridge on an unmade path or an open-access area (for If you are placing a bridge on an unmade path or an open-access area (for
example, a park) remember that wear will be concentrated at the bridge example, a park) remember that wear will be concentrated at the bridge
approaches and short sections of constructed path may be required. approaches and short sections of constructed path may be required.
Consider the effects of bridge construction plant to the area adjacent to the Consider the effects of bridge construction plant to the area adjacent to the
bridge. Sensitive landscapes may preclude the use of heavy plant and so a bridge. Sensitive landscapes may preclude the use of heavy plant and so a
lightweight, easily portable bridge may be the only solution. Always allow for lightweight, easily portable bridge may be the only solution. Always allow for
repairs and regeneration works to the land adjacent to the bridge. repairs and regeneration works to the land adjacent to the bridge.
Materials Materials
Choose materials that are Choose materials that are
appropriate to the setting and appropriate to the setting and
to the functions the bridge to the functions the bridge
will perform. Section 4.6 will perform. Section 4.6
contains more details about the contains more details about the
properties and uses of materials. properties and uses of materials.
The colour of materials affects The colour of materials affects
their visual impact; for example, their visual impact; for example,
dark colours will make large dark colours will make large
wooden beams appear less wooden beams appear less
obtrusive. However, for the obtrusive. However, for the
same strength of structure, steel same strength of structure, steel
components are smaller and can components are smaller and can
produce a much lighter-looking produce a much lighter-looking
bridge. Remember that a bridge bridge. Remember that a bridge
can be an uplifting structure in can be an uplifting structure in
its own right and can have a its own right and can have a
dramatic effect on a location - so dramatic effect on a location - so
do not be afraid to be creative do not be afraid to be creative
where it is appropriate. where it is appropriate.

An interpretive tool An interpretive tool
Bridges can present great opportunities for provoking interest and fostering Bridges can present great opportunities for provoking interest and fostering
understanding. Often in interesting locations, they are places where people understanding. Often in interesting locations, they are places where people
naturally pause and take stock, offering good opportunities for getting naturally pause and take stock, offering good opportunities for getting
messages across. messages across.
This attractive little bridge may not be fully compliant but in terms of design and sense of This attractive little bridge may not be fully compliant but in terms of design and sense of
place it is food for thought place it is food for thought
Site access Site access

Access to the construction site will influence the type of bridge you can Access to the construction site will influence the type of bridge you can
install. Ideally, a complete bridge will be brought to site and lifted into place install. Ideally, a complete bridge will be brought to site and lifted into place
in one go. This may require heavy cranes and transport lorries, and so in one go. This may require heavy cranes and transport lorries, and so
you must assess if the site can accommodate them. If this is not possible, you must assess if the site can accommodate them. If this is not possible,
bridge elements can be brought in separately and built on site. This requires bridge elements can be brought in separately and built on site. This requires
plenty of space to lay out and assemble the components, so expect plenty of space to lay out and assemble the components, so expect
increased disturbance to the adjacent ground as a result and always ensure increased disturbance to the adjacent ground as a result and always ensure
remediation is carried out. In remote locations helicopters may be used, remediation is carried out. In remote locations helicopters may be used,
bringing their own access requirements. bringing their own access requirements.
Anticipate future needs Anticipate future needs

If you are planning path construction in the future, consider if a bridge will If you are planning path construction in the future, consider if a bridge will
restrict plant access. Maintenance plant may also need to cross a bridge if restrict plant access. Maintenance plant may also need to cross a bridge if
an alternative access is not available and in some cases emergency vehicles an alternative access is not available and in some cases emergency vehicles
may need to cross. may need to cross.

Cost Cost
Cost is, of course, a factor that influences design. It might, for example, have Cost is, of course, a factor that influences design. It might, for example, have
an impact on the materials used or alter the way a bridge is constructed. But an impact on the materials used or alter the way a bridge is constructed. But
using cost limitations as the primary reason for, say, installing a pedestrian using cost limitations as the primary reason for, say, installing a pedestrian
bridge without taking into account the needs and aspirations of other bridge without taking into account the needs and aspirations of other
potential users, is unacceptable. If the bridge you need cannot be afforded potential users, is unacceptable. If the bridge you need cannot be afforded
now it might be better to wait until it can, rather than spend money on a now it might be better to wait until it can, rather than spend money on a
bridge that does not do what it should. bridge that does not do what it should.
Maintenance Maintenance
Ongoing maintenance is a key consideration. Factors including robustness Ongoing maintenance is a key consideration. Factors including robustness
and durability, ease of access to the structure and replacement of and durability, ease of access to the structure and replacement of
components must all be thought through. When commissioning designs components must all be thought through. When commissioning designs
consideration of how ease of maintenance will be accommodated in the consideration of how ease of maintenance will be accommodated in the
structure should always be included in the brief. structure should always be included in the brief.
Sustainability Sustainability
Including sustainability as a key design parameter will ensure that Including sustainability as a key design parameter will ensure that
environmental cost is considered from the outset. This will impact not only on environmental cost is considered from the outset. This will impact not only on
the choice of materials and the way construction is undertaken but also on the choice of materials and the way construction is undertaken but also on
the expected life span of the bridge, the impact of its eventual replacement the expected life span of the bridge, the impact of its eventual replacement
and the way maintenance is carried out. and the way maintenance is carried out.
Initial Assessment 2.1 Initial Assessment 2.1
Section two I Site Assessment and Survey I Initial Assessment

This section will help you to find the best site for your bridge. In some cases This section will help you to find the best site for your bridge. In some cases
there may be only one suitable location. Usually though, there is flexibility there may be only one suitable location. Usually though, there is flexibility
and it is useful to keep an open mind, so investigate several potential and it is useful to keep an open mind, so investigate several potential
locations as part of an initial assessment before selecting one or two for more locations as part of an initial assessment before selecting one or two for more
detailed survey. detailed survey.
2.1.1 Identifying potential sites 2.1.1 Identifying potential sites

The checklist below will help to assess possible bridge locations. The checklist below will help to assess possible bridge locations.
• the length of the gap to be crossed - try to minimise this. • the length of the gap to be crossed - try to minimise this.
• ground conditions - ideally find firm, well drained ground or bedrock • ground conditions - ideally find firm, well drained ground or bedrock
for bridge foundations. for bridge foundations.
• proximity to the existing path line - will the bridge location require an • proximity to the existing path line - will the bridge location require an
existing route to be moved? existing route to be moved?
• areas subject to flooding - try to avoid or find the best clearance. • areas subject to flooding - try to avoid or find the best clearance.
• site accessibility for plant and materials - the easier the access, • site accessibility for plant and materials - the easier the access,
the lower the cost and the greater choice of designs and construction the lower the cost and the greater choice of designs and construction
methods, and subsequent maintenance. methods, and subsequent maintenance.
• site hazards - minimise these, both for staff constructing the bridge • site hazards - minimise these, both for staff constructing the bridge
and for users. and for users.
• river shape and dynamics - bends are often dynamic areas where • river shape and dynamics - bends are often dynamic areas where
banks are liable to change. Straight sections are usually more banks are liable to change. Straight sections are usually more
problem free. problem free.
• height of gap - allow good clearance for water and debris. It affects • height of gap - allow good clearance for water and debris. It affects
safety of construction, handrail requirements and perception of danger. safety of construction, handrail requirements and perception of danger.
• bank levels - try to find banks that are level to minimise abutments • bank levels - try to find banks that are level to minimise abutments
and a big drop to one side. and a big drop to one side.
2.1 Section two I Site Assessment and Survey I Initial Assessment
Initial Assessment 2.1 Initial Assessment

Fully satisfying all of these criteria rarely occurs, so you need to make a Fully satisfying all of these criteria rarely occurs, so you need to make a
judgement about where you can compromise and where you cannot. While judgement about where you can compromise and where you cannot. While
funding levels inevitably have a strong influence, always consider the funding levels inevitably have a strong influence, always consider the
long-term benefits of a site which may be more expensive initially but will long-term benefits of a site which may be more expensive initially but will
serve a wider range of users or impact less on the environment in the long serve a wider range of users or impact less on the environment in the long
run. A more expensive structure may turn out to be better value long term. run. A more expensive structure may turn out to be better value long term.
Riv Rock foundations Riv Rock foundations
e rs ers
ide but difficult ide but difficult
Pat P ath
h site, expensive site, expensive
connecting paths connecting paths
with steps. Great Tight bend, with steps. Great Tight bend,
views of gorge outside bank views of gorge outside bank
scouring. Large scouring. Large
abutments abutments
Closest link to needed Closest link to needed
village but river village but river
wide and prone Picnic wide and prone Picnic
to flooding Site to flooding Site
Pub
Pub
Gorge Gorge
lic R
lic R
ad
ad
oad
oad
Ro
Ro
Moderately st Moderately
st
re
re
short span over short span over
Fo
Fo
straight section of straight section of
Public Public
river. Poor road river. Poor road
Road Road
access access
Village Village
Sketching out possible locations for providing a crossing point and listing Sketching out possible locations for providing a crossing point and listing
the pros and cons will help with site selection where there is a choice. In the pros and cons will help with site selection where there is a choice. In
the above example local people have asked for a link to a riverside path on the above example local people have asked for a link to a riverside path on
the opposite bank. Constructing a matrix that sets out the advantages and the opposite bank. Constructing a matrix that sets out the advantages and
disadvantages of potential bridge locations can help in coming to a decision. disadvantages of potential bridge locations can help in coming to a decision.
2.1.2 Is a bridge the right solution? 2.1.2 Is a bridge the right solution?
Having gathered the background information and before moving on to Having gathered the background information and before moving on to
a detailed site survey, it is useful to stop and think, ‘do we really need a a detailed site survey, it is useful to stop and think, ‘do we really need a
bridge?’ An alternative solution may be possible. For example, in remote, bridge?’ An alternative solution may be possible. For example, in remote,
undeveloped areas, a judgement must be made. Will the intrusion into the undeveloped areas, a judgement must be made. Will the intrusion into the
landscape of a new man-made artefact be justified by the extra convenience landscape of a new man-made artefact be justified by the extra convenience
and safety it will provide? and safety it will provide?
Initial Assessment 2.1 Initial Assessment 2.1

Always consider whether an alternative route could be chosen to avoid Always consider whether an alternative route could be chosen to avoid
using a bridge at all or whether an existing bridge could be used or using a bridge at all or whether an existing bridge could be used or
upgraded. Some rivers and burns can be crossed by fords or stepping upgraded. Some rivers and burns can be crossed by fords or stepping
stones. In some cases a ford for vehicles and horses can be combined with stones. In some cases a ford for vehicles and horses can be combined with
a light bridge for walkers and cyclists to avoid the need for a large bridge to a light bridge for walkers and cyclists to avoid the need for a large bridge to
serve everyone. Remember though that people must be able to cross safely serve everyone. Remember though that people must be able to cross safely
at all times of year. at all times of year.
Fords can offer useful alternative crossings for horses and vehicles Fords can offer useful alternative crossings for horses and vehicles
It may also be possible to install a pipe or box culvert instead of a bridge. It may also be possible to install a pipe or box culvert instead of a bridge.
These have a high load-carrying capacity and can be comparatively cheap. These have a high load-carrying capacity and can be comparatively cheap.
They may also be useful on sites with poor access or where vandalism is They may also be useful on sites with poor access or where vandalism is
a repeated issue. Pipe sections are easily transported and back fill can a repeated issue. Pipe sections are easily transported and back fill can
sometimes be sourced on site. The downside is that they readily cause sometimes be sourced on site. The downside is that they readily cause
scour downstream and there is increasing concern about their impact on the scour downstream and there is increasing concern about their impact on the
movement of fish and other wildlife. Details of culverts and fords can be found movement of fish and other wildlife. Details of culverts and fords can be found
in the Lowland Path Construction Guide and the Upland Pathworks Guide. in the Lowland Path Construction Guide and the Upland Pathworks Guide.
SEPA should be approached for advice. The restriction of water access rights SEPA should be approached for advice. The restriction of water access rights
should be considered for any bridge alternative. should be considered for any bridge alternative.
Vented causeways (sometimes referred to as Irish bridges) are easily Vented causeways (sometimes referred to as Irish bridges) are easily
overtopped by water and are not recommended. Serious scour can occur overtopped by water and are not recommended. Serious scour can occur
downstream giving rise to undercutting and failure of the structure. downstream giving rise to undercutting and failure of the structure.
The Water Environment (Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2005 The Water Environment (Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2005
cover almost any work that could affect the water environment, including the cover almost any work that could affect the water environment, including the
alternatives to bridges discussed here. See Section 1.3. alternatives to bridges discussed here. See Section 1.3.
2.2 Section two I Site Assessment and Survey I Detailed Site Survey
Detailed Site Survey 2.2 Detailed Site Survey
Section two I Site Assessment and Survey I Detailed Site Survey

Once you have narrowed down potential sites to one or two, a more detailed Once you have narrowed down potential sites to one or two, a more detailed
survey is needed. Be prepared to reject a site that was initially promising on survey is needed. Be prepared to reject a site that was initially promising on
the strength of the information revealed. Most of the tasks required are no the strength of the information revealed. Most of the tasks required are no
more complex than normal path surveying. However, bridges cross rivers, more complex than normal path surveying. However, bridges cross rivers,
roads, railways and canals - locations that can pose serious hazards to roads, railways and canals - locations that can pose serious hazards to
the surveyor. These hazards need to be anticipated, risks assessed and the surveyor. These hazards need to be anticipated, risks assessed and
appropriate safety measures taken. appropriate safety measures taken.
Detailed Site Survey 2.2 Detailed Site Survey 2.2

The information you need to gather is summarised in the checklist and The information you need to gather is summarised in the checklist and
discussed in more detail below. discussed in more detail below.
Survey checklist Survey checklist

• span (exactly the distance you need to cross) • span (exactly the distance you need to cross)
• ground levels (on both sides of gap) • ground levels (on both sides of gap)
• water levels (maximum and minimum) • water levels (maximum and minimum)
• what is upstream that may be likely to come down, e.g. big trees • what is upstream that may be likely to come down, e.g. big trees
• ground conditions (at bridge site and approaches) • ground conditions (at bridge site and approaches)
• position of any obstacles (trees, large rocks, fences etc.) • position of any obstacles (trees, large rocks, fences etc.)
• position of any hazards (power lines, underground services, potential • position of any hazards (power lines, underground services, potential
unstable slopes) unstable slopes)
• site access details • site access details
• laying out space for construction • laying out space for construction
• general site awareness • general site awareness
• sense of place • sense of place
• tie-in for link paths • tie-in for link paths
2.2.1 Span 2.2.1 Span

You will need to establish how long the bridge needs to be, that is the You will need to establish how long the bridge needs to be, that is the
distance between abutments. Remember to include any extra length in the distance between abutments. Remember to include any extra length in the
span, for example to avoid eroding banks or boggy areas. Difficult abutments span, for example to avoid eroding banks or boggy areas. Difficult abutments
can cost more than a longer deck so minimising span is not always the can cost more than a longer deck so minimising span is not always the
cheapest option. A short span is usually measured with a measuring tape. cheapest option. A short span is usually measured with a measuring tape.
In difficult locations like gorges or uncrossable rivers, ask an assistant to go In difficult locations like gorges or uncrossable rivers, ask an assistant to go
round to the other side (this can often be a major challenge itself and may round to the other side (this can often be a major challenge itself and may
require a substantial walk). Throw the end of the tape across and get them require a substantial walk). Throw the end of the tape across and get them
to hold it where required. Alternatively, use a Distomat - an electronic device to hold it where required. Alternatively, use a Distomat - an electronic device
that attaches to a theodolite and accurately measures distances. Low cost that attaches to a theodolite and accurately measures distances. Low cost
lasers are now readily available for the same purpose. lasers are now readily available for the same purpose.

When using a tape to measure long spans, attach the When using a tape to measure long spans, attach the
end of the tape to a line with a weighted end (a stone, end of the tape to a line with a weighted end (a stone,
for example) and throw this across first, pulling the tape for example) and throw this across first, pulling the tape
through afterwards. It will stop your tape getting snagged through afterwards. It will stop your tape getting snagged
in the river. in the river.
clear span clear span

Abutment Abutment
deck level deck level
freeboard min 300mm freeboard min 300mm
slopeline slopeline
Angle A° Angle A°
safety zone to allow for safety zone to allow for

minor scour at toe of bank minor scour at toe of bank
It is important to consider the stability of the banks when choosing the It is important to consider the stability of the banks when choosing the
locations for the abutments. The toe of a bank is particularly vulnerable to locations for the abutments. The toe of a bank is particularly vulnerable to
scour. If it is actively eroding, seek advice. scour. If it is actively eroding, seek advice.
The abutments should lie outside a slope line of Angle A°, which will The abutments should lie outside a slope line of Angle A°, which will
depend on soil conditions. For example, depend on soil conditions. For example,
• for stable rock. A can be up to 60° • for stable rock. A can be up to 60°
• for firm soil. A should not exceed 45° • for firm soil. A should not exceed 45°
• for loose sand, gravel and soft soil. A should not exceed 35° • for loose sand, gravel and soft soil. A should not exceed 35°
Based on Footbridges: A Manual for Construction at Community and Based on Footbridges: A Manual for Construction at Community and
District Level. District Level.
When it comes to specifying a bridge it is important to recognise the different When it comes to specifying a bridge it is important to recognise the different
ways in which span can be measured and to have these in mind when ways in which span can be measured and to have these in mind when
undertaking the survey work. undertaking the survey work.
Clear span - the distance between abutments (see 4.1.1). Clear span - the distance between abutments (see 4.1.1).
Effective span - the full length of the beams from bearing to bearing Effective span - the full length of the beams from bearing to bearing
(see 4.2.3). (see 4.2.3).
Deck length - may be longer than effective span if the deck extends further. Deck length - may be longer than effective span if the deck extends further.

2.2.2 Levels 2.2.2 Levels
To enable you to determine the dimensions of approach ramps and bridge To enable you to determine the dimensions of approach ramps and bridge
abutments, you will need to measure the difference in level between each abutments, you will need to measure the difference in level between each
side of the gap. An engineer’s level or theodolite (and someone who knows side of the gap. An engineer’s level or theodolite (and someone who knows
how to use it) is the quickest and most accurate way of doing this. If this how to use it) is the quickest and most accurate way of doing this. If this
is not possible, a clinometer, tape, ranging staff and some ingenuity will is not possible, a clinometer, tape, ranging staff and some ingenuity will
suffice. For river crossings, you also want to measure the difference between suffice. For river crossings, you also want to measure the difference between
the normal water level and the bank level to determine what clearance is the normal water level and the bank level to determine what clearance is
available under the bridge for navigation. Accurately determining levels will available under the bridge for navigation. Accurately determining levels will
be crucial for calculating the height of abutments required and understanding be crucial for calculating the height of abutments required and understanding
how the bridge will sit in the landscape. how the bridge will sit in the landscape.
2.2.3 Flood water and scour 2.2.3 Flood water and scour
As our climate changes, becoming As our climate changes, becoming
wetter and more unpredictable, a wetter and more unpredictable, a
careful assessment of flood water careful assessment of flood water
is crucial to planning bridges - and is crucial to planning bridges - and
minimising the chance a bridge minimising the chance a bridge
will be washed away. Local land will be washed away. Local land
managers and fishermen are often a managers and fishermen are often a
valuable source of information. Visit valuable source of information. Visit
the site after heavy rainfall; look for the site after heavy rainfall; look for
evidence of previous floods: lines evidence of previous floods: lines
of debris, sandbanks above normal of debris, sandbanks above normal
water level, flattened vegetation and water level, flattened vegetation and
erosion; inspect other bridges on the The impact of a 1-in-200 year flood, where erosion; inspect other bridges on the The impact of a 1-in-200 year flood, where
same watercourse; contact SEPA, a burn changed course completely same watercourse; contact SEPA, a burn changed course completely
River levels can rise alarmingly - always over-estimate flood prediction River levels can rise alarmingly - always over-estimate flood prediction

the local planning service or flood appraisal group if it exists. It is possible to the local planning service or flood appraisal group if it exists. It is possible to
estimate potential flood water for small catchment areas using the information estimate potential flood water for small catchment areas using the information
given in Technical Sheet 6.2. Estimating floods mathematically can be said given in Technical Sheet 6.2. Estimating floods mathematically can be said
to be something of a ‘black art’ but it will give some sort of indication of the to be something of a ‘black art’ but it will give some sort of indication of the
volumes of water that can be expected. Floods are classified by their return volumes of water that can be expected. Floods are classified by their return
period, that is the time interval in which it is predicted that a flood of a given period, that is the time interval in which it is predicted that a flood of a given
size will occur. It is predicted therefore that a ‘one-in-ten year flood’ will occur size will occur. It is predicted therefore that a ‘one-in-ten year flood’ will occur
only once in ten years. Designers use return period as a design parameter only once in ten years. Designers use return period as a design parameter
- bridges built to withstand a 1-in-50 year or a 1-in-100 year flood might be - bridges built to withstand a 1-in-50 year or a 1-in-100 year flood might be
very different structures. very different structures.
The Centre for Ecology and Hydrology has a National Water Archive The Centre for Ecology and Hydrology has a National Water Archive
database and publishes a Flood Estimation Handbook that enables the database and publishes a Flood Estimation Handbook that enables the
calculation of flood levels anywhere in the UK. Go to www.ceh.ac.uk for calculation of flood levels anywhere in the UK. Go to www.ceh.ac.uk for
more information. more information.
The best way of dealing with flood water is to avoid it. Trees and other water- The best way of dealing with flood water is to avoid it. Trees and other water-
borne debris can cause immense structural damage, so aim for a bridge borne debris can cause immense structural damage, so aim for a bridge
where the deck is kept above water and the abutments far enough back to where the deck is kept above water and the abutments far enough back to
be dry at all times. As a general rule, the freeboard (distance between the be dry at all times. As a general rule, the freeboard (distance between the
underside of the beams and water under flood conditions) should be 300mm underside of the beams and water under flood conditions) should be 300mm
minimum. However, total avoidance is not always possible. In these cases minimum. However, total avoidance is not always possible. In these cases
bridges must be particularly firmly attached to their abutments, which must in bridges must be particularly firmly attached to their abutments, which must in
turn be protected against water scour. See Section 4.1.6. turn be protected against water scour. See Section 4.1.6.
Damage to the watercourse is often caused by the bridge structure restricting Damage to the watercourse is often caused by the bridge structure restricting
or altering the flow. Upstream, water backs up, flooding and eroding banks. or altering the flow. Upstream, water backs up, flooding and eroding banks.
Downstream, increased speeds and forces can result in scour, bank failure Downstream, increased speeds and forces can result in scour, bank failure
and bed movement, which can be harmful to fish, particularly in spawning and bed movement, which can be harmful to fish, particularly in spawning
areas. Any hard object introduced into flowing water will change the flow and areas. Any hard object introduced into flowing water will change the flow and
cause scouring somewhere - often on previously undisturbed sections of cause scouring somewhere - often on previously undisturbed sections of
bank. Always try to anticipate this and minimise any effects the bridge may bank. Always try to anticipate this and minimise any effects the bridge may
have on the watercourse. have on the watercourse.
Areas liable to scour Areas liable to scour

Hard objects cause Hard objects cause
water to be deflected water to be deflected
to opposite bank to opposite bank
The outside The outside

of a bend of a bend
erodes due erodes due
to increased Hard objects to increased Hard objects
velocity of cause turbulence velocity of cause turbulence
water around them water around them

2.2.4 Ground investigation 2.2.4 Ground investigation
This is an important element of survey that is often overlooked for small This is an important element of survey that is often overlooked for small
bridges. Ground investigation should: bridges. Ground investigation should:
• reveal the soil structure or bedrock under the topsoil • reveal the soil structure or bedrock under the topsoil
• determine the level of water table • determine the level of water table
• help make informed decisions about the type and position of abutments • help make informed decisions about the type and position of abutments
Before starting, make a general inspection around the site. Riverbanks, Before starting, make a general inspection around the site. Riverbanks,
existing excavations, road and rail cuttings all slice through the ground and existing excavations, road and rail cuttings all slice through the ground and
so yield valuable information. Look out for settlement of any surrounding so yield valuable information. Look out for settlement of any surrounding
structures and try to gather information about conditions from adjacent structures and try to gather information about conditions from adjacent
landowners or local authorities. landowners or local authorities.
Locating bedrock or a firm subsoil layer is important as this will support Locating bedrock or a firm subsoil layer is important as this will support
the bridge abutments plus the weight of the bridge and its users. Abutment the bridge abutments plus the weight of the bridge and its users. Abutment
height is calculated from this point. Hand auger bores are a good way of height is calculated from this point. Hand auger bores are a good way of
investigating down to 3m. investigating down to 3m.
Trial pits are a simple and inexpensive form of ground investigation. They Trial pits are a simple and inexpensive form of ground investigation. They
can be carried out in all soil types, giving a clear in situ picture of the can be carried out in all soil types, giving a clear in situ picture of the
ground conditions. Always dig pits in the vicinity of proposed foundations. ground conditions. Always dig pits in the vicinity of proposed foundations.
If appropriate, service drawings from the statutory authorities and utility If appropriate, service drawings from the statutory authorities and utility
companies should be sought. Hand dig trial pits carefully or use a CAT companies should be sought. Hand dig trial pits carefully or use a CAT
scanner to ensure any services present will not be damaged. scanner to ensure any services present will not be damaged.
If trial pits deeper than 500mm are needed, the sides of a trial pit must be If trial pits deeper than 500mm are needed, the sides of a trial pit must be
stepped or sloped to a safe angle to prevent collapse, as outlined below. stepped or sloped to a safe angle to prevent collapse, as outlined below.
Seek specialist knowledge for pits deeper than 1m. Seek specialist knowledge for pits deeper than 1m.
Digging safe trial pits Digging safe trial pits
Where steps are used, riser height Slopes, depending on water content Where steps are used, riser height Slopes, depending on water content
should equal tread and be 0.5m or less. of soil, should be 1in1.5 at least. should equal tread and be 0.5m or less. of soil, should be 1in1.5 at least.
If no firm mineral sub soil layer can be found, it is possible to float the bridge If no firm mineral sub soil layer can be found, it is possible to float the bridge
abutments on a geotextile, (see Section 4.1) or to drive piles down to a firm abutments on a geotextile, (see Section 4.1) or to drive piles down to a firm
subsoil or bedrock level (it will be down there somewhere!). Both of these subsoil or bedrock level (it will be down there somewhere!). Both of these
techniques will add to the cost of the bridge and require more materials, techniques will add to the cost of the bridge and require more materials,
which will have to be brought onto the site. This cost must be factored into which will have to be brought onto the site. This cost must be factored into
your choice of bridge site. your choice of bridge site.

2.2.5 Obstacles and hazards 2.2.5 Obstacles and hazards
Electricity or telephone pylons/poles must be identified and marked along Electricity or telephone pylons/poles must be identified and marked along
with any underground services. While they may not be affected by the bridge with any underground services. While they may not be affected by the bridge
itself, they may dictate the use of certain installation techniques. Many itself, they may dictate the use of certain installation techniques. Many
bridges will cross rivers that are deep and fast flowing, sometimes over a bridges will cross rivers that are deep and fast flowing, sometimes over a
gorge or ravine. These features can present extra hazards for installation, gorge or ravine. These features can present extra hazards for installation,
maintenance and possibly also the bridge users themselves. maintenance and possibly also the bridge users themselves.
Remember the golden rule of site hazard management Remember the golden rule of site hazard management
- avoid or remove or manage. - avoid or remove or manage.
2.2.6 Landscape fit 2.2.6 Landscape fit

During the survey take pictures of proposed locations from different angles. During the survey take pictures of proposed locations from different angles.
Potential bridge designs can be superimposed or sketched on to help assess Potential bridge designs can be superimposed or sketched on to help assess
landscape impact. If not available in-house, this service is available from landscape impact. If not available in-house, this service is available from
specialist companies. See Section 1.4 for more details on landscape fit. specialist companies. See Section 1.4 for more details on landscape fit.
An artist’s impression helps to visualise the finished product An artist’s impression helps to visualise the finished product
2.2.7 Site access and working space 2.2.7 Site access and working space
As well as surveying the bridge site, you will also have to survey likely site As well as surveying the bridge site, you will also have to survey likely site
access options. These will influence the type of bridge you can build and the access options. These will influence the type of bridge you can build and the
way you can build it. Try to gain access to both sides of the gap to avoid plant way you can build it. Try to gain access to both sides of the gap to avoid plant
crossing watercourses as this poses additional hazards and an increased risk crossing watercourses as this poses additional hazards and an increased risk

of environmental damage. You will need to assess the carrying capacity of of environmental damage. You will need to assess the carrying capacity of
the site access routes and what sort of vehicles, if any, could get to the site. the site access routes and what sort of vehicles, if any, could get to the site.
Land managers can provide Land managers can provide

valuable knowledge about valuable knowledge about
where you can and cannot where you can and cannot
drive vehicles - they do it as drive vehicles - they do it as
part of their daily business! part of their daily business!
Check approach roads for Check approach roads for
weight limits, height restrictions weight limits, height restrictions
and width restrictions. These and width restrictions. These
are generally signed but if are generally signed but if
in doubt contact the local in doubt contact the local
Transportation Department for Transportation Department for
more information. Consider Delivering long beams to site can require access more information. Consider Delivering long beams to site can require access
how the bridge might be for large vehicles how the bridge might be for large vehicles
maintained and what access will be required. In some inaccessible locations, maintained and what access will be required. In some inaccessible locations,
consider using a helicopter for delivering bridge components to site. consider using a helicopter for delivering bridge components to site.
The luxury of adequate space to lay out components and carry out The luxury of adequate space to lay out components and carry out
construction work (working space) is not always available so thinking through construction work (working space) is not always available so thinking through
the practicalities of construction at an early stage is important in selecting a the practicalities of construction at an early stage is important in selecting a
design. Sections 5.3 and 5.4 deal with this in more detail. design. Sections 5.3 and 5.4 deal with this in more detail.
2.2.8 A sense of place 2.2.8 A sense of place

A bridge may be more than a crossing point. It can give access to views A bridge may be more than a crossing point. It can give access to views
from each side, maybe a pool beneath (for looking at fish), rapids close by, from each side, maybe a pool beneath (for looking at fish), rapids close by,
or a waterfall in sight. It can provide a place for interpretation and extending or a waterfall in sight. It can provide a place for interpretation and extending
understanding. Always ask yourself if the bridge can perform other functions understanding. Always ask yourself if the bridge can perform other functions
as well as getting people from A to B and put it in the best place to capitalise as well as getting people from A to B and put it in the best place to capitalise
on them. on them.
2.2.9 General site awareness 2.2.9 General site awareness

It is important to take account of the general character of the site. For It is important to take account of the general character of the site. For
example, evidence of vandalism or misuse should influence choice of example, evidence of vandalism or misuse should influence choice of
construction materials and design. In some situations, urban sites overlooked construction materials and design. In some situations, urban sites overlooked
by housing or close to public roads are likely to be better ‘protected’ by being by housing or close to public roads are likely to be better ‘protected’ by being
visible than those in more secluded locations. visible than those in more secluded locations.

2.2.10 Survey recording 2.2.10 Survey recording
It is best to record the information using scale drawings and annotated maps It is best to record the information using scale drawings and annotated maps
and sketches. A global positioning system (GPS) can be useful in recording and sketches. A global positioning system (GPS) can be useful in recording
the precise locations of, for example, proposed abutments. A survey should the precise locations of, for example, proposed abutments. A survey should
include longitudinal and cross sections of the gap and a plan covering at include longitudinal and cross sections of the gap and a plan covering at
least the same area. Accurate recording is vital as the detailed survey will be least the same area. Accurate recording is vital as the detailed survey will be
used in designing and drawing the bridge, its foundations and approaches, used in designing and drawing the bridge, its foundations and approaches,
and in planning the construction. and in planning the construction.
Access track Access track
Look at: Look at:
- load capacity - load capacity
- access onto public road - access onto public road
- proximity to bridge site - proximity to bridge site
Overhead power lines Overhead power lines

will influence crane Determine will influence crane Determine
operations. Lay out site what access operations. Lay out site what access
such that they can be is available such that they can be is available
avoided. on this side avoided. on this side
of stream or of stream or
if the stream if the stream
is crossable. is crossable.
This area will be used This area will be used
to access the bridge to access the bridge
site. Determine ground site. Determine ground
conditions, load capacity, conditions, load capacity,
conservation value conservation value
which may preclude any which may preclude any
disturbance and if there is disturbance and if there is
a suitable laying out/ a suitable laying out/
fabrication area. fabrication area.
Measure Measure
Narrow point of stream is an attractive watercourse Narrow point of stream is an attractive watercourse
position for a bridge as shorter spans are - depth, width at position for a bridge as shorter spans are - depth, width at
cheaper. But look at ground conditions, various points and cheaper. But look at ground conditions, various points and
potential for future erosion at this point, flood levels. potential for future erosion at this point, flood levels.
height of banks above water level and height of banks above water level and
future flood water levels. future flood water levels.
Producing accurate diagrams is a crucial prerequisite to designing and Producing accurate diagrams is a crucial prerequisite to designing and
planning construction. See Technical Sheet 6.1 for examples of the planning construction. See Technical Sheet 6.1 for examples of the
detailing required. detailing required.
The Basic Bridge 3.1 The Basic Bridge 3.1
The diagram on the opposite page shows the components of a basic simply The diagram on the opposite page shows the components of a basic simply
Section three I Form and Function I The Basic Bridge
Section three I Form and Function I The Basic Bridge

supported beam bridge. supported beam bridge.
The substructure includes the elements that transfer the weight of the The substructure includes the elements that transfer the weight of the
bridge to the ground at either end and comprises the following elements. bridge to the ground at either end and comprises the following elements.
Abutments 1 are the bridge foundations and must be able to support Abutments 1 are the bridge foundations and must be able to support
the weight of the bridge and the users. The abutments will also the weight of the bridge and the users. The abutments will also
determine the bridge level. This may have to be adjusted to provide determine the bridge level. This may have to be adjusted to provide
clearance under the bridge for vehicles, boats, floods or debris. clearance under the bridge for vehicles, boats, floods or debris.
An abutment is sometimes formed to include an upstand 2 which An abutment is sometimes formed to include an upstand 2 which
allows a gap for heat expansion and air circulation, and can be extended allows a gap for heat expansion and air circulation, and can be extended
to create wingwalls 3 that support an approach ramp. to create wingwalls 3 that support an approach ramp.
A bearing 4 lies between a beam and an abutment and transfers the A bearing 4 lies between a beam and an abutment and transfers the
load evenly. It holds the beam in place while allowing it to expand and load evenly. It holds the beam in place while allowing it to expand and
contract in response to temperature. contract in response to temperature.
Piers are used to provide intermediate supports for multi-span bridges. Piers are used to provide intermediate supports for multi-span bridges.
On top of this sits the superstructure. On top of this sits the superstructure.
The main beams 5 are the structural heart of the bridge. These must be The main beams 5 are the structural heart of the bridge. These must be
capable of supporting the loads of the users as well as the weight of the capable of supporting the loads of the users as well as the weight of the
bridge itself. bridge itself.
The deck 6 provides a safe surface for users and transfers their weight The deck 6 provides a safe surface for users and transfers their weight
to the main beams. to the main beams.
Handrails 7 prevent users falling off the bridge. In some designs they Handrails 7 prevent users falling off the bridge. In some designs they
are also an integral part of the load-carrying structure. are also an integral part of the load-carrying structure.
3.2 Bridge Types 3.2 Bridge Types
A wide variety of options and designs are available to put a bridge across a A wide variety of options and designs are available to put a bridge across a
Section three I Form and Function I Bridge Types

gap. Although there are many different types of bridge that could be used, gap. Although there are many different types of bridge that could be used,
most situations encountered will require a simple bridge of a short single most situations encountered will require a simple bridge of a short single
span. Wide gaps and awkward locations may need a more complex solution, span. Wide gaps and awkward locations may need a more complex solution,
and in these situations specialised engineering input will be required to and in these situations specialised engineering input will be required to
design a suitable structure. design a suitable structure.
This section will help to broadly identify the types of bridge you may This section will help to broadly identify the types of bridge you may
encounter and to understand which bridge may be suitable for a given site. encounter and to understand which bridge may be suitable for a given site.
This understanding should be of assistance in working in a more informed This understanding should be of assistance in working in a more informed
way with engineers and designers. way with engineers and designers.
Some of the main types of bridge are: Some of the main types of bridge are:
Simply supported beam bridges Simply supported beam bridges

These are the simplest and cheapest These are the simplest and cheapest
bridges and the ones that will ‘do’ for bridges and the ones that will ‘do’ for
nearly all of the situations you will nearly all of the situations you will
encounter. A railway sleeper placed encounter. A railway sleeper placed
across a burn is the most basic of across a burn is the most basic of
simply supported bridges - one solid simply supported bridges - one solid
beam supported at each end, acting beam supported at each end, acting
as a deck and beam in one. as a deck and beam in one.
Most simply supported beam Most simply supported beam

bridges have solid beams bridges have solid beams
(either steel or timber) (either steel or timber)
supporting a deck made up supporting a deck made up
of timber boards or steel of timber boards or steel
grids or plates with some grids or plates with some
form of handrail. All types are form of handrail. All types are
supported at either end on supported at either end on
a simple pad foundation or a simple pad foundation or
abutment. Bridges of this type abutment. Bridges of this type
are available for spans up to are available for spans up to
25m where an alternative to a 25m where an alternative to a
Green oak construction - a creative approach to Green oak construction - a creative approach to
a simply supported beam bridge solid beam is used. A common a simply supported beam bridge solid beam is used. A common
‘off the shelf’ design for these ‘off the shelf’ design for these
long-span structures is a Warren Truss. Composed of a lightweight lattice of long-span structures is a Warren Truss. Composed of a lightweight lattice of
steel members, these specialist constructions allow large spans to be built steel members, these specialist constructions allow large spans to be built
while minimising materials and weight. while minimising materials and weight.
Bridge Types 3.2 Bridge Types 3.2
Multi span bridges Multi span bridges

These are similar to simply supported These are similar to simply supported
beams with one or more central beams with one or more central
supports (piers) in addition to the supports (piers) in addition to the
end abutments. They allow longer end abutments. They allow longer
overall spans to be achieved or overall spans to be achieved or
can be used to reduce beam sizes. can be used to reduce beam sizes.
However, there must be somewhere However, there must be somewhere
to place the piers and in rivers this to place the piers and in rivers this
is fraught with difficulties. Piers on is fraught with difficulties. Piers on
river beds give rise to scour and river beds give rise to scour and
should be avoided. They are better should be avoided. They are better
placed on bedrock. Even so, there is placed on bedrock. Even so, there is
an increasing tendency to opt for a an increasing tendency to opt for a
longer single span over a multi-span. longer single span over a multi-span.
These bridges should always be left These bridges should always be left
to the experts. to the experts.
Arch bridges Arch bridges

Once very common, they are now Once very common, they are now
rarely built, apart from the new rarely built, apart from the new
generation of timber arches, generation of timber arches,
discussed later. For the path builder, discussed later. For the path builder,
arch bridges still have a place, arch bridges still have a place,
particularly in rural areas. Loads particularly in rural areas. Loads
from the deck are transferred around from the deck are transferred around
the arch into the abutments. Solid the arch into the abutments. Solid
foundations are required and good foundations are required and good
stonework skills are needed to build stonework skills are needed to build
them. British Trust for Conservation them. British Trust for Conservation
Volunteers’ (BTCV) Dry Stone Volunteers’ (BTCV) Dry Stone
Walling has details of traditional Walling has details of traditional
stonework techniques. Achieving stonework techniques. Achieving
accessible gradients is sometimes accessible gradients is sometimes
difficult. You can make a ‘cheat’ arch difficult. You can make a ‘cheat’ arch
by using a liner (either a section of by using a liner (either a section of
plastic pipe or specialist galvanised plastic pipe or specialist galvanised
corrugated steel) and then covering it corrugated steel) and then covering it
with mass concrete. Stone work is then added purely for aesthetic purposes. with mass concrete. Stone work is then added purely for aesthetic purposes.
Span range is up to 3m, unless you have a big budget and expert guidance. Span range is up to 3m, unless you have a big budget and expert guidance.
3.2 Section three I Form and Function I Bridge Types
Bridge Types 3.2 Bridge Types

Suspension and cable stay bridges Suspension and cable stay bridges
Designing a suspension or cable stay bridge is complex and very solid Designing a suspension or cable stay bridge is complex and very solid
foundations to bedrock are required. They can span big gaps without foundations to bedrock are required. They can span big gaps without
intermediate piers and are often extremely elegant and dramatic structures. intermediate piers and are often extremely elegant and dramatic structures.
Suspension bridges are not uncommon on paths, but engineering input Suspension bridges are not uncommon on paths, but engineering input
is essential. is essential.
Stress laminated timber arch bridges Stress laminated timber arch bridges
This type of bridge is an efficient form of construction in terms of material This type of bridge is an efficient form of construction in terms of material
and cost, and can be very attractive. At the moment, these must be and cost, and can be very attractive. At the moment, these must be
designed and constructed by professionals but as the science develops, designed and constructed by professionals but as the science develops,
construction will simplify and relatively low levels of skills will be needed to construction will simplify and relatively low levels of skills will be needed to
carry out all operations. carry out all operations.
Bridge Types 3.2 Bridge Types 3.2

It makes use of small lengths of sawn timber vertically laminated. The It makes use of small lengths of sawn timber vertically laminated. The
laminations are stagger lapped and compressed together using high tensile laminations are stagger lapped and compressed together using high tensile
steel rods. Because of the steel rods. Because of the
arch construction the timber is arch construction the timber is
used in compression, which is used in compression, which is
its best property. This accounts its best property. This accounts
for the efficiency and has led for the efficiency and has led
to spans between 60 and 100 to spans between 60 and 100
times the timber depth. Care times the timber depth. Care
is required to design out steep is required to design out steep
gradients at either end to meet gradients at either end to meet
accessibility standards. Stress accessibility standards. Stress
laminated timber arches are laminated timber arches are
also available with flat decks. also available with flat decks.
See Case Study 8.6. See Case Study 8.6.
Aerial mast bridges Aerial mast bridges

Invented by the Forestry Invented by the Forestry
Commission, this design uses Commission, this design uses
factory produced triangular factory produced triangular
steel truss units, 3m long, steel truss units, 3m long,
which are bolted together on which are bolted together on
site to form beams of lengths site to form beams of lengths
up to 26m. Beam units are laid up to 26m. Beam units are laid
side by side to give a bridge side by side to give a bridge
of the desired width and they of the desired width and they
are linked laterally using steel are linked laterally using steel
angles ‘U’ bolted to the top and angles ‘U’ bolted to the top and
bottom tubes of the mast sections. A timber deck is fixed to the top of the bottom tubes of the mast sections. A timber deck is fixed to the top of the
beams and handrails are attached to the lateral steel angles. They can be beams and handrails are attached to the lateral steel angles. They can be
used for simply supported beam or multi-span designs. With very long spans used for simply supported beam or multi-span designs. With very long spans
horses can refuse because of the relatively low natural vibration frequencies horses can refuse because of the relatively low natural vibration frequencies
that are set up. See Case Study 8.2. that are set up. See Case Study 8.2.
Standard Designs Standard Designs

This guide gives designs for simply supported beams This guide gives designs for simply supported beams
only. The other types of bridge illustrated in this only. The other types of bridge illustrated in this
section are beyond the scope of this guide and will section are beyond the scope of this guide and will
require specialist knowledge. The bridges shown in require specialist knowledge. The bridges shown in
the Standard Designs can be used in those situations the Standard Designs can be used in those situations
where a single short span of 9m or less is suitable and where a single short span of 9m or less is suitable and
there are no other complications. there are no other complications.
3.3 Section three I Form and Function I Loadings
Loadings 3.3 Loadings
Section three I Form and Function I Loadings

Understanding and accurately quantifying loads is an essential part of bridge Understanding and accurately quantifying loads is an essential part of bridge
design. In designing ‘one-off’ bridges, qualified engineers calculate these design. In designing ‘one-off’ bridges, qualified engineers calculate these
loads from first principles and specify the bridge accordingly, ensuring the loads from first principles and specify the bridge accordingly, ensuring the
structure is both ‘fit for purpose’ and safe. structure is both ‘fit for purpose’ and safe.
The Standard Designs offered in Section 7 are The Standard Designs offered in Section 7 are
relatively simple and do not require complex relatively simple and do not require complex
calculations. Normally you will need to specify a span, calculations. Normally you will need to specify a span,
determine a load class, and a design to ‘fit the bill’ determine a load class, and a design to ‘fit the bill’
should be available. Alternatively, component sizes should be available. Alternatively, component sizes
can be taken from tables in Technical Sheets 6.6, 6.7 can be taken from tables in Technical Sheets 6.6, 6.7
and 6.8. and 6.8.
However, regardless of your technical ‘know-how’, it is still important to However, regardless of your technical ‘know-how’, it is still important to
understand the impact loads have on structures and the next section understand the impact loads have on structures and the next section
provides an insight. The loads which may affect a bridge are covered by provides an insight. The loads which may affect a bridge are covered by
British Standards (BS), Approved Codes of Practice and Department for British Standards (BS), Approved Codes of Practice and Department for
Transport (DfT), Memoranda and Eurocodes (see 4.6.8). An explanation of Transport (DfT), Memoranda and Eurocodes (see 4.6.8). An explanation of
loads relevant to path bridges can be found in Technical Sheet 6.3. loads relevant to path bridges can be found in Technical Sheet 6.3.
Loads and their impact on bridges Loads and their impact on bridges
Loads can be classified as: Loads can be classified as:
Dead Load Dead Load

The weight of the bridge itself. It is relatively easy to calculate knowing the The weight of the bridge itself. It is relatively easy to calculate knowing the
construction materials and their dimensions. construction materials and their dimensions.
Live Loads Live Loads

These are imposed on the bridge from external sources. The main types of These are imposed on the bridge from external sources. The main types of
live loads are: live loads are:
Users: Users can impose both static loads and dynamic loads. A horse Users: Users can impose both static loads and dynamic loads. A horse
standing on a bridge exerts a weight vertically downwards - a static load. standing on a bridge exerts a weight vertically downwards - a static load.
When it moves, the dynamic load imposed through its hooves is much When it moves, the dynamic load imposed through its hooves is much
greater but localised. Users leaning against a handrail will impose horizontal greater but localised. Users leaning against a handrail will impose horizontal
loads in the same way. loads in the same way.
Loadings 3.3 Loadings 3.3

User loads are categorised according to both type and volume of expected User loads are categorised according to both type and volume of expected
use by BS5400. These loads influence not only beam size but also the use by BS5400. These loads influence not only beam size but also the
specification of decks and handrails. The load tables in Technical Sheets 6.6, specification of decks and handrails. The load tables in Technical Sheets 6.6,
6.7 and 6.8 give options for the following BS load categories: 6.7 and 6.8 give options for the following BS load categories:
• pedestrian - normal • pedestrian - normal

• pedestrian - crowd • pedestrian - crowd
• horses • horses
• all terrain vehicles (ATVs) • all terrain vehicles (ATVs)
LOAD LOAD
LOAD LOAD
Heavily used bridges in urban areas may have to accommodate ‘extreme Heavily used bridges in urban areas may have to accommodate ‘extreme
crowd’ loading, in which case expert help should always be sought. crowd’ loading, in which case expert help should always be sought.
Occasionally Highways Agency (formerly Department for Transport) Standard Occasionally Highways Agency (formerly Department for Transport) Standard
BD 29/04 may override the requirements of the BS5400 series. BD 37/01 is BD 29/04 may override the requirements of the BS5400 series. BD 37/01 is
also relevant. also relevant.
Wind: Wind mainly imposes horizontal loads but may also cause suction over Wind: Wind mainly imposes horizontal loads but may also cause suction over
a flat surface leading to vertical loading. For most simple bridges, wind loads a flat surface leading to vertical loading. For most simple bridges, wind loads
need not be considered separately. need not be considered separately.
Snow: Snow and ice will provide a static, vertical load. Factors of Safety Snow: Snow and ice will provide a static, vertical load. Factors of Safety
(see over) will accommodate this on a simple bridge and it does not need to (see over) will accommodate this on a simple bridge and it does not need to
be considered. Usually when there is lots of snow, few people will use the be considered. Usually when there is lots of snow, few people will use the
bridge. bridge.
Flood Water: Flood water can give rise to all kinds of loads, often from Flood Water: Flood water can give rise to all kinds of loads, often from
unexpected directions. The water itself will provide large horizontal loads on unexpected directions. The water itself will provide large horizontal loads on
the bridge structure, abutments and piers; upwards vertical pressure loads the bridge structure, abutments and piers; upwards vertical pressure loads
can cause the bridge to literally float away; floating debris in flood can cause the bridge to literally float away; floating debris in flood
water can impose dynamic loads. water can impose dynamic loads.
3.3 Section three I Form and Function I Loadings
Loadings 3.3 Loadings

Predicting flood loads is Predicting flood loads is
complex. The Standard complex. The Standard
Designs in this manual detail Designs in this manual detail
fixing-down methods that will fixing-down methods that will
cope with moderate inundation. cope with moderate inundation.
The designer of this bridge was The designer of this bridge was
anticipating flood conditions: anticipating flood conditions:
the beams and handrails are the beams and handrails are
designed to let water pass through designed to let water pass through
Deflection: A structural element can bend significantly while still being well Deflection: A structural element can bend significantly while still being well
within its maximum allowable load. However, bridge users will feel unsafe if a within its maximum allowable load. However, bridge users will feel unsafe if a
bridge moves alarmingly when they cross it. The beam sizes given in the bridge moves alarmingly when they cross it. The beam sizes given in the
Standard Designs and the tables in Technical Sheet 6.7 will limit deflection to Standard Designs and the tables in Technical Sheet 6.7 will limit deflection to
an acceptable amount. an acceptable amount.
Every structure vibrates with a fixed natural frequency. If a varying force Every structure vibrates with a fixed natural frequency. If a varying force
with a frequency equal to the natural frequency (in phase) is applied to such with a frequency equal to the natural frequency (in phase) is applied to such
an object the resulting vibrations are known as resonance and they can an object the resulting vibrations are known as resonance and they can
become violent. For example, sometimes the action of wind or a group of become violent. For example, sometimes the action of wind or a group of
people walking in-step will cause a structural member to oscillate or ‘drum’ in people walking in-step will cause a structural member to oscillate or ‘drum’ in
time with the steps. Dealing with this dynamic deflection is complex and its time with the steps. Dealing with this dynamic deflection is complex and its
potentially catastrophic effects were experienced in 2000 with the Millennium potentially catastrophic effects were experienced in 2000 with the Millennium
Bridge over the Thames in London. Fortunately, this only needs consideration Bridge over the Thames in London. Fortunately, this only needs consideration
in the design of long slender spans. in the design of long slender spans.
Horses are very sensitive to vibration laterally and only very stiff bridges will Horses are very sensitive to vibration laterally and only very stiff bridges will
be suitable for all horses. Current estimates of suitable frequencies be suitable for all horses. Current estimates of suitable frequencies
are over 5Hz and work is on-going to improve understanding of horses’ are over 5Hz and work is on-going to improve understanding of horses’
specific requirements. specific requirements.
Factors of Safety Factors of Safety

When determining the magnitude of loads imposed on a structure, an When determining the magnitude of loads imposed on a structure, an
engineer will always include a factor of safety to accommodate unforeseen engineer will always include a factor of safety to accommodate unforeseen
circumstances. This will vary depending on how accurately you can quantify circumstances. This will vary depending on how accurately you can quantify
the load and the strength of the element it acts upon. For example, the the load and the strength of the element it acts upon. For example, the
Factor of Safety for ground loads is usually 2.0 because determining ground Factor of Safety for ground loads is usually 2.0 because determining ground
strength is difficult. So the total load, live and dead, imposed by the bridge strength is difficult. So the total load, live and dead, imposed by the bridge
on the ground is multiplied by 2 to determine the size and strength of the on the ground is multiplied by 2 to determine the size and strength of the
foundations required. Factors of Safety are covered in the various codes of foundations required. Factors of Safety are covered in the various codes of
practice relating to bridge design noted on the previous page. practice relating to bridge design noted on the previous page.
Abutments 4.1 Abutments 4.1
Section four I Design Considerations I Abutments

4.1.1 Specifying abutments 4.1.1 Specifying abutments
Abutments are the foundations of the bridge and have a number of functions. Abutments are the foundations of the bridge and have a number of functions.
They must: They must:
• safely transfer all of the bridge loads into the ground • safely transfer all of the bridge loads into the ground
• provide sufficient clearance under a bridge • provide sufficient clearance under a bridge
• secure the bridge from being washed away if flooding is a possibility • secure the bridge from being washed away if flooding is a possibility
• be robust enough not to be damaged by water • be robust enough not to be damaged by water
• provide an anchor for wingwalls if they are used • provide an anchor for wingwalls if they are used
This means that they can often be substantial constructions that will have a This means that they can often be substantial constructions that will have a
major effect on the cost of a project. Every effort in siting the bridge to limit major effect on the cost of a project. Every effort in siting the bridge to limit
the work required on the abutments is worthwhile. the work required on the abutments is worthwhile.
Wherever possible, set the abutments back from the bank edge. This may Wherever possible, set the abutments back from the bank edge. This may
increase the length of bridge required but will keep the foundations away increase the length of bridge required but will keep the foundations away
from the potentially unstable ‘slip zone’ of the bank slope and from potential from the potentially unstable ‘slip zone’ of the bank slope and from potential
scour. Scour at the toe of a bank should be anticipated unless bedrock is scour. Scour at the toe of a bank should be anticipated unless bedrock is
present. It is the most common cause of abutment collapse. One method of present. It is the most common cause of abutment collapse. One method of
calculating the span of a bridge is given in Technical Sheet 6.1. calculating the span of a bridge is given in Technical Sheet 6.1.
1.5 1.5
1 1
Slip Zone Slip Zone
Whenever possible site Whenever possible site
abutments on ground back from abutments on ground back from
the bank and keep out of the slip zone the bank and keep out of the slip zone
These substantial abutments are required for These substantial abutments are required for
a short span bridge because they lie in the a short span bridge because they lie in the
slip zone; the alternative would be smaller slip zone; the alternative would be smaller
foundations and a larger span foundations and a larger span
4.1 Section four I Design Considerations I Abutments
Abutments 4.1 Abutments

The simplest abutments are called The simplest abutments are called
bankseats. These are basic concrete bankseats. These are basic concrete
pad foundations and are suitable pad foundations and are suitable
for use on the top of bankings (i.e. for use on the top of bankings (i.e.
not in the slip zone). The bridges not in the slip zone). The bridges
shown in the Standard Designs shown in the Standard Designs
carry comparatively light loads. For carry comparatively light loads. For
this reason the width of bankseats this reason the width of bankseats
used with them can be restricted to used with them can be restricted to
500mm wider than the bridge itself. 500mm wider than the bridge itself.
Height (minimum 150mm) is then Height (minimum 150mm) is then
determined by the required level of determined by the required level of
the bridge. bankseat the bridge. bankseat
The ability to increase the height The ability to increase the height
of an abutment above the required of an abutment above the required
minimum is an important design minimum is an important design
consideration both for accessibility consideration both for accessibility
and landscape fit. Technical Sheet and landscape fit. Technical Sheet
6.4 gives some abutment design 6.4 gives some abutment design
details for bankseats and more details for bankseats and more
complex constructions. Constructing complex constructions. Constructing
upstands on abutments provides upstands on abutments provides
attachment for wingwalls and will attachment for wingwalls and will
retain the path material. retain the path material.
Where tall abutments are Where tall abutments are

constructed or steep slopes are constructed or steep slopes are
created, protective handrailing may created, protective handrailing may
be required. be required.
Simple concrete bankseats being formed Simple concrete bankseats being formed
4.1.2 Soil conditions 4.1.2 Soil conditions

Ideally, abutments are founded on the firm mineral subsoil layer below the Ideally, abutments are founded on the firm mineral subsoil layer below the
topsoil, or better still attached to bedrock. On peaty soils or those with high topsoil, or better still attached to bedrock. On peaty soils or those with high
clay content it is possible to ‘float’ abutments on a geogrid. A multi-layered clay content it is possible to ‘float’ abutments on a geogrid. A multi-layered
‘sandwich’ of geogrid and aggregate can substantially spread and support ‘sandwich’ of geogrid and aggregate can substantially spread and support
the load. Construction details can be found in Technical Sheet 6.4. but need the load. Construction details can be found in Technical Sheet 6.4. but need
careful detailing by an engineer. careful detailing by an engineer.
Soil strength can be assessed in detail to calculate its bearing capacity so Soil strength can be assessed in detail to calculate its bearing capacity so
that abutments can be accurately designed to cope. However, abutments for that abutments can be accurately designed to cope. However, abutments for
a simply supported bridge of 9m and less will accommodate a minor amount a simply supported bridge of 9m and less will accommodate a minor amount
of settlement and calculation is unnecessary. In these circumstances the of settlement and calculation is unnecessary. In these circumstances the
overall stability of the riverbank and the effect of scour are far more important overall stability of the riverbank and the effect of scour are far more important
factors to be considered. factors to be considered.
If an abutment is also going to retain soil behind it, drainage for the soil must If an abutment is also going to retain soil behind it, drainage for the soil must
be provided. This is best achieved by putting a layer of single size 40mm be provided. This is best achieved by putting a layer of single size 40mm
crushed stone or gravel between the abutment and the soil, separated by a crushed stone or gravel between the abutment and the soil, separated by a
geotextile. If the abutment is going to retain soil behind it to a depth of over geotextile. If the abutment is going to retain soil behind it to a depth of over
500mm careful detailing is required and expert help should be sought. 500mm careful detailing is required and expert help should be sought.

Always leave a 10mm air Always leave a 10mm air
gap between beam ends Water gap between beam ends Water
and upstand of abutment and upstand of abutment
Upstand Upstand
Geotextile Geotextile
WATER IN WATER IN
WATER OUT WATER OUT

25mm plastic pipes 25mm plastic pipes
40mm set in abutment to 40mm set in abutment to
allow water to drain allow water to drain
crushed stone crushed stone
away; slight upward tilt away; slight upward tilt
reduces weeping down reduces weeping down
face of abutment face of abutment
Any upfilling or material behind an abutment should be well compacted and Any upfilling or material behind an abutment should be well compacted and
provision should be made for leading water away (see diagram). Compaction provision should be made for leading water away (see diagram). Compaction
is best achieved by building up the fill material in thin layers (about 225mm) is best achieved by building up the fill material in thin layers (about 225mm)
and using a vibratory roller or plate compactor to consolidate each layer. In and using a vibratory roller or plate compactor to consolidate each layer. In
remote areas a hand-held timber dolley or ‘heeling in’ by boot could remote areas a hand-held timber dolley or ‘heeling in’ by boot could
be sufficient. Despite this, some settlement of unbound material should be sufficient. Despite this, some settlement of unbound material should
be expected. be expected.
4.1.3 Preparing foundations 4.1.3 Preparing foundations

It is important that abutment foundations are kept as dry as possible during It is important that abutment foundations are kept as dry as possible during
construction, as water can affect the structural integrity of the surrounding construction, as water can affect the structural integrity of the surrounding
(and supporting) soil. If you have to excavate an abutment foundation in (and supporting) soil. If you have to excavate an abutment foundation in
wet conditions, the hole may fill up with water as you dig it. Usually a line of wet conditions, the hole may fill up with water as you dig it. Usually a line of
sandbags around the hole will help to prevent this but you may also need sandbags around the hole will help to prevent this but you may also need
a pump to keep it dry. The bearing capacity of saturated soil is about 50 a pump to keep it dry. The bearing capacity of saturated soil is about 50
per cent of the same soil in a dry state. Water seeping in to the foundation per cent of the same soil in a dry state. Water seeping in to the foundation
below the water table can substantially weaken the soil resulting in the hole below the water table can substantially weaken the soil resulting in the hole
collapsing; a serious health and safety concern. collapsing; a serious health and safety concern.
To prevent collapse of side walls, dig foundations as recommended for trial To prevent collapse of side walls, dig foundations as recommended for trial
pits in Section 2.2.4. pits in Section 2.2.4.

4.1.4 Setting out 4.1.4 Setting out
It is essential that abutments are It is essential that abutments are
accurately placed, level and parallel. b1 accurately placed, level and parallel. b1
Fitting beams or a complete bridge Fitting beams or a complete bridge
to badly measured or inaccurately a a1 to badly measured or inaccurately a a1
constructed abutments can be constructed abutments can be
an expensive and unpleasant Measure abutments b an expensive and unpleasant Measure abutments b
experience. Emphasising their careful carefully; if abutments experience. Emphasising their careful carefully; if abutments
construction (including any allowable are in line and parallel construction (including any allowable are in line and parallel
tolerances) on tender documents and then a=a1 and b=b1 tolerances) on tender documents and then a=a1 and b=b1
designs is worthwhile. designs is worthwhile.
4.1.5 Construction materials 4.1.5 Construction materials

Abutments can be made from a variety of different materials, the most Abutments can be made from a variety of different materials, the most
common of which are discussed below. A more extensive discussion about common of which are discussed below. A more extensive discussion about
materials can be found in Section 4.6. materials can be found in Section 4.6.
Concrete is a material that can be mixed to precise specifications. It can be Concrete is a material that can be mixed to precise specifications. It can be
tailored to meet the needs of different situations and used for a wide variety tailored to meet the needs of different situations and used for a wide variety
of different abutment designs. Care is needed when pouring concrete near of different abutment designs. Care is needed when pouring concrete near
to watercourses. Unset (green) concrete must not get into the water as it has to watercourses. Unset (green) concrete must not get into the water as it has
a high pH (alkali) and may harm aquatic life as its fine particles block fish a high pH (alkali) and may harm aquatic life as its fine particles block fish
gills. Use of a gelling agent will reduce this and is standard practice, insisted gills. Use of a gelling agent will reduce this and is standard practice, insisted
on by some authorities. SEPA’s Pollution Prevention Guidelines (PPGs) on by some authorities. SEPA’s Pollution Prevention Guidelines (PPGs)
5 and 6 apply. 5 and 6 apply.
If the abutment is to be placed in the If the abutment is to be placed in the

watercourse or if it may be subject watercourse or if it may be subject
to floodwater, a stronger concrete to floodwater, a stronger concrete
mix than standard is advised to mix than standard is advised to
resist scour and impact damage. resist scour and impact damage.
The main downside of concrete is The main downside of concrete is
one of aesthetics. If your abutment one of aesthetics. If your abutment
needs to be large and visible above needs to be large and visible above
ground then consider hiding or ground then consider hiding or
cladding it. If you are simply using a cladding it. If you are simply using a
small pad foundation then concrete small pad foundation then concrete
is ideal. Concrete foundations is ideal. Concrete foundations
should always be left to cure for one week before loading. should always be left to cure for one week before loading.
See Technical Sheet 6.5 for mixing concrete. See Technical Sheet 6.5 for mixing concrete.
Certain soils can have deleterious effects on the materials used to construct Certain soils can have deleterious effects on the materials used to construct
foundations. For example, ground with a high sulphate content (burnt shale foundations. For example, ground with a high sulphate content (burnt shale
waste, for example) will attack and decompose concrete. Any unusual soil waste, for example) will attack and decompose concrete. Any unusual soil
conditions should therefore be tested prior to construction. conditions should therefore be tested prior to construction.

Concrete abutments are usually constructed by pouring concrete into a Concrete abutments are usually constructed by pouring concrete into a
shape preformed by shuttering. In most cases the shuttering is constructed shape preformed by shuttering. In most cases the shuttering is constructed
from wood which is removed after hardening. Sometimes permanent from wood which is removed after hardening. Sometimes permanent
shuttering is built from brick or stone and left in place as facing. Pour heights shuttering is built from brick or stone and left in place as facing. Pour heights
for concrete should be limited to 750mm if permanent shuttering is used. for concrete should be limited to 750mm if permanent shuttering is used.
Coating the inside face of wooden shuttering with ‘shutter Coating the inside face of wooden shuttering with ‘shutter
oil’ will allow the shuttering to be easily removed when the oil’ will allow the shuttering to be easily removed when the
concrete has cured. Release (loosen) shuttering after 24 concrete has cured. Release (loosen) shuttering after 24
hours and remove after 3 days. hours and remove after 3 days.
Concrete sleepers (reclaimed or new) make an excellent simple bankseat. Concrete sleepers (reclaimed or new) make an excellent simple bankseat.
Use the existing holes in them to bolt down the bridge. It is essential to use Use the existing holes in them to bolt down the bridge. It is essential to use
them flat side down as they are reinforced to be loaded in this direction only. them flat side down as they are reinforced to be loaded in this direction only.
Concrete sleepers can also be stacked up to face high abutments and Concrete sleepers can also be stacked up to face high abutments and
retain approach ramps as well as to provide scour protection. This type of retain approach ramps as well as to provide scour protection. This type of
construction is called a crib wall. The crib wall is built up in layers with rows construction is called a crib wall. The crib wall is built up in layers with rows
of sleepers overlapping each other. Steel pins driven through the rail bolting of sleepers overlapping each other. Steel pins driven through the rail bolting
down holes tie the wall together. Gaps between the sleepers will allow down holes tie the wall together. Gaps between the sleepers will allow
vegetation to grow out of the wall, aiding stability and reducing visual impact. vegetation to grow out of the wall, aiding stability and reducing visual impact.
A diagram can be found in Technical Sheet 6.4. Construction of retaining A diagram can be found in Technical Sheet 6.4. Construction of retaining
walls presents a number of hazards which need careful management. For walls presents a number of hazards which need careful management. For
walls greater than three sleepers high (about 500mm), an engineer must be walls greater than three sleepers high (about 500mm), an engineer must be
consulted and careful design is essential. consulted and careful design is essential.
Proprietary precast concrete sections are also available specifically for crib Proprietary precast concrete sections are also available specifically for crib
wall construction. wall construction.
Stone abutments are strong, long lasting and particularly appropriate for Stone abutments are strong, long lasting and particularly appropriate for
upland and other rural settings. The difficulty with stonework is finding stone upland and other rural settings. The difficulty with stonework is finding stone
of a suitable size, quality and shape to form an even topped abutment that of a suitable size, quality and shape to form an even topped abutment that
will support the bridge beams. Also, the load bearing capacity of the available will support the bridge beams. Also, the load bearing capacity of the available
stone is unlikely to be known. Skilled stone masons may be needed to select stone is unlikely to be known. Skilled stone masons may be needed to select
and shape stone. Stonework may be laid dry but be aware of the effect of and shape stone. Stonework may be laid dry but be aware of the effect of
flood water, which may wash out pinning stones, causing abutments to settle flood water, which may wash out pinning stones, causing abutments to settle
or even collapse. Stone can be used to face a concrete abutment to reduce or even collapse. Stone can be used to face a concrete abutment to reduce
the visual impact. the visual impact.

In the past, gabion baskets have been used for bridge abutments. However, In the past, gabion baskets have been used for bridge abutments. However,
they can be unsightly and susceptible to vandalism. Contrary to popular belief they can be unsightly and susceptible to vandalism. Contrary to popular belief
the wire baskets should not be simply filled with stone, rather the wire net the wire baskets should not be simply filled with stone, rather the wire net
should provide an outer skin on what is effectively a dry stone construction should provide an outer skin on what is effectively a dry stone construction
within. To be totally effective as bridge abutments they require as much skill within. To be totally effective as bridge abutments they require as much skill
to build as normal masonry. Always keep bearings (See Section 4.2.3) well to build as normal masonry. Always keep bearings (See Section 4.2.3) well
back from the face of the gabion to ensure safe spread of load. back from the face of the gabion to ensure safe spread of load.
Timber, particularly a single large section can make a simple but effective Timber, particularly a single large section can make a simple but effective
bankseat for a short span bridge. Reclaimed railway sleepers or sections of bankseat for a short span bridge. Reclaimed railway sleepers or sections of
telegraph pole have been used on many small bridges with great success. telegraph pole have been used on many small bridges with great success.
While these will not last anywhere near as long as stone or concrete, they While these will not last anywhere near as long as stone or concrete, they
can be very cheap and easy to install. If your site has poor access for can be very cheap and easy to install. If your site has poor access for
machinery, timber may be a favourable option due to its relative ease of machinery, timber may be a favourable option due to its relative ease of
transportation. Ideally use a hardwood such as oak heartwood. transportation. Ideally use a hardwood such as oak heartwood.
European Larch may also be used European Larch may also be used
but will be even less durable. Elm but will be even less durable. Elm
will last almost indefinitely when will last almost indefinitely when
placed in water or below ground placed in water or below ground
level, although it is not durable if level, although it is not durable if
exposed to air. exposed to air.
Timber can also be used for piled Timber can also be used for piled
abutments. This is effective on abutments. This is effective on
soft ground, where piles are driven soft ground, where piles are driven
down to a hard subsoil or bedrock. down to a hard subsoil or bedrock.
They can simply be driven to They can simply be driven to
refusal (driven in until they won’t go refusal (driven in until they won’t go
any further) if no hard sub layer is present. They are often used in sand on any further) if no hard sub layer is present. They are often used in sand on
beaches where they are vibrated into place. beaches where they are vibrated into place.
Crib wall abutments (See Section 4.1.6) are also possible with timber, (often Crib wall abutments (See Section 4.1.6) are also possible with timber, (often
railway sleepers) and can be used to face abutments constructed from local railway sleepers) and can be used to face abutments constructed from local
materials, such as the earth abutments described below: materials, such as the earth abutments described below:
Earth can be utilised to create earthwork abutments from sub soil sourced Earth can be utilised to create earthwork abutments from sub soil sourced
on site. These are usually reinforced with a geotextile and / or geogrid. on site. These are usually reinforced with a geotextile and / or geogrid.
The geogrid is wrapped around successive layers of compacted soil and The geogrid is wrapped around successive layers of compacted soil and
pinned firmly in place. Friction between the soil and the grid is very high, pinned firmly in place. Friction between the soil and the grid is very high,
substantially eliminating settlement and erosion. Side slopes of the abutment substantially eliminating settlement and erosion. Side slopes of the abutment
can be made up to as much as 60°. It is critical that the soil type is suitable can be made up to as much as 60°. It is critical that the soil type is suitable
and the earthwork is carefully designed and detailed by an engineer. and the earthwork is carefully designed and detailed by an engineer.

4.1.6 Scour protection 4.1.6 Scour protection
Designing for scour protection Designing for scour protection
should only be necessary where a should only be necessary where a
bridge abutment may be in potential bridge abutment may be in potential
contact with a watercourse. It contact with a watercourse. It
is very much a last resort. (See is very much a last resort. (See
Section 2.2.3). If it is necessary, Section 2.2.3). If it is necessary,
the base of the abutment should be the base of the abutment should be
Try to avoid introducing hard edges into Try to avoid introducing hard edges into
founded at least 350-500mm below the watercourse founded at least 350-500mm below the watercourse
bed level. Acute angles introduced bed level. Acute angles introduced
into the flow will cause more problems than obtuse ones. So the choice of into the flow will cause more problems than obtuse ones. So the choice of
technique and the way the protection is designed are both important. technique and the way the protection is designed are both important.
Conventional approaches to scour protection include: Conventional approaches to scour protection include:
Rock armouring or ‘rip-rap’ - This is a skilled job where rocks are Rock armouring or ‘rip-rap’ - This is a skilled job where rocks are
interlocked over the face of a bank. Rock armouring should divert the interlocked over the face of a bank. Rock armouring should divert the
river flow smoothly around the abutment without any obstructions. A small river flow smoothly around the abutment without any obstructions. A small
area of damaged ‘rip-rap’ soon enlarges causing total collapse, so monitoring area of damaged ‘rip-rap’ soon enlarges causing total collapse, so monitoring
and early repair is vital. Extracting stone from the river itself may require and early repair is vital. Extracting stone from the river itself may require
statutory consent. The rocks used should be as large as possible and locked statutory consent. The rocks used should be as large as possible and locked
together tightly. together tightly.
Timber revetments - These must be substantial, of durable timber and tied Timber revetments - These must be substantial, of durable timber and tied
well into the bank behind. well into the bank behind.
Stone-filled wire gabions - See Section 4.1.5. Stone-filled wire gabions - See Section 4.1.5.
Planting and geotextiles - A number of techniques for resisting scour have Planting and geotextiles - A number of techniques for resisting scour have
been developed by the River Restoration Centre and some of these may be been developed by the River Restoration Centre and some of these may be
useful when considering design of abutments and bank stabilisation. The useful when considering design of abutments and bank stabilisation. The
Manual of River Restoration Techniques can found on the website Manual of River Restoration Techniques can found on the website
www. therrc.co.uk. www. therrc.co.uk.
Timber revetments Timber revetments

such as this crib wall such as this crib wall
must be robust and well must be robust and well
constructed constructed

4.1.7 Approaches 4.1.7 Approaches
The design and construction of the approaches are key to ensuring a safe The design and construction of the approaches are key to ensuring a safe
transition from path to deck but also have a crucial role in tying the bridge transition from path to deck but also have a crucial role in tying the bridge
into the landscape. Often bridges are set higher than the surrounding ground into the landscape. Often bridges are set higher than the surrounding ground
level and a ramp or steps will be needed to make the connection with the level and a ramp or steps will be needed to make the connection with the
path surface. In most cases a ramp will be the most accessible choice but in path surface. In most cases a ramp will be the most accessible choice but in
some situations steps are unavoidable. Refer to the Countryside for All Good some situations steps are unavoidable. Refer to the Countryside for All Good
Practice Guide for advice. Practice Guide for advice.
The choice of approach path line and associated landscaping strongly influence how well a The choice of approach path line and associated landscaping strongly influence how well a
bridge sits in its landscape bridge sits in its landscape
Path wear is increased at a bridge and a path surface which is adequate Path wear is increased at a bridge and a path surface which is adequate
elsewhere may not suffice for the approaches. The designer must consider elsewhere may not suffice for the approaches. The designer must consider
how this will be managed; for example, by improving drainage and building how this will be managed; for example, by improving drainage and building
to a higher specification at these locations. People tend to slow down, linger to a higher specification at these locations. People tend to slow down, linger
and congregate at bridges. Widening the approach paths and extending and congregate at bridges. Widening the approach paths and extending
handrails can make the bridge safer and more comfortable to use. handrails can make the bridge safer and more comfortable to use.
Steps and ramps are affected by river flow under flood conditions and they Steps and ramps are affected by river flow under flood conditions and they
can have their own impact on river dynamics. As far as possible they should can have their own impact on river dynamics. As far as possible they should
be orientated parallel to the line of flow to minimise resistance. Where this be orientated parallel to the line of flow to minimise resistance. Where this
is not possible and they are at right angles to the river, consider installing is not possible and they are at right angles to the river, consider installing
culverts beneath them. culverts beneath them.
Main Beams 4.2 Main Beams 4.2
Section four I Design Considerations I Main Beams

Structurally, the main beams are the most significant part of a simply Structurally, the main beams are the most significant part of a simply
supported beam bridge. They will generally be the largest element, increasing supported beam bridge. They will generally be the largest element, increasing
in section size as span lengthens. If you are transporting a bridge to site in in section size as span lengthens. If you are transporting a bridge to site in
pieces, the main beams are likely to present the biggest challenge. pieces, the main beams are likely to present the biggest challenge.
A beam of a simply supported bridge is mainly loaded in bending - it will A beam of a simply supported bridge is mainly loaded in bending - it will
increasingly deflect downwards the greater the load added to it. Beams have increasingly deflect downwards the greater the load added to it. Beams have
to be strong enough to carry these bending loads without breaking, but also to be strong enough to carry these bending loads without breaking, but also
be stiff enough to not bend to any significant degree under normal loading. be stiff enough to not bend to any significant degree under normal loading.
Increasing beam depth increases stiffness and load carrying capacity, but Increasing beam depth increases stiffness and load carrying capacity, but
it also increases weight. Reducing the width of a beam will help to reduce it also increases weight. Reducing the width of a beam will help to reduce
weight (and cost); however, there is now a danger that the beam will twist weight (and cost); however, there is now a danger that the beam will twist
sideways as it is loaded. This is called buckling and the main beams must sideways as it is loaded. This is called buckling and the main beams must
also resist these deflections. The specification of beams therefore depends also resist these deflections. The specification of beams therefore depends
on managing these two variables while minimising the material required. on managing these two variables while minimising the material required.
Precambering (see Technical Sheet 6.3) will help resist deflection and can add Precambering (see Technical Sheet 6.3) will help resist deflection and can add
an elegance to a long span bridge structure. an elegance to a long span bridge structure.
Generally path bridges will have two or more beams. Using more beams Generally path bridges will have two or more beams. Using more beams
allows smaller section sizes to be specified. They may be easier to transport allows smaller section sizes to be specified. They may be easier to transport
onto site and can reduce the distance the deck boards have to span, but onto site and can reduce the distance the deck boards have to span, but
levelling them as a platform for the deck may be more difficult. As a rule, levelling them as a platform for the deck may be more difficult. As a rule,
the greater the number of beams, the greater the weight of the bridge, so the greater the number of beams, the greater the weight of the bridge, so
exploring a site to minimise span can sometimes reduce this. See Section 2.2. exploring a site to minimise span can sometimes reduce this. See Section 2.2.
4.2.1 Beam materials 4.2.1 Beam materials

As the main structural components As the main structural components
of a bridge, beams have a big visual of a bridge, beams have a big visual
impact. The material and its final impact. The material and its final
colour should be chosen with care. colour should be chosen with care.
Timber Timber
Rectangular timber beam sections Rectangular timber beam sections
are stiff and resist buckling very are stiff and resist buckling very
well. However, timber beams are well. However, timber beams are
expensive and very heavy at large Steel bracing helps prevent both timber expensive and very heavy at large Steel bracing helps prevent both timber
and steel beams from twisting and steel beams from twisting
sizes. This makes getting them on sizes. This makes getting them on
site a potentially difficult operation. Sometimes smaller section timbers can site a potentially difficult operation. Sometimes smaller section timbers can
be laid next to each other and bolted together on site to make bigger beams be laid next to each other and bolted together on site to make bigger beams
- useful in difficult locations. Introducing a DPM (damp proof membrane) - useful in difficult locations. Introducing a DPM (damp proof membrane)
between beams and abutment helps prevent rot and extends the life of the between beams and abutment helps prevent rot and extends the life of the
timber. See Section 4.6.1 for more information on timber. timber. See Section 4.6.1 for more information on timber.
4.2 Section four I Design Considerations I Main Beams
Main Beams 4.2 Main Beams

Steel Steel
Structural steel can be specified in a variety of Structural steel can be specified in a variety of
different sections. Most bridges are built with ‘I’ different sections. Most bridges are built with ‘I’
beams. These are structurally the most efficient, beams. These are structurally the most efficient,
i.e. the stiffest beam for the least weight. Long i.e. the stiffest beam for the least weight. Long
span steel beams can lack rigidity, so providing span steel beams can lack rigidity, so providing
additional cross bracing allows the beams to resist additional cross bracing allows the beams to resist
twisting and buckling. This bracing can take the form twisting and buckling. This bracing can take the form
of small steel angle sections in a ‘zig-zag’ pattern (see of small steel angle sections in a ‘zig-zag’ pattern (see
diagram) or more substantial braces at right angles to the diagram) or more substantial braces at right angles to the
beams as in the Glentrool bridge (see Standard Design 7.4). beams as in the Glentrool bridge (see Standard Design 7.4).
In this case the angles can be extended to attach handrail posts. Steel ‘I’ In this case the angles can be extended to attach handrail posts. Steel ‘I’
beams are lighter than timber of an equivalent size (load carrying capacity) so beams are lighter than timber of an equivalent size (load carrying capacity) so
they are a good choice for sites with poor access. However, the visual impact they are a good choice for sites with poor access. However, the visual impact
must be taken into account. See Section 4.6.2 for more information on steel. must be taken into account. See Section 4.6.2 for more information on steel.
4.2.2 Specifying sizes 4.2.2 Specifying sizes

The Standard Designs give a range of beam dimensions to match both the The Standard Designs give a range of beam dimensions to match both the
chosen effective span (see 2.2.1) and loading category for each design up to chosen effective span (see 2.2.1) and loading category for each design up to
a maximum span of 9m. The tables in Technical Sheet 6.7 give more options. a maximum span of 9m. The tables in Technical Sheet 6.7 give more options.
Designing spans that exceed this are likely to require the assistance of an Designing spans that exceed this are likely to require the assistance of an
engineer, making use of BS 5400 which gives design rules for different loads engineer, making use of BS 5400 which gives design rules for different loads
and spans. and spans.
4.2.3 Bearings 4.2.3 Bearings

Where superstructures rest on the abutments Where superstructures rest on the abutments
and piers, the load is transferred through a and piers, the load is transferred through a
bearing. For long spans the bearing must bearing. For long spans the bearing must
allow the bridge to expand and contract under allow the bridge to expand and contract under
temperature or moisture changes and should let the temperature or moisture changes and should let the
ends of the beam flex slightly as they are loaded and ends of the beam flex slightly as they are loaded and
unloaded. Short span bridges below 10m expand very little so special bearings unloaded. Short span bridges below 10m expand very little so special bearings
are not required. Movement of the abutment or some tolerance in the structure are not required. Movement of the abutment or some tolerance in the structure
will take account of expansion so bridges can be bolted to both abutments. will take account of expansion so bridges can be bolted to both abutments.
Rubber matting supplied for use in horse boxes can be Rubber matting supplied for use in horse boxes can be
cut to size to make bearing pads. cut to size to make bearing pads.
Deck 4.3 Deck 4.3
This will provide fixity for flood, wind and live load. Industry recognised This will provide fixity for flood, wind and live load. Industry recognised
Section four I Design Considerations I Deck

materials for bearings are available for the purpose. materials for bearings are available for the purpose.
Choice of deck design will depend largely on the expected users. It is an Choice of deck design will depend largely on the expected users. It is an
important consideration not only in the construction of a new bridge but also important consideration not only in the construction of a new bridge but also
in refurbishing existing bridges or extending their accessibility to new user in refurbishing existing bridges or extending their accessibility to new user
groups by placing a new deck on existing beams. A variety of materials may groups by placing a new deck on existing beams. A variety of materials may
be used but a few issues need to be considered before making a choice: be used but a few issues need to be considered before making a choice:
4.3.1 Key factors 4.3.1 Key factors

Grip - In all weathers the deck must be non-slip. A number of options are Grip - In all weathers the deck must be non-slip. A number of options are
available. Timber deck boards can be grooved to provide a reasonable available. Timber deck boards can be grooved to provide a reasonable
grip but these collect detritus and invite rot if not regularly cleared. Chip or grip but these collect detritus and invite rot if not regularly cleared. Chip or
bauxite grit coatings using either tar or epoxy resin as a binder can be laid bauxite grit coatings using either tar or epoxy resin as a binder can be laid
onto timber or steel. Alternatively, self-adhesive strips of non-slip material are onto timber or steel. Alternatively, self-adhesive strips of non-slip material are
available. These are effective and available. These are effective and
easily applied to the deck boards. easily applied to the deck boards.
Both methods require dry conditions Both methods require dry conditions
and materials for application. Strips and materials for application. Strips
of non-slip material are inset in of non-slip material are inset in
some proprietary decks. Glass some proprietary decks. Glass
reinforced plastic (GRP) panels reinforced plastic (GRP) panels
with stone chips set into them are with stone chips set into them are
also available. Steel decks can also available. Steel decks can
be textured (e.g. ‘chequer plate’) be textured (e.g. ‘chequer plate’)
or open grill panels can be used. or open grill panels can be used.
The maintenance and installation The maintenance and installation
implications need to be taken into implications need to be taken into
account when choosing the best account when choosing the best
‘grippy’ surface for a bridge. Don’t ‘grippy’ surface for a bridge. Don’t
be tempted to use chicken wire - it be tempted to use chicken wire - it
will always need a lot of looking after will always need a lot of looking after
and may form a trip hazard. Non-slip treatment of deck boards and may form a trip hazard. Non-slip treatment of deck boards
Strength - The deck must support the impact loads of feet (particularly Strength - The deck must support the impact loads of feet (particularly
horses) without excessive deflection. Technical Sheet 6.6 gives typical timber horses) without excessive deflection. Technical Sheet 6.6 gives typical timber
section sizes for different combinations of deck widths and users. section sizes for different combinations of deck widths and users.
The depth of a timber deck reduces with wear and this is particularly The depth of a timber deck reduces with wear and this is particularly
noticeable where shod horses cross. Consequently the lifespan of a deck will noticeable where shod horses cross. Consequently the lifespan of a deck will
be affected by the intensity and type of use. Always make an allowance for be affected by the intensity and type of use. Always make an allowance for
wear and rot. wear and rot.
4.3 Section four I Design Considerations I Deck
Deck 4.3 Deck

Gaps - Gaps between deck boards Gaps - Gaps between deck boards
or panels affects accessibility and or panels affects accessibility and
maintenance. Keeping gaps to maintenance. Keeping gaps to
below 12mm is good practice and below 12mm is good practice and
will allow bikes and wheelchairs to will allow bikes and wheelchairs to
cross without problems. Similarly, cross without problems. Similarly,
gaps must be kept to 12mm if gaps must be kept to 12mm if
sheep may be driven across the sheep may be driven across the
bridge. Small gaps (under 6mm) bridge. Small gaps (under 6mm)
trap material inducing rot. Open trap material inducing rot. Open
lattice steel bridges can sometimes lattice steel bridges can sometimes
Large gaps may drain well but they are not Large gaps may drain well but they are not
frighten dogs or horses and can accessible frighten dogs or horses and can accessible
also be awkward for wheelchair also be awkward for wheelchair
users to cross. In some cases the users to cross. In some cases the
addition of textured steel strips addition of textured steel strips
along one or both edges can help along one or both edges can help
alleviate these problems. alleviate these problems.
Noise - The noise produced by Noise - The noise produced by

hooves on some steel decks or hooves on some steel decks or
echoing off solid parapets can echoing off solid parapets can
alarm horses. alarm horses.
Open lattice decks can be alarming for Open lattice decks can be alarming for
users; dogs often refuse users; dogs often refuse
4.3.2 Deck materials 4.3.2 Deck materials

The common options are discussed below but a range of proprietary surfaces The common options are discussed below but a range of proprietary surfaces
are also available. are also available.
Timber is lightweight, easy to work on site and is often the preferred choice. Timber is lightweight, easy to work on site and is often the preferred choice.
In most cases timber deck boards are laid across the bridge. It is possible to In most cases timber deck boards are laid across the bridge. It is possible to
lay the deck along the length of the bridge (useful for putting a wider deck on lay the deck along the length of the bridge (useful for putting a wider deck on
existing beams), although access for any wheeled vehicles can be dangerous existing beams), although access for any wheeled vehicles can be dangerous
because of tram lining. Visually the effect is unnerving so longitudinal deck because of tram lining. Visually the effect is unnerving so longitudinal deck
boards are usually a last resort. boards are usually a last resort.
Wet timber, particularly where algae is allowed to grow can be very slippery Wet timber, particularly where algae is allowed to grow can be very slippery
without some sort of non-slip treatment. without some sort of non-slip treatment.
Deck 4.3 Deck 4.3

The top surface of timber decks The top surface of timber decks
wears in use, so consider using wears in use, so consider using
a board thickness greater than a board thickness greater than
required purely for strength for a required purely for strength for a
longer lifespan, particularly where longer lifespan, particularly where
horses are involved. The large point horses are involved. The large point
loads (see Technical Sheet 6.3) loads (see Technical Sheet 6.3)
imposed by horses’ hooves will imposed by horses’ hooves will
require the standard life expectancy require the standard life expectancy
of timber decks to be reviewed and of timber decks to be reviewed and
hardwood may be a more robust Grooved decking is available off the shelf hardwood may be a more robust Grooved decking is available off the shelf
option. See Section 4.6 for more or can be grooved in the workshop. option. See Section 4.6 for more or can be grooved in the workshop.
information on specifying timber. information on specifying timber.
Bauxite grit non-slip treatment Bauxite grit non-slip treatment

will extend the life of deckboards will extend the life of deckboards
Always lay deck boards heart down Always lay deck boards heart down
subject to equestrian use. Plywood subject to equestrian use. Plywood
decking with non-slip surfaces pre- decking with non-slip surfaces pre-
applied is available from specialist applied is available from specialist
suppliers. See Case Study 8.2. suppliers. See Case Study 8.2.
Metal decks can be cheap, easy to install and durable (particularly where Metal decks can be cheap, easy to install and durable (particularly where
vandalism is a problem). Steel and aluminium are both well suited giving vandalism is a problem). Steel and aluminium are both well suited giving
a light, strong deck with a long lifespan. In most cases proprietary deck a light, strong deck with a long lifespan. In most cases proprietary deck
systems are used. Manufacturers will supply details, costs and advice on systems are used. Manufacturers will supply details, costs and advice on
suitability for different situations. Bare metal decks are generally unpopular suitability for different situations. Bare metal decks are generally unpopular
with horse riders. with horse riders.
Recyled plastic has a longer life expectancy than timber and there are Recyled plastic has a longer life expectancy than timber and there are
occasional examples where it has been used for decking. However, it is occasional examples where it has been used for decking. However, it is
heavier than timber, currently more expensive and more flexible. There heavier than timber, currently more expensive and more flexible. There
are no industry standards that apply at the present time, so load carrying are no industry standards that apply at the present time, so load carrying
capacity is not certified. In wet weather it can be less slippery than timber capacity is not certified. In wet weather it can be less slippery than timber
(see Section 4.6.5). (see Section 4.6.5).
4.3 Section four I Design Considerations I Deck
Deck 4.3 Deck

4.3.3 Choosing deck width 4.3.3 Choosing deck width
A number of organisations have recommended minimum useable deck A number of organisations have recommended minimum useable deck
widths to suit different users and circumstances. These are shown in the widths to suit different users and circumstances. These are shown in the
table below. table below.
User Group Recommended Source User Group Recommended Source

minimum width minimum width
Wheelchair users 1.2m Fieldfare Trust Wheelchair users 1.2m Fieldfare Trust
Countryside for All Countryside for All
Horses 1.5m (up to 3m span) British Horse Society Horses 1.5m (up to 3m span) British Horse Society
1.5 –2m (up to 8m) (BHS) 1.5 –2m (up to 8m) (BHS)
4m (for longer 4m (for longer
road/river crossings) road/river crossings)
Pedestrian Normal 900mm BS5400 Pedestrian Normal 900mm BS5400
Pedestrian Crowd 1.2m BS5400 Pedestrian Crowd 1.2m BS5400
Cycles 2.0m DfT BD 29/04 Cycles 2.0m DfT BD 29/04
As for horses (see above) Sustrans As for horses (see above) Sustrans
but 2.5m over 10m but 2.5m over 10m
However, choosing a width of deck can sometimes be a compromise between However, choosing a width of deck can sometimes be a compromise between
what is recommended and what is structurally possible, affordable or visually what is recommended and what is structurally possible, affordable or visually
acceptable. That choice must always be firmly based on risk assessment. acceptable. That choice must always be firmly based on risk assessment.
As a rough guide 1.2m should be a minimum width. For multi-use 1.5 - 2.0m As a rough guide 1.2m should be a minimum width. For multi-use 1.5 - 2.0m
will be required. Deck width must also take account of span and the volume will be required. Deck width must also take account of span and the volume
of users. A longer span is likely to require a wider deck to allow passing. The of users. A longer span is likely to require a wider deck to allow passing. The
Standard Designs have a maximum deck width of 1.8m. Where a wider deck Standard Designs have a maximum deck width of 1.8m. Where a wider deck
is required, engineering input will be required. is required, engineering input will be required.
Technical Sheet 6.6 sets out deck sections and widths for different load Technical Sheet 6.6 sets out deck sections and widths for different load
classes. It is particularly useful for assessing and upgrading the deck on classes. It is particularly useful for assessing and upgrading the deck on
existing beams. If there is any doubt over the load carrying capacity of existing beams. If there is any doubt over the load carrying capacity of
existing beams, an engineer should be consulted. existing beams, an engineer should be consulted.
Deck 4.3 Deck 4.3

4.3.4 Attachment 4.3.4 Attachment
It is common just to nail or screw It is common just to nail or screw
timber deck boards direct to timber timber deck boards direct to timber
beams; however, nail and screw beams; however, nail and screw
holes are a haven for decay, and holes are a haven for decay, and
removing boards for cleaning and removing boards for cleaning and
maintenance is awkward. These maintenance is awkward. These
problems can be lessened by problems can be lessened by
nailing deck boards to secondary nailing deck boards to secondary
nailing strips or runners strapped nailing strips or runners strapped
directly to the beams, or screwed directly to the beams, or screwed
on from below. Hardwood or on from below. Hardwood or
recycled plastic are popular choices recycled plastic are popular choices
of material for the nailing strips of material for the nailing strips
because of their long life and because of their long life and
resistance to decay. In reality a resistance to decay. In reality a
nailing strip of 50 x 100mm will be nailing strip of 50 x 100mm will be
adequate for most situations. nailing strip adequate for most situations. nailing strip
It is possible to prefabricate deck It is possible to prefabricate deck

sections in the workshop. This sections in the workshop. This
simplifies assembly on site and allows simplifies assembly on site and allows
these sections to be easily removed these sections to be easily removed
for maintenance. Sections can be for maintenance. Sections can be
delivered on pallets cutting down on delivered on pallets cutting down on
handling and reducing the number of handling and reducing the number of
components to be assembled. components to be assembled.
4.4 Section four I Design Considerations I Handrails and Toeboards
Handrails and Toeboards 4.4 Handrails and Toeboards
Section four I Design Considerations I Handrails and Toeboards

Handrails not only prevent users from falling off a bridge, they also have an Handrails not only prevent users from falling off a bridge, they also have an
important function in giving support to people crossing it. Some wheelchair important function in giving support to people crossing it. Some wheelchair
users use them as a means of propulsion. A basic handrail will have uprights, users use them as a means of propulsion. A basic handrail will have uprights,
a top rail and one or more intermediate rails. The top rail should have a a top rail and one or more intermediate rails. The top rail should have a
smooth and rounded section offering an easy, comfortable grip. Where the smooth and rounded section offering an easy, comfortable grip. Where the
top rail is too high for wheelchair users to grab and use, the rail for assisting top rail is too high for wheelchair users to grab and use, the rail for assisting
people should be positioned and finished at an appropriate height. Mesh people should be positioned and finished at an appropriate height. Mesh
panelling can be added for extra safety if necessary. Take care to ensure that panelling can be added for extra safety if necessary. Take care to ensure that
the view from the bridge is not unreasonably impaired - do not forget, some the view from the bridge is not unreasonably impaired - do not forget, some
people have to look through, not over, the handrail. people have to look through, not over, the handrail.
Handrails can have a significant visual impact, which you may wish to Handrails can have a significant visual impact, which you may wish to
either minimise or exploit. Slender, open handrails reduce intrusion, as can either minimise or exploit. Slender, open handrails reduce intrusion, as can
vertical rails or horizontal wires. Vertical handrails are becoming increasingly vertical rails or horizontal wires. Vertical handrails are becoming increasingly
popular; offering an elegant solution, they deter people from climbing on popular; offering an elegant solution, they deter people from climbing on
them and should be seriously them and should be seriously
considered in all locations considered in all locations
where high use is expected or where high use is expected or
where the drop is substantial. where the drop is substantial.
Forestry Civil Engineering now Forestry Civil Engineering now
only use horizontal handrails only use horizontal handrails
on short, low spans or deep on short, low spans or deep
in the forest. Alternatively a in the forest. Alternatively a
hefty handrail can make a hefty handrail can make a
striking visual feature in an striking visual feature in an
appropriate place. appropriate place.
This handrail detail gives a high degree of safety This handrail detail gives a high degree of safety
for users while allowing wheelchair users and for users while allowing wheelchair users and
smaller people to enjoy the view smaller people to enjoy the view
The curved detailing lends an elegance to the The curved detailing lends an elegance to the
tops and outside edges of these substantial tops and outside edges of these substantial
handrail posts handrail posts
Handrails and Toeboards 4.4 Handrails and Toeboards 4.4
Toe boards are planks or strips just above deck level which prevent pets or Toe boards are planks or strips just above deck level which prevent pets or

small children slipping under the handrail, while providing a tapping rail for small children slipping under the handrail, while providing a tapping rail for
people with visual impairments and security for wheelchair users. They are people with visual impairments and security for wheelchair users. They are
particularly important on bridges that horses will cross and must be close particularly important on bridges that horses will cross and must be close
enough to the deck to prevent a hoof from slipping between. Up to 50mm enough to the deck to prevent a hoof from slipping between. Up to 50mm
should always be left between toeboard and deck to prevent rot and allow should always be left between toeboard and deck to prevent rot and allow
maintenance. BHS recommend a solid toeboard of minimum 250mm. maintenance. BHS recommend a solid toeboard of minimum 250mm.
toeboard toeboard
The steel toeboard and handrails pictured The steel toeboard and handrails pictured
here bring a contemporary feel to a here bring a contemporary feel to a
wooden path bridge wooden path bridge
4.4.1 Choosing handrail height 4.4.1 Choosing handrail height

Selecting handrail height can be a thorny issue. British Standards exist and Selecting handrail height can be a thorny issue. British Standards exist and
some organisations have recommended heights for their own particular some organisations have recommended heights for their own particular
interests, as shown in the table overleaf. However, in some situations the interests, as shown in the table overleaf. However, in some situations the
visual intrusion presented by say, a 1.8m high handrail, is not justified visual intrusion presented by say, a 1.8m high handrail, is not justified
by the modest increase in risk to users by lowering it to, a more visually by the modest increase in risk to users by lowering it to, a more visually
acceptable 1.4m. Similarly, being confined by very high handrails could ruin acceptable 1.4m. Similarly, being confined by very high handrails could ruin
the experience of being in that location. It is all a matter of risk assessment. the experience of being in that location. It is all a matter of risk assessment.
Occasionally bridges have removable handrails, which can be dismantled Occasionally bridges have removable handrails, which can be dismantled
when flooding is likely, preventing them from being torn off and damaging when flooding is likely, preventing them from being torn off and damaging
the rest of the bridge structure. For example, the Forestry Commission now the rest of the bridge structure. For example, the Forestry Commission now
remove the rails from a wide road bridge by the River Affric before winter remove the rails from a wide road bridge by the River Affric before winter
arrives, having suffered a number of episodes where the handrails had been arrives, having suffered a number of episodes where the handrails had been
swept off in flood conditions. This is only an option for wide decks. Whether swept off in flood conditions. This is only an option for wide decks. Whether
the bridge can remain open at these times will depend on assessment of risk. the bridge can remain open at these times will depend on assessment of risk.
4.4 Handrails and Toeboards 4.4 Handrails and Toeboards
A horizontal load applied to a tall handrail exerts a much greater force on the A horizontal load applied to a tall handrail exerts a much greater force on the

fixing between the handrail post and the beam than is the case with a lower fixing between the handrail post and the beam than is the case with a lower
rail. Essentially a load applied further from the fixing exerts more leverage rail. Essentially a load applied further from the fixing exerts more leverage
and a stronger fixing is required to withstand it. This usually means that and a stronger fixing is required to withstand it. This usually means that
beams have to be deeper and handrail posts of a larger section size - adding beams have to be deeper and handrail posts of a larger section size - adding
substantially to cost and increasing design difficulties. This effect on the fixing substantially to cost and increasing design difficulties. This effect on the fixing
increases exponentially with the load and so providing adequate fixings for a increases exponentially with the load and so providing adequate fixings for a
1.8m handrail suitable for equestrian use is structurally challenging. For this 1.8m handrail suitable for equestrian use is structurally challenging. For this
reason handrail heights in the Standard Designs are limited to 1.6m. Should reason handrail heights in the Standard Designs are limited to 1.6m. Should
a taller handrail be required, seek professional help. a taller handrail be required, seek professional help.
A number of organisations have recommended minimum handrail heights to A number of organisations have recommended minimum handrail heights to
suit different users and circumstances. These are shown in the table below. suit different users and circumstances. These are shown in the table below.
User Group Recommended Source User Group Recommended Source

height height
Wheelchair users 1000mm Fieldfare Trust Wheelchair users 1000mm Fieldfare Trust
Countryside for All Countryside for All
Horse with rider 1800mm (1500mm British Horse Society Horse with rider 1800mm (1500mm British Horse Society
acceptable depending (Equestrian Factsheet) acceptable depending (Equestrian Factsheet)
on drop) on drop)
1800mm DfT BD 52/93 1800mm DfT BD 52/93
Pedestrian Normal 1100mm DfT BD 52/93 Pedestrian Normal 1100mm DfT BD 52/93
Pedestrian Crowd 1100mm DfT BD 52/93 Pedestrian Crowd 1100mm DfT BD 52/93
Cycles 1400mm DfT BD 52/93 Cycles 1400mm DfT BD 52/93
Pedestrians 1250mm FCE Pedestrians 1250mm FCE
(over 5m drop) (over 5m drop)
Pedestrians 1000mm FCE Pedestrians 1000mm FCE
(under 5m drop) (under 5m drop)
* where bridge is in an area of high prevailing winds or with * where bridge is in an area of high prevailing winds or with
headroom under bridge of over 10m headroom under bridge of over 10m
Try to keep handrail height to the minimum required to do its job and think Try to keep handrail height to the minimum required to do its job and think

creatively about the problem when height conflicts strongly with other issues. creatively about the problem when height conflicts strongly with other issues.
Selecting handrail height is not always a clear cut decision. You must take Selecting handrail height is not always a clear cut decision. You must take
into account all of the factors, including type and volume of users, busyness into account all of the factors, including type and volume of users, busyness
or remoteness of the site, the span, the drop and the consequences of a or remoteness of the site, the span, the drop and the consequences of a
fall. It is a choice that must be firmly based on risk assessment. A table in fall. It is a choice that must be firmly based on risk assessment. A table in
Technical Sheet 6.8 gives some handrail height suggestions for a variety Technical Sheet 6.8 gives some handrail height suggestions for a variety
of situations. of situations.
Here horse riders are asked to dismount, and Here horse riders are asked to dismount, and
mounting blocks are provided at each end, mounting blocks are provided at each end,
which allows handrail height to be minimised. which allows handrail height to be minimised.
Look at www.ride-uk.org.uk for a mounting Look at www.ride-uk.org.uk for a mounting
block design. block design.
Bridges crossing a highway or railway line will have Bridges crossing a highway or railway line will have
minimum standards set by the Highway Authority or minimum standards set by the Highway Authority or
Network Rail that must be followed. In other cases a risk Network Rail that must be followed. In other cases a risk
assessment on a case-by-case basis is the most logical assessment on a case-by-case basis is the most logical
approach for determining handrail height. approach for determining handrail height.
4.4.2 Construction options 4.4.2 Construction options

Detailing handrails Detailing handrails
Choosing suitable handrail section sizes and distances between posts is Choosing suitable handrail section sizes and distances between posts is
dealt with in Technical Sheet 6.8. This information is particularly useful for dealt with in Technical Sheet 6.8. This information is particularly useful for
tying in the handrails on approach paths and in awkward situations. Handrails tying in the handrails on approach paths and in awkward situations. Handrails
may need to be strengthened to withstand large horizontal loads particularly may need to be strengthened to withstand large horizontal loads particularly
if the bridge could be flooded. if the bridge could be flooded.
The gap between rails under 1000mm in height is covered by UK Building The gap between rails under 1000mm in height is covered by UK Building
Regulations and DfT memoranda, which state that a sphere over 100mm Regulations and DfT memoranda, which state that a sphere over 100mm
diameter (a baby’s head) should not be able to pass through. Detailing a diameter (a baby’s head) should not be able to pass through. Detailing a
more open handrail must be based on risk assessment. However, there more open handrail must be based on risk assessment. However, there
are other considerations, too. For example, where sheep may cross, gaps are other considerations, too. For example, where sheep may cross, gaps
between lower rails should be 200mm maximum. between lower rails should be 200mm maximum.
4.4 Section four I Design Considerations I Handrails and Toeboards
Handrails and Toeboards 4.4 Handrails and Toeboards

Materials Materials
Choice of handrail material will depend on cost, location and function. Steel Choice of handrail material will depend on cost, location and function. Steel
or aluminium in small section allows ‘light-looking’ bridges to be built, but or aluminium in small section allows ‘light-looking’ bridges to be built, but
the handrails will need to be prefabricated. Tensioned wire cables perform a the handrails will need to be prefabricated. Tensioned wire cables perform a
similar function but are assembled on site. Wood is easily worked and can similar function but are assembled on site. Wood is easily worked and can
be cut to size on site if required. However, the post section sizes required to be cut to size on site if required. However, the post section sizes required to
withstand some loads can be considerable and then fixing them to beams withstand some loads can be considerable and then fixing them to beams
becomes challenging. becomes challenging.
Attaching posts to beams Attaching posts to beams

The attachment of handrail posts to The attachment of handrail posts to
the bridge has long been, for the the bridge has long been, for the
aforementioned reasons, the aforementioned reasons, the
weakest part of bridge design. weakest part of bridge design.
Many older designs have been Many older designs have been
dropped because of the difficulties dropped because of the difficulties
in successfully creating these joints in successfully creating these joints
and ensuring that they last over and ensuring that they last over
time. Bolting posts directly to beams time. Bolting posts directly to beams
weakens the beams and can reduce weakens the beams and can reduce
lifespan through rot. So other ways lifespan through rot. So other ways
of attachment have been explored. of attachment have been explored.
Many designs employ the use of Many designs employ the use of
transoms. These supports, fixed at transoms. These supports, fixed at
right angles between main beams, right angles between main beams,
provide a handrail post attachment, Solid post attachment on a Glentrool
provide a handrail post attachment, Solid post attachment on a Glentrool
add stiffness and resist twisting. Bridge add stiffness and resist twisting. Bridge
Sometimes they form part of Sometimes they form part of
the deck. the deck.
In recent years a patented design, the torsional restraint system, has been In recent years a patented design, the torsional restraint system, has been
developed by Forestry Civil Engineering that tackles this issue. Evolved developed by Forestry Civil Engineering that tackles this issue. Evolved
from the Galloway Bridge, the torsional restraint system takes the form of from the Galloway Bridge, the torsional restraint system takes the form of
a galvanized steel angle above and below the beams, fixed to the beams a galvanized steel angle above and below the beams, fixed to the beams
or clamped around them, while their extension provides the support for or clamped around them, while their extension provides the support for
the posts. This structure forms a mid span torsional restraint which resists the posts. This structure forms a mid span torsional restraint which resists
twisting and stiffens the bridge while giving a strong support to the posts. twisting and stiffens the bridge while giving a strong support to the posts.

The beams are prevented The beams are prevented
from twisting by rigid from twisting by rigid
steel frames, which also steel frames, which also
give strong handrail post give strong handrail post
attachments. A series attachments. A series
of wooden wedges can of wooden wedges can
be used to take up any be used to take up any
tolerance between the tolerance between the
beams and steel frames beams and steel frames
(See Standard Design 7.5). (See Standard Design 7.5).
4.5 Section four I Design Considerations I Joints and Fasteners
Joints and Fasteners 4.5 Joints and Fasteners
Section four I Design Considerations I Joints and Fasteners

The integrity of joints in a bridge structure are as The integrity of joints in a bridge structure are as
important as the separate elements themselves. important as the separate elements themselves.
Each joint must transfer loads between elements Each joint must transfer loads between elements
without weakening them or causing significant without weakening them or causing significant
additional stresses. Detailing joints is often the additional stresses. Detailing joints is often the
most challenging part of designing a bridge. most challenging part of designing a bridge.
This section looks at the different This section looks at the different
methods of joining parts of a bridge methods of joining parts of a bridge
together, their suitability for use together, their suitability for use
with a range of materials and some with a range of materials and some
of the points to watch out for when of the points to watch out for when
specifying them. specifying them.
As a basic premise, drilling through As a basic premise, drilling through

elements to joint them together elements to joint them together
weakens them. So for designers of weakens them. So for designers of
complex bridges, careful thought is complex bridges, careful thought is
required to determine the most effective and required to determine the most effective and
efficient type of joint. However, for the majority of simple bridge structures the efficient type of joint. However, for the majority of simple bridge structures the
factors of safety introduced into the design will easily ensure that the section factors of safety introduced into the design will easily ensure that the section
sizes will accommodate the weakening impact of joints. sizes will accommodate the weakening impact of joints.
Common types Common types

The most common ways of creating joints are outlined below with details for The most common ways of creating joints are outlined below with details for
specifying and using them in Technical Sheet 6.9. specifying and using them in Technical Sheet 6.9.
Nails are the most basic of fasteners. Choice of lengths and thickness Nails are the most basic of fasteners. Choice of lengths and thickness
(gauge) is important, depending on the size of timber section used. (gauge) is important, depending on the size of timber section used.
Screws are used to join small timber sections to each other or to a larger Screws are used to join small timber sections to each other or to a larger
element (for example, to join a handrail to a post). In recent years screw element (for example, to join a handrail to a post). In recent years screw
technology has come on in leaps and bounds. Most now have their own technology has come on in leaps and bounds. Most now have their own
drill point and can be driven without pilot holes. There are many specialised drill point and can be driven without pilot holes. There are many specialised
applications. Consult manufacturers’ information for advice. applications. Consult manufacturers’ information for advice.
Coach screws are a larger type of screw. They are used for bigger joints, Coach screws are a larger type of screw. They are used for bigger joints,
e.g. attaching handrail posts to the side of a timber main beam where drilling e.g. attaching handrail posts to the side of a timber main beam where drilling
for a normal nut and bolt may be difficult due to site access. A square head is for a normal nut and bolt may be difficult due to site access. A square head is
standard - hexagonal heads must be specified. standard - hexagonal heads must be specified.
Joints and Fasteners 4.5 Joints and Fasteners 4.5

Nuts and bolts form the most commonly used joint on the majority of Nuts and bolts form the most commonly used joint on the majority of
footbridges - the bolted connection. Parts of a bridge are clamped firmly footbridges - the bolted connection. Parts of a bridge are clamped firmly
together as a nut tightens down on a bolt through a pre-drilled hole. Pre- together as a nut tightens down on a bolt through a pre-drilled hole. Pre-
drilling bolt holes weakens bridge elements. As a result larger sections are drilling bolt holes weakens bridge elements. As a result larger sections are
specified to take account of this. specified to take account of this.
Studding is sometimes necessary for long connections (over 200mm). A Studding is sometimes necessary for long connections (over 200mm). A
length of threaded rod with a nut and washer at each end is used. length of threaded rod with a nut and washer at each end is used.
Welds join steel or aluminium sections, making very strong, rigid joints. If Welds join steel or aluminium sections, making very strong, rigid joints. If
done well there is minimal loss of material strength around the joint. A welded done well there is minimal loss of material strength around the joint. A welded
joint is permanent - you will not be able to dismantle it for maintenance. joint is permanent - you will not be able to dismantle it for maintenance.
While it is possible to weld effectively on site, it is not an ideal situation. While it is possible to weld effectively on site, it is not an ideal situation.
The weather needs to be dry and still, and it must be possible to bring The weather needs to be dry and still, and it must be possible to bring
the equipment right up to (and often on to) the bridge. Provision of a safe the equipment right up to (and often on to) the bridge. Provision of a safe
working platform is absolutely critical for welding operations, far more so than working platform is absolutely critical for welding operations, far more so than
simply inserting and tightening nuts and bolts, for example. This may be an simply inserting and tightening nuts and bolts, for example. This may be an
expensive option if a remote bridge is needed to cross a large gorge. On-site expensive option if a remote bridge is needed to cross a large gorge. On-site
welding will also destroy any protective coating - galvanised or painted. Any welding will also destroy any protective coating - galvanised or painted. Any
‘touching up’ of the affected area will never be as good as the original finish ‘touching up’ of the affected area will never be as good as the original finish
and so corrosion can be expected sooner than would otherwise be the case. and so corrosion can be expected sooner than would otherwise be the case.
Glued joints can be used for timber and metal but is generally only used Glued joints can be used for timber and metal but is generally only used
on specialist designs. In principle, glue transforms a pinned (potentially on specialist designs. In principle, glue transforms a pinned (potentially
moveable) bolted or screwed joint into a rigid one. moveable) bolted or screwed joint into a rigid one.
Clamping bridge elements together using a variety of straps, hangers and Clamping bridge elements together using a variety of straps, hangers and
glands with bolted fastenings is sometimes used. These avoid the need to glands with bolted fastenings is sometimes used. These avoid the need to
drill holes in sections, which maximises strength and durability. drill holes in sections, which maximises strength and durability.
Mortise and tenon or doweled joints can also be used, but require skilled Mortise and tenon or doweled joints can also be used, but require skilled
timber workers to manufacture and are always susceptible to weathering. timber workers to manufacture and are always susceptible to weathering.
They must only be formed in a joiner’s shop. They must only be formed in a joiner’s shop.
Rivets are now rarely used but once were very common on steel bridges of Rivets are now rarely used but once were very common on steel bridges of
all sizes. You may encounter rivets on disused railway bridges. Specialist all sizes. You may encounter rivets on disused railway bridges. Specialist
advice should be sought in these instances. advice should be sought in these instances.
4.5 Section four I Design Considerations I Joints and Fasteners
Joints and Fasteners 4.5 Joints and Fasteners

Choosing the best joint or fastener Choosing the best joint or fastener
Given the above variety of joint types and the different types of fasteners Given the above variety of joint types and the different types of fasteners
available, choosing the right one can seem a bewildering task. Joint choice available, choosing the right one can seem a bewildering task. Joint choice
is influenced heavily by how a bridge is to be constructed and installed. If the is influenced heavily by how a bridge is to be constructed and installed. If the
bridge is to be manufactured in a factory, transported complete to site and bridge is to be manufactured in a factory, transported complete to site and
installed in one operation, then it is easier to provide more complex joints installed in one operation, then it is easier to provide more complex joints
that allow the materials’ properties - strength, appearance, etc. - to be that allow the materials’ properties - strength, appearance, etc. - to be
maximised. For example, an all-welded Warren Truss bridge will look maximised. For example, an all-welded Warren Truss bridge will look
considerably smarter than one involving a lot of bolted joints with all of the considerably smarter than one involving a lot of bolted joints with all of the
associated flanges and gusset plates visible. It will also be lighter, more associated flanges and gusset plates visible. It will also be lighter, more
efficient and cheaper. efficient and cheaper.
If, however, the site has poor access and the bridge needs to be assembled If, however, the site has poor access and the bridge needs to be assembled
on site, then you need to specify joints that are easy to create. This is on site, then you need to specify joints that are easy to create. This is
especially the case if your bridge is to be installed by unskilled labour or especially the case if your bridge is to be installed by unskilled labour or
volunteers. Even a specialist contractor can struggle to make a tricky joint in volunteers. Even a specialist contractor can struggle to make a tricky joint in
a howling gale and torrential rain! a howling gale and torrential rain!
As a general guide, any on-site assembled joints should be bolted, screwed As a general guide, any on-site assembled joints should be bolted, screwed
or nailed. Any other joints should be constructed in a factory or workshop. It or nailed. Any other joints should be constructed in a factory or workshop. It
may be possible to bring in the bridge in prefabricated sections, such as a may be possible to bring in the bridge in prefabricated sections, such as a
complete handrail assembly, which is factory-made with more complex joints. complete handrail assembly, which is factory-made with more complex joints.
The ‘prefab’ sections are then bolted together on site. The Ekki hardwood The ‘prefab’ sections are then bolted together on site. The Ekki hardwood
bridges found on the A9 cycle route were constructed like this. Galvanised bridges found on the A9 cycle route were constructed like this. Galvanised
fasteners are still the ‘norm’ but stainless steel is being used increasingly and fasteners are still the ‘norm’ but stainless steel is being used increasingly and
should be considered. should be considered.
Materials 4.6 Materials 4.6
Section four I Design Considerations I Materials

In choosing materials for a bridge, suitability for the required purpose will be In choosing materials for a bridge, suitability for the required purpose will be
the most important consideration. However, where there is a choice, cost, the most important consideration. However, where there is a choice, cost,
visual appearance and environmental impact should be considered. visual appearance and environmental impact should be considered.
Cost can, of course, be measured purely in terms of installation. However, it Cost can, of course, be measured purely in terms of installation. However, it
is perhaps more useful to consider whole life costs. Whole life costs are the is perhaps more useful to consider whole life costs. Whole life costs are the
sum of: sum of:
• Acquisition costs - planning, design and construction. • Acquisition costs - planning, design and construction.
• Operational costs - those incurred during the operational life of the bridge • Operational costs - those incurred during the operational life of the bridge
(maintenance, predicted repairs and renewals) and the length of that life. (maintenance, predicted repairs and renewals) and the length of that life.
• End life costs - associated with disposal and/or replacement. • End life costs - associated with disposal and/or replacement.
4.6.1 Timber 4.6.1 Timber

Timber is used extensively for large scale bridge construction around Timber is used extensively for large scale bridge construction around
the globe and its potential in the UK has not been fully realised. There is the globe and its potential in the UK has not been fully realised. There is
much interest and research being undertaken to fill this void, which is best much interest and research being undertaken to fill this void, which is best
accessed through InTEC (Innovative Timber Engineering for the Countryside) accessed through InTEC (Innovative Timber Engineering for the Countryside)
via www.forestry.gov.uk. via www.forestry.gov.uk.
Timber has a number of advantages: simple designs usually demand low Timber has a number of advantages: simple designs usually demand low
levels of skill and materials are readily available locally; small span timber levels of skill and materials are readily available locally; small span timber
bridges are usually cheaper than other alternatives; it is chemically stable bridges are usually cheaper than other alternatives; it is chemically stable
- especially useful in marine environments - and easy to dismantle compared - especially useful in marine environments - and easy to dismantle compared
with steel and concrete at the end of its life. with steel and concrete at the end of its life.
Aside from sawn timber and round log, timber is available in other forms Aside from sawn timber and round log, timber is available in other forms
for use in bridge construction, glulam (glue laminated timber) and mechlam for use in bridge construction, glulam (glue laminated timber) and mechlam
(mechanically laminated timber) being two examples. New constructions (mechanically laminated timber) being two examples. New constructions
and composites are likely to be developed to better utilise short section and and composites are likely to be developed to better utilise short section and
‘waste’ materials. ‘waste’ materials.
Some tropical hardwoods offer strong and durable solutions. However, their Some tropical hardwoods offer strong and durable solutions. However, their
sustainability credentials are not always reliable. Fixing can be difficult and sustainability credentials are not always reliable. Fixing can be difficult and
in some cases splinters are toxic. Homegrown oak, European larch and in some cases splinters are toxic. Homegrown oak, European larch and
Douglas fir all have useful roles to play in bridge construction. Douglas fir all have useful roles to play in bridge construction.
Whether you want a bridge that makes a statement or a bridge that is low Whether you want a bridge that makes a statement or a bridge that is low

cost and unobtrusive, timber can fit the bill. It is a natural material which cost and unobtrusive, timber can fit the bill. It is a natural material which
is generally light, strong and easily worked, and a renewable construction is generally light, strong and easily worked, and a renewable construction
material with favourable ‘green’ credentials, especially when compared with material with favourable ‘green’ credentials, especially when compared with
concrete and steel. Timber weathers sympathetically; it can be shaped in a concrete and steel. Timber weathers sympathetically; it can be shaped in a
huge variety of ways giving great scope for designers. huge variety of ways giving great scope for designers.
Strength grading and classification Strength grading and classification

Timber quality is affected by the soil and climatic conditions in which Timber quality is affected by the soil and climatic conditions in which
the parent tree has been grown, the care the forest has received during the parent tree has been grown, the care the forest has received during
the growing period and the way in which the tree has been felled, sawn the growing period and the way in which the tree has been felled, sawn
and seasoned. and seasoned.
Put at its simplest, strength grading, formerly known as stress grading, is a Put at its simplest, strength grading, formerly known as stress grading, is a
method of determining the strength of a piece of timber destined for structural method of determining the strength of a piece of timber destined for structural
use. It is essential that the timber used for bridge building is up to the job, use. It is essential that the timber used for bridge building is up to the job,
and acquiring the correctly specified timber will ensure this. Strength grading and acquiring the correctly specified timber will ensure this. Strength grading
is carried out by either visual or mechanical methods. is carried out by either visual or mechanical methods.

Visual grades are a broad brush measurement, giving a few different Visual grades are a broad brush measurement, giving a few different
categories of timber, namely: categories of timber, namely:
General Structural (GS) and Special Structural (SS) for softwoods General Structural (GS) and Special Structural (SS) for softwoods
Hardwood Structural (HS) for hardwoods Hardwood Structural (HS) for hardwoods
Grading depends on growth rates, number of knots, fissures and general Grading depends on growth rates, number of knots, fissures and general
timber condition. Certified visual grading is carried out by qualified graders timber condition. Certified visual grading is carried out by qualified graders
under BS 4978. A short interpretation of visual strength grading softwoods for under BS 4978. A short interpretation of visual strength grading softwoods for
decking can be found in Technical Sheet 6.10, this is only for use by people decking can be found in Technical Sheet 6.10, this is only for use by people
experienced in assessing timber qualities. experienced in assessing timber qualities.
Mechanical grades confirm the minimum strength of the piece of timber. Mechanical grades confirm the minimum strength of the piece of timber.
They are species specific, for example Douglas Fir spans strength classes They are species specific, for example Douglas Fir spans strength classes
C14 - C24, where larch can make C27 if the quality is good enough. C14 - C24, where larch can make C27 if the quality is good enough.
Hardwood grades are prefixed with a D. Grading is governed by BS EN Hardwood grades are prefixed with a D. Grading is governed by BS EN
519. It is only possible to mechanically grade for small sections, hence most 519. It is only possible to mechanically grade for small sections, hence most
beams are visually graded. In general, Scottish softwood timber tends to beams are visually graded. In general, Scottish softwood timber tends to
be strength graded at C16. Higher strength classes are generally supplied be strength graded at C16. Higher strength classes are generally supplied
from imported timber, though small quantities may be available from Scottish from imported timber, though small quantities may be available from Scottish
sources. sources.
Equipment is available to carry out non-destructive testing of timber strength Equipment is available to carry out non-destructive testing of timber strength
on site, which allows accurate assessment of locally sourced timber on site, which allows accurate assessment of locally sourced timber
for construction and the evaluation of the status of existing structures. for construction and the evaluation of the status of existing structures.
Alternatively, a qualified timber grader can be brought in to visually assess Alternatively, a qualified timber grader can be brought in to visually assess
locally sourced material. The Scottish Timber Trade Association, locally sourced material. The Scottish Timber Trade Association,
www.stta.org.uk can advise. www.stta.org.uk can advise.
Choosing suitable species Choosing suitable species

Home-grown oak or European larch bridges are becoming more common Home-grown oak or European larch bridges are becoming more common
and offer strong, long-lasting timber constructions that require no chemical and offer strong, long-lasting timber constructions that require no chemical
treatment. Imported species such as Ekki are readily available but their treatment. Imported species such as Ekki are readily available but their
sustainability credentials are not always reliable. Always ensure that all sustainability credentials are not always reliable. Always ensure that all
timber comes from sustainable sources through a recognised certification timber comes from sustainable sources through a recognised certification
scheme e.g. Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) or Programme for the scheme e.g. Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) or Programme for the
Endorsement of Forest Certificate (PEFC). Hardwoods are used for high Endorsement of Forest Certificate (PEFC). Hardwoods are used for high
quality decking because of their resistance to wear and decay but they are quality decking because of their resistance to wear and decay but they are
more difficult to work than softwoods and all fixing holes must be predrilled. more difficult to work than softwoods and all fixing holes must be predrilled.
Some tropical hardwoods have toxic splinters. Hardwoods are also used for Some tropical hardwoods have toxic splinters. Hardwoods are also used for
beams because of their strength and resistance to decay. beams because of their strength and resistance to decay.
4.6 Section four I Design Considerations I Materials
Materials 4.6 Materials

Home-grown timber may be obtained from the Forestry Commission, local Home-grown timber may be obtained from the Forestry Commission, local
sawmills and estates. Imported timber will be obtained from a timber yard. sawmills and estates. Imported timber will be obtained from a timber yard.
The Yellow Pages Directory will show those available in any area. The Yellow Pages Directory will show those available in any area.
Increasingly, mobile equipment is available for milling timber on site. This can Increasingly, mobile equipment is available for milling timber on site. This can
enable low-cost bridges to be constructed in difficult locations with minimal enable low-cost bridges to be constructed in difficult locations with minimal
transportation of construction materials. See Case Study 8.4. transportation of construction materials. See Case Study 8.4.
Durability Durability
The natural durability of timber is due to the anatomy of the wood and in The natural durability of timber is due to the anatomy of the wood and in
some cases to the presence of naturally occurring chemicals which are some cases to the presence of naturally occurring chemicals which are
toxic to wood-destroying organisms. Durability is species specific. It is toxic to wood-destroying organisms. Durability is species specific. It is
classified according to the table below and applies only to heartwood. In the classified according to the table below and applies only to heartwood. In the
construction of bridges it is advisable to use only timber which is ‘moderately construction of bridges it is advisable to use only timber which is ‘moderately
durable’ or better. In terms of home-grown timber, only European larch durable’ or better. In terms of home-grown timber, only European larch
(moderately durable) or European oak (durable) meet that advice. (moderately durable) or European oak (durable) meet that advice.
Good design Good design

should minimise the should minimise the
opportunities for opportunities for
water to become water to become
trapped in the trapped in the
structure - this is what structure - this is what
causes rot. Much causes rot. Much
can be achieved in can be achieved in
terms of increased terms of increased
durability by improved durability by improved
detailing. Some very detailing. Some very
old structures (up old structures (up
to 1000 years old!) to 1000 years old!)
have incorporated have incorporated
sacrificial wooden boarding or a drip moulding to protect structural elements sacrificial wooden boarding or a drip moulding to protect structural elements
from moisture. These are replaced when necessary. Covering bridges with from moisture. These are replaced when necessary. Covering bridges with
protective roofs is common practice in some countries. Technical Sheet 6.9 protective roofs is common practice in some countries. Technical Sheet 6.9
details the susceptible parts of a timber bridge and some ideas for details the susceptible parts of a timber bridge and some ideas for
improved detailing. improved detailing.
For further information go to the Timber Research and Development For further information go to the Timber Research and Development
Association (TRADA) website www.trada.co.uk. This details the range of Association (TRADA) website www.trada.co.uk. This details the range of
timber species available and gives their uses, density, working qualities, timber species available and gives their uses, density, working qualities,
durability, treatability, sizes available and relative costs. The Scottish Timber durability, treatability, sizes available and relative costs. The Scottish Timber
Trade Association site www.stta.co.uk is also useful. EN 460 applies. Trade Association site www.stta.co.uk is also useful. EN 460 applies.

Timber treatment Timber treatment
Preservative treatment will be necessary only if the natural durability of a Preservative treatment will be necessary only if the natural durability of a
timber is insufficient to meet the required service life. timber is insufficient to meet the required service life.
The most common form of timber treatment is Copper Chromium Phosphate The most common form of timber treatment is Copper Chromium Phosphate
(CCP). Through pressure application this can extend the natural life (CCP). Through pressure application this can extend the natural life
expectancy of some timbers. However, it should never be a substitute for expectancy of some timbers. However, it should never be a substitute for
good detailing and species selection. good detailing and species selection.
Increasingly, the active ingredients in traditional preservatives are coming Increasingly, the active ingredients in traditional preservatives are coming
under environmental scrutiny. Concerns over the environmental impact both under environmental scrutiny. Concerns over the environmental impact both
where treated timber is used and in the vicinity of the treatment plant have where treated timber is used and in the vicinity of the treatment plant have
led to the following recent changes: led to the following recent changes:
• Amendment to the EC Marketing and Use Directive limits Copper • Amendment to the EC Marketing and Use Directive limits Copper
Chromium Arsenate (CCA), which was previously widely used to a few Chromium Arsenate (CCA), which was previously widely used to a few
derogated uses, including bridge decking. derogated uses, including bridge decking.
• Creosote was withdrawn for public/domestic use in 2003, but is still • Creosote was withdrawn for public/domestic use in 2003, but is still
available for industrial uses including bridge decks. available for industrial uses including bridge decks.
Timber treatment restrictions are likely to become Timber treatment restrictions are likely to become
more stringent and it is important to keep abreast more stringent and it is important to keep abreast
of changes. of changes.
As a general principle try to minimise use of treated timber as all treatments As a general principle try to minimise use of treated timber as all treatments
have some environmental impact. As an alternative to treated softwood, it is have some environmental impact. As an alternative to treated softwood, it is
usually possible to source relatively locally produced European larch or oak, usually possible to source relatively locally produced European larch or oak,
both of which have reasonable durability without treatment. Douglas fir can both of which have reasonable durability without treatment. Douglas fir can
also be used untreated if sections are large enough. Any wood in contact with also be used untreated if sections are large enough. Any wood in contact with
the ground will rot more quickly and treatment should be considered. the ground will rot more quickly and treatment should be considered.
Always ensure protective gloves are used when working with wood treated Always ensure protective gloves are used when working with wood treated
with CCA or creosote. CCA treated off-cuts should not be burnt in an open with CCA or creosote. CCA treated off-cuts should not be burnt in an open
fire as the toxic preservative elements will be released. fire as the toxic preservative elements will be released.
Timber Sections Timber Sections


Timber sections will be supplied sawn or processed. In both cases the actual Timber sections will be supplied sawn or processed. In both cases the actual
dimensions of the timber you receive may vary from the stated size. dimensions of the timber you receive may vary from the stated size.
A sawn 50mm x 150mm will measure 50mm x 150mm within a tolerance of A sawn 50mm x 150mm will measure 50mm x 150mm within a tolerance of
-1mm to +3mms on the thickness and -2mm to +6mms on the width. -1mm to +3mms on the thickness and -2mm to +6mms on the width.
A processed 50mm x 150mm (cut from a larger section) will have a minimum A processed 50mm x 150mm (cut from a larger section) will have a minimum
size of 46 x 144mms. size of 46 x 144mms.
These variations and processing allowances in section sizes must be These variations and processing allowances in section sizes must be
considered when determining the strength of members. considered when determining the strength of members.
4.6.2 Steel 4.6.2 Steel

In terms of durability and vandal resistance, steel is probably the best In terms of durability and vandal resistance, steel is probably the best
material to use for a bridge. In many situations, it is common practice to have material to use for a bridge. In many situations, it is common practice to have
a composite bridge marrying steel beams with a timber deck and handrail, for a composite bridge marrying steel beams with a timber deck and handrail, for
example the Glentrool Bridge shown in Standard Design 7.4. example the Glentrool Bridge shown in Standard Design 7.4.
While stainless is the most durable steel, it is very expensive. It is often used While stainless is the most durable steel, it is very expensive. It is often used
for very ornate bridges (for example the Millennium Bridge in London). In for very ornate bridges (for example the Millennium Bridge in London). In
most cases plain mild structural steel is adequate. most cases plain mild structural steel is adequate.
Structural steel Structural steel

Steel can be obtained in different grades of uniform quality, each grade Steel can be obtained in different grades of uniform quality, each grade
having its own characteristic mechanical properties. BS 7668 gives having its own characteristic mechanical properties. BS 7668 gives
the current standards for steel grades. S275 is normal for short-span the current standards for steel grades. S275 is normal for short-span
bridges. Low temperature ductility grades must always be used to withstand bridges. Low temperature ductility grades must always be used to withstand
frost conditions. frost conditions.
Steel is available in a wide range of sections, the choice of which has a Steel is available in a wide range of sections, the choice of which has a
key influence on the inherent strength and potential use of the material. key influence on the inherent strength and potential use of the material.
For example, an ‘I’-beam is much more efficient (strength for weight) than For example, an ‘I’-beam is much more efficient (strength for weight) than
its corresponding box section which in turn is more efficient than a tubular its corresponding box section which in turn is more efficient than a tubular
section of the same dimensions. Technical Sheet 6.12 gives more details of section of the same dimensions. Technical Sheet 6.12 gives more details of
what is available. what is available.
Structural steelwork should be obtained from a competent steelwork Structural steelwork should be obtained from a competent steelwork

fabricator who will be responsible for the standard of workmanship being in fabricator who will be responsible for the standard of workmanship being in
accordance with BS 5950, and who will also prepare the steel and apply the accordance with BS 5950, and who will also prepare the steel and apply the
protective coatings. BS 5400: Part 2 protective coatings. BS 5400: Part 2
applies to bridge loadings, and BS applies to bridge loadings, and BS
5400: Part 3 to design. BS 5950 is a 5400: Part 3 to design. BS 5950 is a
general building code, which is very general building code, which is very
useful for simple bridge construction useful for simple bridge construction
unless an authority demands the unless an authority demands the
use of a more use of a more
specific code. The fabricator may specific code. The fabricator may
also erect the steel, but if this is also erect the steel, but if this is
not the case the erection should be not the case the erection should be
supervised by an experienced and supervised by an experienced and
competent person. competent person.
If steel beams are required that If steel beams are required that
need no fabrication other than being need no fabrication other than being
cut to length, they can be obtained cut to length, they can be obtained
direct from a steel stockist, but direct from a steel stockist, but
preparation and painting of the steel preparation and painting of the steel
will then be the responsibility of the Attachments for handrail posts have been will then be the responsibility of the Attachments for handrail posts have been
purchaser. welded to the beams before galvanising purchaser. welded to the beams before galvanising
Protecting mild steel Protecting mild steel

To increase the durability of mild steel, it should be galvanised, and then To increase the durability of mild steel, it should be galvanised, and then
painted if required. One of the most effective painting methods is to use painted if required. One of the most effective painting methods is to use
powder coating. This provides an extremely tough coloured finish which is powder coating. This provides an extremely tough coloured finish which is
highly resistant to knocks and scrapes. It must be done after any drilling or highly resistant to knocks and scrapes. It must be done after any drilling or
cutting, otherwise water will get under the coating and cause rust, which may cutting, otherwise water will get under the coating and cause rust, which may
not be visible until it is very severe. It is common for powder coating to be not be visible until it is very severe. It is common for powder coating to be
applied post-galvanising for maximum durability and for a better colour. The applied post-galvanising for maximum durability and for a better colour. The
success of all coating systems depends on the method and thoroughness of success of all coating systems depends on the method and thoroughness of
the preparation of the steel surface. The Forestry Commission galvanise all the preparation of the steel surface. The Forestry Commission galvanise all
steel and leave unpainted - in time it dulls down. steel and leave unpainted - in time it dulls down.
Treat galvanised components with care and try not to chip Treat galvanised components with care and try not to chip
them. Touch up any disturbed galvanising with galvanising them. Touch up any disturbed galvanising with galvanising
paint - it will give some degree of protection. paint - it will give some degree of protection.
4.6 Section four I Design Considerations I Materials
Materials 4.6 Materials

Dirt and grease must always be removed for priming coats and all Dirt and grease must always be removed for priming coats and all
subsequent coats, and the surfaces must always be dry. Blue mill scale is subsequent coats, and the surfaces must always be dry. Blue mill scale is
formed on the surface of steel during the hot rolling process. As it is not a formed on the surface of steel during the hot rolling process. As it is not a
suitable base for paint or metal coating, it and any associated rust must be suitable base for paint or metal coating, it and any associated rust must be
thoroughly cleaned before application. A variety of cleaning methods are thoroughly cleaned before application. A variety of cleaning methods are
available, including hand cleaning, blasting with grit and pickling. available, including hand cleaning, blasting with grit and pickling.
Zinc is the main metal used in galvanising. Some metals (including zinc) Zinc is the main metal used in galvanising. Some metals (including zinc)
are not compatible in connection with some others (i.e. copper) giving rise are not compatible in connection with some others (i.e. copper) giving rise
to accelerated rates of corrosion at the join. Any unusual combinations of to accelerated rates of corrosion at the join. Any unusual combinations of
metals in contact with each other must be researched first. metals in contact with each other must be researched first.
4.6.3 Aluminium 4.6.3 Aluminium

Aluminium structural sections have some advantages over other materials. Aluminium structural sections have some advantages over other materials.
Alloys of aluminium can be as strong as steel, weigh around one-third as Alloys of aluminium can be as strong as steel, weigh around one-third as
much and be highly resistant to corrosion. However, aluminium has a high much and be highly resistant to corrosion. However, aluminium has a high
coefficient of expansion and low modulus of elasticity, both of which give coefficient of expansion and low modulus of elasticity, both of which give
rise to large movements in a structure. It can also react when in contact with rise to large movements in a structure. It can also react when in contact with
other materials such as copper and steel. A variety of structural sections are other materials such as copper and steel. A variety of structural sections are
produced but only the smaller sections are readily available and it is a fairly produced but only the smaller sections are readily available and it is a fairly
Aluminium bridge in Tillicoultry Glen. Twelve years old and no rust! Aluminium bridge in Tillicoultry Glen. Twelve years old and no rust!

expensive material. Its light weight makes it attractive for areas which are expensive material. Its light weight makes it attractive for areas which are
inaccessible to normal transport, but an experienced designer should be inaccessible to normal transport, but an experienced designer should be
employed to ensure that the correct alloy is used and the proper allowance employed to ensure that the correct alloy is used and the proper allowance
is made for the difficulties mentioned above. Aluminium is particularly useful is made for the difficulties mentioned above. Aluminium is particularly useful
as a lattice girder solution, which can span long gaps (up to 30m) and which as a lattice girder solution, which can span long gaps (up to 30m) and which
allows the structure to be transported in small sections for assembly on site. allows the structure to be transported in small sections for assembly on site.
Aluminium profiles are fabricated by the extrusion process which allows many Aluminium profiles are fabricated by the extrusion process which allows many
varied hollow shapes to be formed, so that aluminum structures can often be varied hollow shapes to be formed, so that aluminum structures can often be
more elegant than those of steel. Aluminium profiles can be a popular choice more elegant than those of steel. Aluminium profiles can be a popular choice
for bridge parapets because they need no protective paint. Information on the for bridge parapets because they need no protective paint. Information on the
use of aluminium is given in BS 8118: Parts 1 and 2. use of aluminium is given in BS 8118: Parts 1 and 2.
4.6.4 Concrete and mortar 4.6.4 Concrete and mortar

Concrete is made from sharp sand (fine aggregate), gravel (coarse Concrete is made from sharp sand (fine aggregate), gravel (coarse
aggregate), Portland cement and water. A suitable mix for general use is 1 aggregate), Portland cement and water. A suitable mix for general use is 1
part cement: 2.5 parts sand: 4 parts gravel, by volume. Fresh water from the part cement: 2.5 parts sand: 4 parts gravel, by volume. Fresh water from the
public supply or clear watercourses should be used. Sea water should never public supply or clear watercourses should be used. Sea water should never
be used; nor should sea sand. be used; nor should sea sand.
Concrete sets by a chemical reaction which takes 1-2 hours so never mix Concrete sets by a chemical reaction which takes 1-2 hours so never mix
more concrete than can be laid. Concrete will take at least seven days to more concrete than can be laid. Concrete will take at least seven days to
harden completely. During this period exposed surfaces must be protected harden completely. During this period exposed surfaces must be protected
from frost damage with polythene sheeting. Drying out too quickly must be from frost damage with polythene sheeting. Drying out too quickly must be
avoided and the concrete should be kept wet in dry weather. avoided and the concrete should be kept wet in dry weather.
Aggregates and cement are sold by builders merchants. Concrete may be Aggregates and cement are sold by builders merchants. Concrete may be
mixed by hand or machine. Ready-mixed wet concrete can be delivered by mixed by hand or machine. Ready-mixed wet concrete can be delivered by
specialist firms, but is usable only where vehicle access is available. Jaegers specialist firms, but is usable only where vehicle access is available. Jaegers
(ready mix lorries) carry 6m3 or 3m3. Extending chutes are available and (ready mix lorries) carry 6m3 or 3m3. Extending chutes are available and
ready-mix can be poured some distance from a delivery lorry. ready-mix can be poured some distance from a delivery lorry.
Relevant standards are in BS 5328, BSEN 206-1 and BS 8500. Technical Relevant standards are in BS 5328, BSEN 206-1 and BS 8500. Technical
Sheet 6.5 contains basic details about concrete specification and mixing. Sheet 6.5 contains basic details about concrete specification and mixing.
Concrete Practice by GF Blackledge is a useful publication. More information Concrete Practice by GF Blackledge is a useful publication. More information
about working with concrete can be found at www.concrete.org.uk. about working with concrete can be found at www.concrete.org.uk.
Mortar is used to join and point brickwork and masonry. It can be made Mortar is used to join and point brickwork and masonry. It can be made

from builders sand, cement and water or for small jobs prepacked dry mortar from builders sand, cement and water or for small jobs prepacked dry mortar
mixes can be bought from builders’ merchants. White Portland cement mixes can be bought from builders’ merchants. White Portland cement
should be used if a colour additive is required to match mortar to brick colour. should be used if a colour additive is required to match mortar to brick colour.
Increasingly, lime mortar, a traditional material, is being reintroduced for Increasingly, lime mortar, a traditional material, is being reintroduced for
building and pointing stone structures. This is particularly successful if used building and pointing stone structures. This is particularly successful if used
in conjunction with sandstone where the ‘softness’ of the mortar allows some in conjunction with sandstone where the ‘softness’ of the mortar allows some
movement of the stone where a cement mortar, being ‘stronger’ than the movement of the stone where a cement mortar, being ‘stronger’ than the
sandstone, could cause the stone itself to fail. Water is often trapped behind sandstone, could cause the stone itself to fail. Water is often trapped behind
hard pointing, preferentially eroding the stone whereas water can escape hard pointing, preferentially eroding the stone whereas water can escape
through the lime joints and the stone does not ‘frost out’. More details are through the lime joints and the stone does not ‘frost out’. More details are
available from the Scottish Lime Centre Trust website www.scotlime.org available from the Scottish Lime Centre Trust website www.scotlime.org
4.6.5 Recycled materials 4.6.5 Recycled materials

Over the last few years some use has been made of recycled plastics as Over the last few years some use has been made of recycled plastics as
timber substitutes for some bridge components. They have an advantage of timber substitutes for some bridge components. They have an advantage of
being totally inert and rot proof. At present there is no strength classification being totally inert and rot proof. At present there is no strength classification
or design standard for recycled plastic timber and this will prohibit its use or design standard for recycled plastic timber and this will prohibit its use
where Building Standards regulations are enforced. Hence, any use made of where Building Standards regulations are enforced. Hence, any use made of
the material must be with these issues firmly understood. the material must be with these issues firmly understood.
At present, sections suitable for beams are not available, although it has At present, sections suitable for beams are not available, although it has
been used occasionally for decking, handrails and nailing strips. Recycled been used occasionally for decking, handrails and nailing strips. Recycled
plastic burns readily once alight, unlike timber which can form a protective plastic burns readily once alight, unlike timber which can form a protective
charred coating in certain circumstances. It is a more flexible material than charred coating in certain circumstances. It is a more flexible material than
timber and has a tendency to sag over time unless well supported. timber and has a tendency to sag over time unless well supported.
Manufacturers of recycled plastic should be able to advise on its use and Manufacturers of recycled plastic should be able to advise on its use and
specification. Details are available from www.wrap.org.uk. specification. Details are available from www.wrap.org.uk.
4.6.6 Aggregates 4.6.6 Aggregates

Sometimes it is possible to win appropriate materials on or close to the Sometimes it is possible to win appropriate materials on or close to the
construction site from borrow or gravel pits. Although unsuitable for construction site from borrow or gravel pits. Although unsuitable for
concrete due to lack of grading, aggregates won this way can have a useful concrete due to lack of grading, aggregates won this way can have a useful
role in backfilling. This reduces transportation costs to site. It is crucial to role in backfilling. This reduces transportation costs to site. It is crucial to
ensure that the material is fit for purpose and to obtain any relevant consents ensure that the material is fit for purpose and to obtain any relevant consents
for its extraction. for its extraction.

4.6.7 Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) 4.6.7 Glass reinforced plastic (GRP)
Bridges can be built from moulded or extruded GRP. They are specialist Bridges can be built from moulded or extruded GRP. They are specialist
designs which can be strong, lightweight and versatile. Their design is designs which can be strong, lightweight and versatile. Their design is
complex, however, and beyond the scope of this guide. complex, however, and beyond the scope of this guide.
4.6.8 Material standards (BS and EN) 4.6.8 Material standards (BS and EN)
British Standards (BS) published by the British Standards Institution (BSI) British Standards (BS) published by the British Standards Institution (BSI)
have been a familiar part of construction for over a century. Since 1988, have been a familiar part of construction for over a century. Since 1988,
however, a new set of European Standards called EN (for Europaischen however, a new set of European Standards called EN (for Europaischen
Normen) has begun to make its appearance. The idea is to give firms equal Normen) has begun to make its appearance. The idea is to give firms equal
opportunities to compete throughout Europe by harmonising technical opportunities to compete throughout Europe by harmonising technical
requirements between countries. requirements between countries.
These new standards are mandatory in the sense that national standards These new standards are mandatory in the sense that national standards
bodies, of which BSI is one, are required to officially withdraw their national bodies, of which BSI is one, are required to officially withdraw their national
standards when an EN is created with the same scope of application. The standards when an EN is created with the same scope of application. The
fact that BSI and the other national bodies publish EN does not, however, fact that BSI and the other national bodies publish EN does not, however,
compel people to use them. Only when suppliers and customers fully accept compel people to use them. Only when suppliers and customers fully accept
and understand the EN standards will that actually happen. and understand the EN standards will that actually happen.
Nevertheless, EN standards are bound to become more common as time Nevertheless, EN standards are bound to become more common as time
goes by, and it will be important to keep abreast of developments in this field. goes by, and it will be important to keep abreast of developments in this field.
www.bsi.co.uk has up-to-date information. www.bsi.co.uk has up-to-date information.
Health and Safety 5.1 Health and Safety 5.1
Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Health and Safety

Above all other considerations, the safety of people involved in the Above all other considerations, the safety of people involved in the
construction of a bridge as well as members of the public is of paramount construction of a bridge as well as members of the public is of paramount
importance to the construction project manager. Compliance with the importance to the construction project manager. Compliance with the
Health and Safety at Work Act (1974) is a legal requirement. Even if you Health and Safety at Work Act (1974) is a legal requirement. Even if you
are putting the whole project out to a consultant, as a client you still have a are putting the whole project out to a consultant, as a client you still have a
responsibility to ensure any consultants or contractors used are competent responsibility to ensure any consultants or contractors used are competent
to carry out their duties. In to carry out their duties. In
general, the path construction general, the path construction
industry has a good health industry has a good health
and safety record. This and safety record. This
reflects the generally safe reflects the generally safe
environments and scale of environments and scale of
operations encountered in the operations encountered in the
majority of path construction majority of path construction
projects. Bridge construction projects. Bridge construction
is, however, an area of is, however, an area of
path creation that can pose path creation that can pose
significant hazards. These significant hazards. These
hazards must be managed hazards must be managed
Health and safety is the responsibility of everyone effectively to ensure the health Health and safety is the responsibility of everyone effectively to ensure the health
involved with a project and welfare of all involved or involved with a project and welfare of all involved or
affected by the project. affected by the project.
Section 1.3 covers the liability and insurance issues involved with a bridge Section 1.3 covers the liability and insurance issues involved with a bridge
project. It is important to be very clear about where liability lies during each project. It is important to be very clear about where liability lies during each
phase of a project and after completion. phase of a project and after completion.
5.1.1 Risk assessment 5.1.1 Risk assessment

Risk assessment is the essential building block on which health and safety Risk assessment is the essential building block on which health and safety
management is built. It is a requirement of both the Management of Health management is built. It is a requirement of both the Management of Health
and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 and the Construction (Design and and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 and the Construction (Design and
Management) Regulations 1994 to identify hazards and assess the attendant Management) Regulations 1994 to identify hazards and assess the attendant
risks for all working environments. Risk assessment is a powerful tool for risks for all working environments. Risk assessment is a powerful tool for
hazard management and an essential part of bridge construction. It is also a hazard management and an essential part of bridge construction. It is also a
fundamental part of bridge design and will influence choices of, for example, fundamental part of bridge design and will influence choices of, for example,
handrail height, materials, location and installation method. Undertaking a handrail height, materials, location and installation method. Undertaking a
risk assessment is not a complex process and full details of how to prepare risk assessment is not a complex process and full details of how to prepare
one are given in PFAP Factsheet 5.5 Hazards and Risk Assessment in one are given in PFAP Factsheet 5.5 Hazards and Risk Assessment in
Path Construction. Path Construction.
5.1 Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Health and Safety
Health and Safety 5.1 Health and Safety

5.1.2 CDM - get into the habit 5.1.2 CDM - get into the habit
The Health and Safety at Work Act (1974) and the construction specific The Health and Safety at Work Act (1974) and the construction specific
regulations including the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations regulations including the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
1994 (CDM Regulations) define safe working practices on construction sites. 1994 (CDM Regulations) define safe working practices on construction sites.
PFAP Factsheet 5.3 ‘Health and Safety in Path Construction’ details the PFAP Factsheet 5.3 ‘Health and Safety in Path Construction’ details the
relevant legislation and explains what it means. Upland Path Management relevant legislation and explains what it means. Upland Path Management
also has a very comprehensive section on health and safety. also has a very comprehensive section on health and safety.
In terms of overall project safety management, the CDM Regulations define In terms of overall project safety management, the CDM Regulations define
roles, responsibilities and lines of communication. The CDM Regulations do roles, responsibilities and lines of communication. The CDM Regulations do
not apply to all projects - it depends on project duration, number of people on not apply to all projects - it depends on project duration, number of people on
site and other variables. site and other variables.
Working safely requires a team effort. The CDM Regulations are Working safely requires a team effort. The CDM Regulations are
fundamentally about improving communication between all of those involved fundamentally about improving communication between all of those involved
in a construction project so that all parties are considering health and safety in a construction project so that all parties are considering health and safety
issues. To this end, the Regulations set out clearly defined roles, each having issues. To this end, the Regulations set out clearly defined roles, each having
specific responsibilities. specific responsibilities.
Role in CDM Key responsibilities Role in CDM Key responsibilities

regulations regulations
Client Appoints competent Designer and Planning Client Appoints competent Designer and Planning
Supervisor, usually maintains final build. Supervisor, usually maintains final build.
Designer Assesses and designs a structure that is fit for Designer Assesses and designs a structure that is fit for
purpose, safe to use and safe to construct. purpose, safe to use and safe to construct.
Planning Supervisor Ensures Health and Safety Plan is prepared Planning Supervisor Ensures Health and Safety Plan is prepared
and that Health and Safety procedures are and that Health and Safety procedures are
implemented on site and are effective. Ensures implemented on site and are effective. Ensures
communication between other parties, notifies communication between other parties, notifies
HSE if required. HSE if required.
Principal Contractor Controls site. Prepares method statements, risk Principal Contractor Controls site. Prepares method statements, risk
assessments, ensures safe working on site and assessments, ensures safe working on site and
competence of site personnel. competence of site personnel.
Health and Safety Legal enforcer may have to be notified of a Health and Safety Legal enforcer may have to be notified of a
Executive (HSE) project (depending on its duration), provides Executive (HSE) project (depending on its duration), provides
advice, may carry out inspections and issue advice, may carry out inspections and issue
improvement or prohibition (stoppage) notices. improvement or prohibition (stoppage) notices.

For uncomplicated short span projects most of the duties may be available For uncomplicated short span projects most of the duties may be available
‘in-house’, and it is often the case that more than one role is taken on by one ‘in-house’, and it is often the case that more than one role is taken on by one
person or organisation. More complex projects and longer spans will require person or organisation. More complex projects and longer spans will require
professional help. professional help.
A Health and Safety Plan is required for every project. If a contract is being A Health and Safety Plan is required for every project. If a contract is being
tendered the plan is in two parts, the Pre-tender Health and Safety Plan and tendered the plan is in two parts, the Pre-tender Health and Safety Plan and
the Construction Phase Health and Safety Plan. the Construction Phase Health and Safety Plan.
At the end of the project a Health and Safety file must be prepared. This At the end of the project a Health and Safety file must be prepared. This
document is a permanent record of how a project was designed and built. document is a permanent record of how a project was designed and built.
It should be prepared and passed onto the Client before the Principal It should be prepared and passed onto the Client before the Principal
Contractor leaves the site. The Health and Safety Plan is included, along Contractor leaves the site. The Health and Safety Plan is included, along
with any amendments and additions. The purpose of this document is to with any amendments and additions. The purpose of this document is to
provide all health and safety information to anyone who will be carrying provide all health and safety information to anyone who will be carrying
out maintenance work, repairs, upgrading works, extensions or removal/ out maintenance work, repairs, upgrading works, extensions or removal/
demolition on the project. demolition on the project.
The CDM Regulations are sometimes portrayed as extra bureaucracy, and The CDM Regulations are sometimes portrayed as extra bureaucracy, and
people have been known to ‘tweak’ projects to fall outwith their jurisdiction. people have been known to ‘tweak’ projects to fall outwith their jurisdiction.
However, the procedures outlined in the CDM Regulations are all about However, the procedures outlined in the CDM Regulations are all about
sound project management. Even if your project is too small to register for sound project management. Even if your project is too small to register for
the CDM Regulations, the process is a good habit to get into - it will help the CDM Regulations, the process is a good habit to get into - it will help
with planning, working out who is responsible for what, and minimising the with planning, working out who is responsible for what, and minimising the
chances of things going wrong. chances of things going wrong.
The PFAP Factsheet 5.4 ‘A Guide to the Construction (Design and The PFAP Factsheet 5.4 ‘A Guide to the Construction (Design and
Management) Regulations (1994)’ has details of when and how these Management) Regulations (1994)’ has details of when and how these
regulations apply. Note that if you are replacing an existing bridge with a new regulations apply. Note that if you are replacing an existing bridge with a new
one, removal of the old bridge could be classed as demolition and the CDM one, removal of the old bridge could be classed as demolition and the CDM
Regulations always apply to demolition, regardless of project duration and Regulations always apply to demolition, regardless of project duration and
number of people on site. number of people on site.
If a project takes more than 30 working days or 100 person days, it is If a project takes more than 30 working days or 100 person days, it is
notifiable to the HSE using form F10.REV. Bridge construction cannot be notifiable to the HSE using form F10.REV. Bridge construction cannot be
separated from the adjoining path construction to try and squeeze the project separated from the adjoining path construction to try and squeeze the project
under 30 days. It is always better to phone the Health and Safety Executive under 30 days. It is always better to phone the Health and Safety Executive
Infoline on 0845 345 0055 or go to www.hse.gov.uk if you are in any doubt Infoline on 0845 345 0055 or go to www.hse.gov.uk if you are in any doubt
about compliance with the CDM Regulations. about compliance with the CDM Regulations.
The CDM Regulations are under revision at the time of printing. It is therefore The CDM Regulations are under revision at the time of printing. It is therefore
important to keep abreast of any changes. See www.hse.gov.uk. important to keep abreast of any changes. See www.hse.gov.uk.

5.1.2 Method Statements - keeping 5.1.2 Method Statements - keeping
projects safe projects safe
The best way of planning project safety is by using a ‘method statement’. The best way of planning project safety is by using a ‘method statement’.
This management tool ensures that: This management tool ensures that:
• the whole operation can be planned taking safety into consideration at • the whole operation can be planned taking safety into consideration at
every step. every step.
• everyone involved in the bridge construction understands the method • everyone involved in the bridge construction understands the method
required to build the bridge safely, the risks and hazards involved and the required to build the bridge safely, the risks and hazards involved and the
measures required to control if not mitigate their effect. measures required to control if not mitigate their effect.
The main headings within a method statement are shown below (not in order The main headings within a method statement are shown below (not in order
of importance), but there can be others. of importance), but there can be others.
Method Statement Method Statement
• Site location and access arrangements • Site location and access arrangements
• Site conditions and accessibility • Site conditions and accessibility
• Chain of command (with contact details) • Chain of command (with contact details)
• Method of working, including type of plant, equipment and • Method of working, including type of plant, equipment and
resources required resources required
• Risk assessment table, listing all known hazards, level of risk and • Risk assessment table, listing all known hazards, level of risk and
measures to control the risk measures to control the risk
• COSHH* sheets for the materials used • COSHH* sheets for the materials used
• Environmental considerations • Environmental considerations
• Nearest medical facilities • Nearest medical facilities
• Accident procedure • Accident procedure
• Site welfare • Site welfare
* Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 * Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002

Some of the typical hazards are as follows, but always be aware of what is Some of the typical hazards are as follows, but always be aware of what is
important on your own site: important on your own site:
• Underground and overhead services • Underground and overhead services

• Working over water • Working over water
• Working at height • Working at height
• Working in poor weather conditions • Working in poor weather conditions
• Working with corrosive/hazardous substances • Working with corrosive/hazardous substances
• Slips, trips and falls • Slips, trips and falls
• Manual handling • Manual handling
• Spillages • Spillages
• Vehicle movements • Vehicle movements
• Lifting operations • Lifting operations
Bridge construction may involve the use of specialist plant such as cranes, Bridge construction may involve the use of specialist plant such as cranes,
winches and even helicopters. This kind of equipment poses specific hazards winches and even helicopters. This kind of equipment poses specific hazards
to operators and members of the public and is regulated very strictly to to operators and members of the public and is regulated very strictly to
ensure safe working practices. Whether you are a project manager, designer, ensure safe working practices. Whether you are a project manager, designer,
contractor or all of the above, you must be aware of regulations governing contractor or all of the above, you must be aware of regulations governing
plant use and how they will affect the project and construction method. As plant use and how they will affect the project and construction method. As
you plan your project, you should consider what plant is available and base you plan your project, you should consider what plant is available and base
your construction method on using the safest operations. your construction method on using the safest operations.
Site selection (see Section 2.1.1) can be crucial to health and safety Site selection (see Section 2.1.1) can be crucial to health and safety
management. Be prepared to reject a site if it poses hazards that management. Be prepared to reject a site if it poses hazards that
are unmanageable. are unmanageable.
Health and safety also applies to site surveys and maintenance. Many Health and safety also applies to site surveys and maintenance. Many
bridges will be installed in remote sites and hazardous terrain. If possible bridges will be installed in remote sites and hazardous terrain. If possible
take someone with you both to help with the survey and to raise the alarm in take someone with you both to help with the survey and to raise the alarm in
the event of an accident. the event of an accident.
A summary of the key health and safety regulations follows overleaf: A summary of the key health and safety regulations follows overleaf:

5.1.3 Summary of key health and safety 5.1.3 Summary of key health and safety
regulations regulations
The Health & Safety at Work Act 1974 The Health & Safety at Work Act 1974
The key principle of the Health & Safety at Work Act is that all parts of a The key principle of the Health & Safety at Work Act is that all parts of a
work force should be involved in improving health and safety. There is a work force should be involved in improving health and safety. There is a
duty of care for employers to protect their employees and the public, and to duty of care for employers to protect their employees and the public, and to
provide a safe system and place of work. The involvement of employees is a provide a safe system and place of work. The involvement of employees is a
key component. key component.
The Construction (Health, Safety & Welfare) Regulations 1996 The Construction (Health, Safety & Welfare) Regulations 1996
These Regulations are specific to the construction industry and aim to These Regulations are specific to the construction industry and aim to
protect persons working on a site. They require that a construction site protect persons working on a site. They require that a construction site
should have the following provisions: should have the following provisions:
• Adequate shelter for site staff which is clean, dry and suitably heated • Adequate shelter for site staff which is clean, dry and suitably heated
when required when required
• A supply of drinking water • A supply of drinking water
• Washing facilities • Washing facilities
• Toilet facilities • Toilet facilities
• Fire prevention measures • Fire prevention measures
• Safe access and egress to and from the site • Safe access and egress to and from the site
• Managed and safe traffic routes around, to and from a site • Managed and safe traffic routes around, to and from a site
• Provisions to prevent earthworks or excavations collapsing • Provisions to prevent earthworks or excavations collapsing
• Provisions to prevent falls, both in terms of people falling and objects • Provisions to prevent falls, both in terms of people falling and objects
falling on people falling on people
The Management of Health & Safety at Work Regulations 1999 The Management of Health & Safety at Work Regulations 1999
These regulations relate to all working environments. The key issue is the These regulations relate to all working environments. The key issue is the
requirement to identify hazards and assess the attendant risks to employees requirement to identify hazards and assess the attendant risks to employees
in the work place through risk assessment. Measures should then be taken to in the work place through risk assessment. Measures should then be taken to
avoid, remove or reduce the hazard. avoid, remove or reduce the hazard.
The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases & Dangerous Occurrences The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases & Dangerous Occurrences
Regulations (RIDDOR) 1995 Regulations (RIDDOR) 1995
These regulations require that an accident which kills a person, or injures These regulations require that an accident which kills a person, or injures
them causing them to be off work for more than three consecutive days, them causing them to be off work for more than three consecutive days,
must be reported to the relevant authority (HSE, Police etc depending on the must be reported to the relevant authority (HSE, Police etc depending on the
nature of the accident). nature of the accident).

Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002 Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002
These Regulations are designed to protect people from injury or illness These Regulations are designed to protect people from injury or illness
caused by substances and materials used in the work place. Every potentially caused by substances and materials used in the work place. Every potentially
hazardous material or substance used should have a COSHH assessment hazardous material or substance used should have a COSHH assessment
form which highlights the hazards that material or substance presents, and form which highlights the hazards that material or substance presents, and
what precautions must be taken. what precautions must be taken.
The Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992 The Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992
These Regulations cover all aspects of manual handling of loads in all These Regulations cover all aspects of manual handling of loads in all
working environments. The Regulations require that all manual lifting working environments. The Regulations require that all manual lifting
operations be assessed prior to carrying them out and are presumed to be a operations be assessed prior to carrying them out and are presumed to be a
last resort when mechanical handling is not possible. last resort when mechanical handling is not possible.
The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 1998 The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 1998
These Regulations cover all plant, machinery, or tools that will be used on a These Regulations cover all plant, machinery, or tools that will be used on a
site. They require that any equipment is designed for its intended purpose, to site. They require that any equipment is designed for its intended purpose, to
a recognised British Standard. They also require that equipment or plant is a recognised British Standard. They also require that equipment or plant is
maintained to a suitable standard and stored in a safe and secure manner. maintained to a suitable standard and stored in a safe and secure manner.
The Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at Work Regulations 1992 The Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at Work Regulations 1992
These Regulations cover all types of safety or protective clothing and These Regulations cover all types of safety or protective clothing and
equipment. They state that employers have a duty to provide all necessary equipment. They state that employers have a duty to provide all necessary
equipment to protect their work force. equipment to protect their work force.
The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994 (CDM) The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994 (CDM)
These Regulations form a framework on which health and safety These Regulations form a framework on which health and safety
management of the construction site is based. Their aim is to ensure that any management of the construction site is based. Their aim is to ensure that any
construction project is designed and managed such that hazards to both site construction project is designed and managed such that hazards to both site
employees and the public are minimised (see Section 5.1.2). employees and the public are minimised (see Section 5.1.2).
The Working at Height Regulations 2005 The Working at Height Regulations 2005
These Regulations apply to all work at height where there is a risk of a fall These Regulations apply to all work at height where there is a risk of a fall
liable to cause personal injury. A place is ‘at height’ if a person could be liable to cause personal injury. A place is ‘at height’ if a person could be
injured from it, even if it is at or below ground level. A safe working platform injured from it, even if it is at or below ground level. A safe working platform
must be provided. must be provided.

Duty holders must ensure that: Duty holders must ensure that:
• All work at height is properly planned and organised • All work at height is properly planned and organised
• Account of weather condition is taken • Account of weather condition is taken
• Those involved are trained and competent • Those involved are trained and competent
• The place where work at height is done is safe • The place where work at height is done is safe
• Equipment is properly inspected • Equipment is properly inspected
• Risks from fragile surfaces are controlled • Risks from fragile surfaces are controlled
• Risks from falling objects are controlled • Risks from falling objects are controlled
The Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations (LOLER) 1998 The Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations (LOLER) 1998
These Regulations require that lifting equipment provided for use at work is: These Regulations require that lifting equipment provided for use at work is:
• Strong and stable enough for use and has SWL (Safe Working Load) • Strong and stable enough for use and has SWL (Safe Working Load)
indicated indicated
• Positioned and installed to minimise any risks • Positioned and installed to minimise any risks
• Used safely, i.e. planned, organised and performed by competent people • Used safely, i.e. planned, organised and performed by competent people
subject to thorough examination and inspection by competent people subject to thorough examination and inspection by competent people
Construction Options 5.2 Construction Options 5.2
Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Construction Options

The decision over who will construct the bridge - either contractors, in-house The decision over who will construct the bridge - either contractors, in-house
staff or volunteers - will depend on the complexity of the task, availability staff or volunteers - will depend on the complexity of the task, availability
of resources and the skills of the available workforce. It is useful to think of resources and the skills of the available workforce. It is useful to think
about construction of abutments, beams and superstructure separately. about construction of abutments, beams and superstructure separately.
For example, work on the abutments and beams could be undertaken by a For example, work on the abutments and beams could be undertaken by a
contractor and fitting the deck completed by well-supervised volunteers, or contractor and fitting the deck completed by well-supervised volunteers, or
it could all be constructed by one company. Whichever way is chosen, good it could all be constructed by one company. Whichever way is chosen, good
supervision is always required. The options available are: supervision is always required. The options available are:
Standard Designs - for spans of 9m and under with no site difficulties or Standard Designs - for spans of 9m and under with no site difficulties or
special requirements, the designs in this manual offer several possibilities special requirements, the designs in this manual offer several possibilities
There is a great deal of engineering expertise within local authority Roads There is a great deal of engineering expertise within local authority Roads
and Transportation services. In some cases local authorities have come up and Transportation services. In some cases local authorities have come up
with their own in-house solutions to small bridges. with their own in-house solutions to small bridges.
Proprietary Spans - many companies offer pre-designed bridge solutions Proprietary Spans - many companies offer pre-designed bridge solutions
and a range of services from survey to installation. The Endat Standard and a range of services from survey to installation. The Endat Standard
Indexes (www.endat.com) are updated annually and list a wide variety of Indexes (www.endat.com) are updated annually and list a wide variety of
suppliers of proprietary spans. suppliers of proprietary spans.
Specialist Design - in particularly testing situations or where a ‘one-off’ Specialist Design - in particularly testing situations or where a ‘one-off’
solution is required, an engineering/specialist designer will be needed. In solution is required, an engineering/specialist designer will be needed. In
some situations artists working with a structural engineer have successfully some situations artists working with a structural engineer have successfully
combined art and functionality - often much cheaper than might be imagined. combined art and functionality - often much cheaper than might be imagined.
Art and engineering combined Art and engineering combined
5.2 Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Construction Options
Construction Options 5.2 Construction Options

In all situations good workmanship is vital. Without it, maintenance will be In all situations good workmanship is vital. Without it, maintenance will be
more onerous and the bridge may not be well enough built to receive a more onerous and the bridge may not be well enough built to receive a
completion certificate. Common failings are: completion certificate. Common failings are:
• Fixings - mainly failure to use galvanised fixings where specified, or the • Fixings - mainly failure to use galvanised fixings where specified, or the
use of nails where screws are required. use of nails where screws are required.
• Joints - badly made joints cannot be concealed with mastic or filler, the • Joints - badly made joints cannot be concealed with mastic or filler, the
timber will move and the joints open up. timber will move and the joints open up.
• Finishing off and tidying up - painting can be left unfinished, particularly in • Finishing off and tidying up - painting can be left unfinished, particularly in
less accessible parts and on concealed surfaces which need to be treated less accessible parts and on concealed surfaces which need to be treated
before assembly. Waste materials can be left around the site instead of before assembly. Waste materials can be left around the site instead of
being taken away to a licensed waste disposal facility. Ensure all timber being taken away to a licensed waste disposal facility. Ensure all timber
surfaces exposed to contact are smoothed off. surfaces exposed to contact are smoothed off.
Installation Techniques 5.3 Installation Techniques 5.3
Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Installation Techniques

There are a number of ways of getting a bridge across a gap. Which one you There are a number of ways of getting a bridge across a gap. Which one you
choose will depend on the size and type of bridge and the ease of access choose will depend on the size and type of bridge and the ease of access
to the site. Small bridges could be transported in bits by quad or power to the site. Small bridges could be transported in bits by quad or power
barrow and assembled by hand. Where vehicles cannot be used, ponies barrow and assembled by hand. Where vehicles cannot be used, ponies
may be useful although the loads must be kept small. Sometimes there is may be useful although the loads must be kept small. Sometimes there is
no alternative but to carry all the components in by hand. Large loads can no alternative but to carry all the components in by hand. Large loads can
be successfully handled by good teamwork but good planning and safe be successfully handled by good teamwork but good planning and safe
practices are essential. Helicopters are also an option. Careful planning and practices are essential. Helicopters are also an option. Careful planning and
a slick operation on the day is essential to keep costs down as helicopters a slick operation on the day is essential to keep costs down as helicopters
charge highly by the hour. charge highly by the hour.
Large bridges may need large haulage plant to bring onto site and a crane to Large bridges may need large haulage plant to bring onto site and a crane to
install. Potentially, this is probably the most hazardous operation of a bridge install. Potentially, this is probably the most hazardous operation of a bridge
construction project. Careful planning of the installation operation is essential. construction project. Careful planning of the installation operation is essential.
(See Section 5.1.2) (See Section 5.1.2)
5.3.1 Cranes 5.3.1 Cranes

Cranes come in many sizes. The Cranes come in many sizes. The
lifting capacity quoted for a crane is lifting capacity quoted for a crane is
its absolute maximum. As a crane its absolute maximum. As a crane
extends its boom its load capacity extends its boom its load capacity
drops, so a 1 tonne bridge may drops, so a 1 tonne bridge may
need a 20 tonne crane if it has to need a 20 tonne crane if it has to
be lifted to the limit of the crane’s be lifted to the limit of the crane’s
reach. There are a number of crane reach. There are a number of crane
companies around and they can companies around and they can
be found in the Yellow Pages. They be found in the Yellow Pages. They
will provide advice and guidance will provide advice and guidance
on what size of crane is required on what size of crane is required
for a given bridge and will advise on access requirements. This is generally for a given bridge and will advise on access requirements. This is generally
done free of charge as the companies will want your business. If you are done free of charge as the companies will want your business. If you are
installing the bridge yourself, the best way to manage the crane lift is to treat installing the bridge yourself, the best way to manage the crane lift is to treat
it as a small contract. This puts the onus on the crane company to provide a it as a small contract. This puts the onus on the crane company to provide a
suitable size crane and to ensure it is capable of accessing the site. This may suitable size crane and to ensure it is capable of accessing the site. This may
cost more than doing it by simply hiring a crane and driver but there will be cost more than doing it by simply hiring a crane and driver but there will be
less chance of disaster. Any power lines within reach of the full extension of less chance of disaster. Any power lines within reach of the full extension of
the boom anywhere in its 360° swing must be switched off. the boom anywhere in its 360° swing must be switched off.
All lifting is covered by the Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment All lifting is covered by the Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment
Regulations (LOLER )1998 (SI 1998 No 2307). Always ensure that Regulations (LOLER )1998 (SI 1998 No 2307). Always ensure that
contractors have appropriate and current certification and adequate contractors have appropriate and current certification and adequate
up-to- date insurance. up-to- date insurance.
5.3 Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Installation Techniques
Installation Techniques 5.3 Installation Techniques

5.3.2 Using tracked excavators 5.3.2 Using tracked excavators
Tracked excavators, normally used for earthworks, can also be used to lift or Tracked excavators, normally used for earthworks, can also be used to lift or
drag small bridges or beams into place. It should be noted from the outset drag small bridges or beams into place. It should be noted from the outset
that effectively using an excavator as a crane means that LOLER applies that effectively using an excavator as a crane means that LOLER applies
just as for cranes (see Section 5.1). LOLER requires the excavator boom just as for cranes (see Section 5.1). LOLER requires the excavator boom
to have suitable lifting points, to be rated for a load limit and to have all of to have suitable lifting points, to be rated for a load limit and to have all of
the safety features found on a crane. Inform the plant hirer/operator of your the safety features found on a crane. Inform the plant hirer/operator of your
requirements and they should advise on a suitable machine. Access to the requirements and they should advise on a suitable machine. Access to the
site must be carefully assessed. Although tracked excavators are capable of site must be carefully assessed. Although tracked excavators are capable of
negotiating rough and boggy terrain, they can still get stuck. Freeing them negotiating rough and boggy terrain, they can still get stuck. Freeing them
can be extremely difficult, hazardous and expensive. can be extremely difficult, hazardous and expensive.
With prior permission from SEPA With prior permission from SEPA
excavators can work within a river. excavators can work within a river.
However, there must be no risk of However, there must be no risk of
oil or fuel leakage. Restrictions may oil or fuel leakage. Restrictions may
apply in SSSIs and other protected apply in SSSIs and other protected
areas. Excavator operators must areas. Excavator operators must
be competent and be able to prove be competent and be able to prove
it with suitable certification. In the it with suitable certification. In the
hands of a skilled operator, 360 hands of a skilled operator, 360
excavators can make light work of excavators can make light work of
small bridge installation. small bridge installation.
5.3.3 Winching 5.3.3 Winching

bridges into place bridges into place
‘Tirfor’ or similar manual winches ‘Tirfor’ or similar manual winches
can be used to literally drag a can be used to literally drag a
bridge into place. A secure anchor bridge into place. A secure anchor
point is essential. The great benefit point is essential. The great benefit
of a winch is its portability, so this of a winch is its portability, so this
is often a useful option for a remote is often a useful option for a remote
site. Winches must be tested and site. Winches must be tested and
certified annually, as must any certified annually, as must any
slings or chains you will use. Care slings or chains you will use. Care
must be taken to secure slings to must be taken to secure slings to
the bridge such that they do not the bridge such that they do not
break part of the bridge or slip off. break part of the bridge or slip off.
If you are lifting in beams If you are lifting in beams
separately, attach slings tightly so separately, attach slings tightly so
they grip the beam more the harder they grip the beam more the harder
they are pulled. they are pulled.
Installation Techniques 5.3 Installation Techniques 5.3

If the bridge is a substantial weight If the bridge is a substantial weight
ensure a winch is also attached to ensure a winch is also attached to
the rear of the structure (as well as the rear of the structure (as well as
the front). This will help to support the front). This will help to support
and control the bridge as it is being and control the bridge as it is being
manoeuvred into place and will manoeuvred into place and will
stop it running away if a slope is stop it running away if a slope is
involved. (Upland Pathwork has more involved. (Upland Pathwork has more
information about using winches). information about using winches).
Small beams can be winched and Small beams can be winched and
manually handled without any other manually handled without any other
assistance. Larger beams will need Scaffolding can allow easy access to both assistance. Larger beams will need Scaffolding can allow easy access to both
to be launched across a scaffold sides of a gap and provide a safe working to be launched across a scaffold sides of a gap and provide a safe working
erected across the gap. If the gap platform for assembly. erected across the gap. If the gap platform for assembly.
cannot be scaffolded, you can counter cannot be scaffolded, you can counter
balance the beams using weights, (NB do not use people for this), to keep balance the beams using weights, (NB do not use people for this), to keep
them horizontal as you drag them across the gap. them horizontal as you drag them across the gap.
Launching a bridge is technically challenging and a potentially very risky Launching a bridge is technically challenging and a potentially very risky
operation. It is not for the inexperienced or unskilled. Some options for operation. It is not for the inexperienced or unskilled. Some options for
supporting while winching are shown below. All require competence and supporting while winching are shown below. All require competence and
experience. experience.
Shear legs and spars Shear legs and spars

Shear legs and spars may be used Shear legs and spars may be used
for moving beams into position with for moving beams into position with
chain blocks lifting the load and chain blocks lifting the load and
guy ropes, fastened to dead end guy ropes, fastened to dead end
anchorages, allowing controlled anchorages, allowing controlled
luffing either by a sheaved pulley luffing either by a sheaved pulley
section with ordinary sisal rope section with ordinary sisal rope
or using pulling devices such as or using pulling devices such as
Tirfors with a wire rope. Tirfors with a wire rope.
The longer the bridge span the The longer the bridge span the
longer the shear legs or spar required, and it may be difficult to transport longer the shear legs or spar required, and it may be difficult to transport
these to site. Although the loads are not large, a knowledge of rigging blocks, these to site. Although the loads are not large, a knowledge of rigging blocks,
pulley sheaves and guy ropes is essential for anyone attempting this method pulley sheaves and guy ropes is essential for anyone attempting this method
of erection. The sketches indicate different stages in the operation. of erection. The sketches indicate different stages in the operation.
5.3 Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Installation Techniques
Installation Techniques 5.3 Installation Techniques

Temporary supports Temporary supports
Where temporary supports can be Where temporary supports can be
provided in the gap the structural provided in the gap the structural
members may be rolled into position. members may be rolled into position.
The supports should be well braced to ensure that they are not knocked over. The supports should be well braced to ensure that they are not knocked over.
Normally the beam will be well above bearing level after launching in this Normally the beam will be well above bearing level after launching in this
way. It can be lowered onto the bearing either by the use of relatively short way. It can be lowered onto the bearing either by the use of relatively short
shear legs and chain blocks or by staged jacking with hydraulic or screw shear legs and chain blocks or by staged jacking with hydraulic or screw
jacks and with packing in front of the bearing and on it. The timber deck jacks and with packing in front of the bearing and on it. The timber deck
members can be used for this operation. members can be used for this operation.
Cantilevering Cantilevering
Beams can be cantilevered over the Beams can be cantilevered over the
gap using one of the other beams. gap using one of the other beams.
Care must be taken to keep the Care must be taken to keep the
system suitably counterweighted. system suitably counterweighted.
Once the beam is over the Once the beam is over the
bearings, it can be picked up with bearings, it can be picked up with
shear legs and chain blocks or progressively jacked up until it sits on the shear legs and chain blocks or progressively jacked up until it sits on the
bearings as described above. The remainder of the beams can be rolled over bearings as described above. The remainder of the beams can be rolled over
the top of the first beam. the top of the first beam.
Site Planning 5.4 Site Planning 5.4
Good planning of a bridge construction site is essential to ensure everything Good planning of a bridge construction site is essential to ensure everything
Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Site Planning

goes according to plan. You may have a number of people on site at one time goes according to plan. You may have a number of people on site at one time
trying to do several different tasks. Bridge sites are usually small, so it is very trying to do several different tasks. Bridge sites are usually small, so it is very
easy to end up with everybody getting in each other’s way. Before the project easy to end up with everybody getting in each other’s way. Before the project
goes on site, draw up a plan of action with dates and timings so that you can goes on site, draw up a plan of action with dates and timings so that you can
co-ordinate all of the operations effectively. The aim is for one operation to co-ordinate all of the operations effectively. The aim is for one operation to
follow straight on from another with no time lost waiting for an operation to follow straight on from another with no time lost waiting for an operation to
finish and without different contractors getting under each other’s feet. If you finish and without different contractors getting under each other’s feet. If you
are planning to drop the bridge in place in one go, then you won’t need much are planning to drop the bridge in place in one go, then you won’t need much
working space on site. If access permits, crane the bridge straight off the working space on site. If access permits, crane the bridge straight off the
delivery lorry and onto its abutments. Assembling the bridge on site requires delivery lorry and onto its abutments. Assembling the bridge on site requires
an area to store the components, space to work on them (if holes need to an area to store the components, space to work on them (if holes need to
be drilled etc.), and a clear lane to move them onto the abutments. Every be drilled etc.), and a clear lane to move them onto the abutments. Every
site has its own distinctive problems, but some common areas of difficulty site has its own distinctive problems, but some common areas of difficulty
include: include:
• Access to the site for materials, plant and labour • Access to the site for materials, plant and labour
• Power for small tools • Power for small tools
• Lack of suitable areas for fabrication • Lack of suitable areas for fabrication
• Placing the bridge across the gap • Placing the bridge across the gap
• Coping with dangerous working conditions • Coping with dangerous working conditions
• Deep water • Deep water
• Overhead power lines • Overhead power lines
• Underground services • Underground services
Planning should also include consideration of probable weather conditions. Planning should also include consideration of probable weather conditions.
Certain times of year may favour or preclude elements of the work required. Certain times of year may favour or preclude elements of the work required.
The illustrations on the following two pages show how drawing plans of a site The illustrations on the following two pages show how drawing plans of a site
can help in sequencing and managing a build. can help in sequencing and managing a build.
5.4 Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Site Planning
Site Planning 5.4 Site Planning

CRANE ACCESS - Site layout if crane access is available CRANE ACCESS - Site layout if crane access is available
Overhead power lines will Overhead power lines will
restrict the area crane Delivery truck restrict the area crane Delivery truck
can work in. If within backs onto site can work in. If within backs onto site
boom radius they must be boom radius they must be
switched off during lift. switched off during lift.

Install barrier Install barrier
to prevent to prevent
access under Crane can lift access under Crane can lift
power lines bridge over trees power lines bridge over trees
Crane positioned to Crane positioned to

lift bridge straight lift bridge straight
from truck onto Heavy plant from truck onto Heavy plant
abutments access not abutments access not
available on available on
this side of this side of
stream stream
Stream Stream
Extra hard standing Extra hard standing
required to support crane required to support crane
Possible turning place for Possible turning place for
delivery but powerlines delivery but powerlines
will restrict access. May will restrict access. May
need to use other route. need to use other route.
Notes Notes
1. Site may need extra hard standing to allow crane to set up in required position. 1. Site may need extra hard standing to allow crane to set up in required position.
2. Access track must be able to carry crane. 2. Access track must be able to carry crane.
3. Cranes must be booked at least a week in advance so careful planning is 3. Cranes must be booked at least a week in advance so careful planning is
required to ensure abutments are constructed and concrete has time to cure. required to ensure abutments are constructed and concrete has time to cure.
4. If bridge is not pre-assembled then crane can be used to lift main beams 4. If bridge is not pre-assembled then crane can be used to lift main beams
into place. into place.
5. If crane cannot lift bridge straight onto abutments, then this option is not cost 5. If crane cannot lift bridge straight onto abutments, then this option is not cost
effective. effective.
6. Service companies will advise on minimum clearances and procedures for 6. Service companies will advise on minimum clearances and procedures for
working in the vicinity of power lines. working in the vicinity of power lines.

NO CRANE ACCESS - Site layout if heavy plant cannot get to NO CRANE ACCESS - Site layout if heavy plant cannot get to
bridge site bridge site
Overhead Overhead
power lines Delivery truck power lines Delivery truck
backs onto site backs onto site
Lorry drops materials onto Lorry drops materials onto

path. Beams are winched path. Beams are winched
on rollers to launching Heavy plant on rollers to launching Heavy plant
area. Other materials access not area. Other materials access not
Install barrier Install barrier
carried on small dumper available on carried on small dumper available on
to prevent to prevent
or power barrow this side of or power barrow this side of
access under access under
power lines stream power lines stream
Laying out / Laying out /

fabrication area fabrication area
Stream Stream
Notes Notes
1. Beams can be winched using a hand ‘Tirfor’ winch along path to site and then 1. Beams can be winched using a hand ‘Tirfor’ winch along path to site and then
onto abutments. Alternatively, a small excavator can be used to drag them. Use onto abutments. Alternatively, a small excavator can be used to drag them. Use
steel tube rollers (e.g. sections of scaffold pole) to assist this operation. steel tube rollers (e.g. sections of scaffold pole) to assist this operation.
2. A laying out and fabrication area will be required beside the path at the bridge site 2. A laying out and fabrication area will be required beside the path at the bridge site
- typically around 2 x 5m. This need not be hard standing but must be firm and - typically around 2 x 5m. This need not be hard standing but must be firm and
well drained. well drained.
3. This method is generally more labour intensive as extra personnel are needed to 3. This method is generally more labour intensive as extra personnel are needed to
guide beams while winching and for general manual handling tasks. guide beams while winching and for general manual handling tasks.
4. Careful considerations of how the main beams will be winched into place and how 4. Careful considerations of how the main beams will be winched into place and how
the rest of the super structure is added is essential if this method is to be used. the rest of the super structure is added is essential if this method is to be used.
5.4 Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Site Planning
Site Planning 5.4 Site Planning

It is vital to plan the sequencing of activities carefully. The following list gives It is vital to plan the sequencing of activities carefully. The following list gives
a run-down as an example of a bridge construction project using a timber a run-down as an example of a bridge construction project using a timber
bridge on concrete abutments. A linked bar chart (on the next page) is a bridge on concrete abutments. A linked bar chart (on the next page) is a
useful way of expanding this information to determine critical paths and useful way of expanding this information to determine critical paths and
identify which operations depend on others. identify which operations depend on others.
Phase 1 - Project planning Phase 1 - Project planning

• Consultation • Design • Consultation • Design
• Initial survey • Consents • Initial survey • Consents
• Further consultation • Contractor selection • Further consultation • Contractor selection
• Detailed survey • Produce project plan • Detailed survey • Produce project plan
Phase 2 - Construction Phase 2 - Construction

• Site clearance - clearing unwanted vegetation etc. • Site clearance - clearing unwanted vegetation etc.
• Set out abutment locations and profile markers • Set out abutment locations and profile markers
• Excavate abutment foundations • Excavate abutment foundations
• Construct and install shutters, including any reinforcement • Construct and install shutters, including any reinforcement
• Pour concrete into shutters, compact and allow to cure • Pour concrete into shutters, compact and allow to cure
• Add bearers to abutments • Add bearers to abutments
• Lift in main beams • Lift in main beams
• Bolt on nailing strips and transoms • Bolt on nailing strips and transoms
• Attach deck boards • Attach deck boards
• Bolt on handrail uprights • Bolt on handrail uprights
• Attach handrails and approach rails • Attach handrails and approach rails
• Treat or paint any cut timber if required • Treat or paint any cut timber if required
• Construct approach ramps • Construct approach ramps
• Clear site and landscape any disturbed areas • Clear site and landscape any disturbed areas
Phase 3 - Ongoing maintenance Phase 3 - Ongoing maintenance

• Visual check of deck and handrails quarterly • Visual check of deck and handrails quarterly
• Full visual inspection of bridge annually • Full visual inspection of bridge annually
• Check bolt tightness annually • Check bolt tightness annually
• Clean deck boards annually • Clean deck boards annually
• Replace damaged timbers as required • Replace damaged timbers as required
• Lift deck, inspect and clean/re-treat main beams and transoms every • Lift deck, inspect and clean/re-treat main beams and transoms every
5 years 5 years
• Engineer’s inspection every 5 years • Engineer’s inspection every 5 years

Projected Anytown Path Network Installation Projected Anytown Path Network Installation
programme for: of multi-use path bridge programme for: of multi-use path bridge
WEEK COMMENCING WEEK COMMENCING
1 2 3 1 2 3
22-11-2004 29-11-2004 06-12-2004 22-11-2004 29-11-2004 06-12-2004
Excavate abutments Excavate abutments
Clear assembly area Clear assembly area
Construct shutters Construct shutters
Pour concrete Pour concrete
Concrete curing time Concrete curing time
Bridge delivered to site Bridge delivered to site
Assemble bridge components Assemble bridge components
Crane complete bridge onto Crane complete bridge onto

abutments abutments
Construct approach ramps Construct approach ramps
Reinstate assembly area and Reinstate assembly area and

final tidy up final tidy up
Example of a linked bar chart used to plan a construction project Example of a linked bar chart used to plan a construction project
5.5 Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Contract Management
Contract Management 5.5 Contract Management
Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Contract Management

In many cases a contractor will install the bridge. As with any construction In many cases a contractor will install the bridge. As with any construction
project careful selection and management of a contractor is essential project careful selection and management of a contractor is essential
to ensure best value and a high quality job. The principles of contractor to ensure best value and a high quality job. The principles of contractor
selection and management are discussed in detail in Upland Path selection and management are discussed in detail in Upland Path
Management. Many organisations (including local authorities) have Management. Many organisations (including local authorities) have
procedures for selecting contractors and it is important to be aware of these procedures for selecting contractors and it is important to be aware of these
and to conform to them. PFAP Factsheets 2.3 and 2.4 give more details on and to conform to them. PFAP Factsheets 2.3 and 2.4 give more details on
contract management. contract management.
To varying extents, bridge construction is a specialist field of civil engineering, To varying extents, bridge construction is a specialist field of civil engineering,
and there are specialist contractors whose expertise may be important and there are specialist contractors whose expertise may be important
for you. For example, if your bridge is going into a remote upland site an for you. For example, if your bridge is going into a remote upland site an
upland path contractor might be a good choice. They will be used to getting upland path contractor might be a good choice. They will be used to getting
materials into remote sites and will be fully aware of the environmental issues materials into remote sites and will be fully aware of the environmental issues
relating to upland areas. That said, for a simple bridge, most mainstream civil relating to upland areas. That said, for a simple bridge, most mainstream civil
engineering contractors will be suitable. engineering contractors will be suitable.
Path bridges tend to be relatively small contracts and picking the correct Path bridges tend to be relatively small contracts and picking the correct
conditions of contract that will suit the small contractor is important. For conditions of contract that will suit the small contractor is important. For
projects like this, big contractors may not give competitive prices and small projects like this, big contractors may not give competitive prices and small
contractors can be frightened off by complex contracts. Use simple conditions contractors can be frightened off by complex contracts. Use simple conditions
which are fair and preserve the interests of the client along with close which are fair and preserve the interests of the client along with close
supervision. As an example, contract documentation used by Forestry Civil supervision. As an example, contract documentation used by Forestry Civil
Engineering for these types of project can be found in Technical Sheet 6.13. Engineering for these types of project can be found in Technical Sheet 6.13.
Maintenance 5.6 Maintenance 5.6
As with all structures, once a bridge is installed it will require regular As with all structures, once a bridge is installed it will require regular
Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Maintenance

maintenance throughout its design life. Choice of materials will greatly affect maintenance throughout its design life. Choice of materials will greatly affect
the life span of a bridge and its maintenance requirements. However, no the life span of a bridge and its maintenance requirements. However, no
bridge can be completely ‘maintenance-free’. The key aim is to ‘design in’ bridge can be completely ‘maintenance-free’. The key aim is to ‘design in’
minimal maintenance. To reduce a bridge’s maintenance requirements think minimal maintenance. To reduce a bridge’s maintenance requirements think
about the following: about the following:
• Easy cleaning • Easy cleaning

• Use durable timber. Treat if required • Use durable timber. Treat if required
• Steel work should be galvanised (and painted if required) to a • Steel work should be galvanised (and painted if required) to a
suitable specification suitable specification
• Fasteners should be galvanised and threads greased for ease of • Fasteners should be galvanised and threads greased for ease of
future dismantling future dismantling
• In marine environments any steel should ideally be stainless • In marine environments any steel should ideally be stainless
• Make the deck easily ‘unboltable’ to allow inspection and maintenance of • Make the deck easily ‘unboltable’ to allow inspection and maintenance of
main beams main beams
• Consider how any maintenance plant can access the bridge site • Consider how any maintenance plant can access the bridge site
• Inaccessible parts of a bridge should be ‘maintenance free’ • Inaccessible parts of a bridge should be ‘maintenance free’
• Simple designs need simple maintenance • Simple designs need simple maintenance
Technical Sheet 6.11 gives more information about reducing maintenance Technical Sheet 6.11 gives more information about reducing maintenance
through design on timber bridges. Refer to the Lowland Path Construction through design on timber bridges. Refer to the Lowland Path Construction
Guide for information on maintenance planning and implementation. All Guide for information on maintenance planning and implementation. All
maintenance work must be carried out safely using a risk assessment and in maintenance work must be carried out safely using a risk assessment and in
accordance with SEPA PPG 23: Maintenance of Structures over Water. accordance with SEPA PPG 23: Maintenance of Structures over Water.
Inspections Inspections
As part of on-going risk management and maintenance, bridges must be As part of on-going risk management and maintenance, bridges must be
routinely inspected to ensure that they are safe and free from damage. routinely inspected to ensure that they are safe and free from damage.
The frequency of inspection will vary between structures depending on the The frequency of inspection will vary between structures depending on the
use, location, design and age of each bridge. A bridge nearing the end of use, location, design and age of each bridge. A bridge nearing the end of
its expected lifespan may need inspecting more frequently than the same its expected lifespan may need inspecting more frequently than the same
structure early in its life. The key issues are that inspections are carried out structure early in its life. The key issues are that inspections are carried out
when they are supposed to be, they are rigorous and are properly recorded. when they are supposed to be, they are rigorous and are properly recorded.
Bridge inspections must be carried out by people who understand what they Bridge inspections must be carried out by people who understand what they
are looking at and are in a position to make an informed judgement about its are looking at and are in a position to make an informed judgement about its
present condition, i.e. someone with the relevant training and/or experience present condition, i.e. someone with the relevant training and/or experience
to do the job. The same issues that determine frequency of inspection may to do the job. The same issues that determine frequency of inspection may
also have a bearing on who is seen as competent to inspect each structure. also have a bearing on who is seen as competent to inspect each structure.
Each inspection must be signed off by a qualified signatory - a suitably Each inspection must be signed off by a qualified signatory - a suitably
competent person who may not have undertaken the inspection themselves competent person who may not have undertaken the inspection themselves
but is able to make a decision based on the report about the safety of the but is able to make a decision based on the report about the safety of the
5.6 Maintenance 5.6 Maintenance
structure and any action that is required. Experienced bridge inspectors are structure and any action that is required. Experienced bridge inspectors are

best placed to spot deterioration or hazards. Every five years the inspection best placed to spot deterioration or hazards. Every five years the inspection
should be carried out by a qualified bridge engineer. should be carried out by a qualified bridge engineer.
Managing bridge inspections can happen in different ways. For example Managing bridge inspections can happen in different ways. For example
many local authorities carry out the inspections ‘in-house’. Sustrans, by many local authorities carry out the inspections ‘in-house’. Sustrans, by
contrast, employ students to inspect bridges in the summer holidays. contrast, employ students to inspect bridges in the summer holidays.
Inspection results are recorded on laptops backed up by digital photographs. Inspection results are recorded on laptops backed up by digital photographs.
These are then seen by the qualified signatory who decides if any action is These are then seen by the qualified signatory who decides if any action is
needed. Spot checks are carried out to ensure the standard of inspections needed. Spot checks are carried out to ensure the standard of inspections
is maintained. Increasingly organisations are using computerised path is maintained. Increasingly organisations are using computerised path
management systems which can include the bridge inspection process. management systems which can include the bridge inspection process.
Maintenance 5.6 Maintenance 5.6

An inspection record sheet (see Case Study 8.5 for an example) should be An inspection record sheet (see Case Study 8.5 for an example) should be
used to record all inspections. This acts as a checklist to ensure everything used to record all inspections. This acts as a checklist to ensure everything
gets inspected. Important points to look out for during inspection include: gets inspected. Important points to look out for during inspection include:
• Scouring of river bed and abutments • Scouring of river bed and abutments
• Damage to banks and adjacent land • Damage to banks and adjacent land
• Unsafe trees close to the bridge • Unsafe trees close to the bridge
• Muddy or worn paths, steps and ramps • Muddy or worn paths, steps and ramps
• Decay in timbers, particularly at holes, joints and checks • Decay in timbers, particularly at holes, joints and checks
• Loose components, joints and fasteners • Loose components, joints and fasteners
• Water lying on surfaces and in joints • Water lying on surfaces and in joints
• Rust • Rust
Many problems are very simple to rectify but may have public safety Many problems are very simple to rectify but may have public safety
implications; for example, broken deck boards or splinters on a timber implications; for example, broken deck boards or splinters on a timber
handrail. The location of a bridge may affect the prioritisation of repairs and handrail. The location of a bridge may affect the prioritisation of repairs and
also the frequency of inspection - it all comes back to risk assessment. also the frequency of inspection - it all comes back to risk assessment.
Take a basic toolkit with you on inspections. Using a Take a basic toolkit with you on inspections. Using a
surform to smooth a rough edge at the time of inspection surform to smooth a rough edge at the time of inspection
removes the need for a return visit. removes the need for a return visit.
On-site structural testing for timber On-site structural testing for timber
It is possible to purchase or hire portable equipment for testing the structural It is possible to purchase or hire portable equipment for testing the structural
integrity of timber. This is particularly useful in detecting unseen rot and integrity of timber. This is particularly useful in detecting unseen rot and
weakness (timbers sometimes rot from the inside, out). Being assured of weakness (timbers sometimes rot from the inside, out). Being assured of
the strength of old beams, in particular, may extend the life of a bridge well the strength of old beams, in particular, may extend the life of a bridge well
beyond its projected life expectancy. Although the equipment is expensive, beyond its projected life expectancy. Although the equipment is expensive,
it might be a worthwhile purchase for an organisation with a lot of timber it might be a worthwhile purchase for an organisation with a lot of timber
structures to maintain. structures to maintain.
There are three types of portable testers - sonic, micro-bore and impact. All There are three types of portable testers - sonic, micro-bore and impact. All
are available in the UK from Forestry Civil Engineering. are available in the UK from Forestry Civil Engineering.
A screwdriver is a vital inspection tool for revealing A screwdriver is a vital inspection tool for revealing
pockets of rotten wood. pockets of rotten wood.
5.7 Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Upgrading Existing Structures
Upgrading Existing Structures 5.7 Upgrading Existing Structures
Section five I Construction and Maintenance I Upgrading Existing Structures

You may often be faced with the need to use and adapt an existing bridge. You may often be faced with the need to use and adapt an existing bridge.
For example, it may be necessary to adapt a bridge to allow access by a For example, it may be necessary to adapt a bridge to allow access by a
wider range of users, or a bridge on a disused railway being converted into a wider range of users, or a bridge on a disused railway being converted into a
path may need modifications to allow safe access. In some cases it may be path may need modifications to allow safe access. In some cases it may be
possible to lift out the old bridge in one piece and use it elsewhere where its possible to lift out the old bridge in one piece and use it elsewhere where its
design is still suitable. It is not possible for this guide to cover all eventualities design is still suitable. It is not possible for this guide to cover all eventualities
that existing bridges may present but here are some basic principles: that existing bridges may present but here are some basic principles:
• Carry out a structural assessment of the bridge - can it take the extra • Carry out a structural assessment of the bridge - can it take the extra
loading the change of use may create? loading the change of use may create?
• Find out when the bridge was built - if it is approaching the end of its • Find out when the bridge was built - if it is approaching the end of its
design life, it may be better to replace it and the expense may not be design life, it may be better to replace it and the expense may not be
much greater. much greater.
• Will the additions to the bridge compromise its structural integrity? For • Will the additions to the bridge compromise its structural integrity? For
example, simply bolting a taller handrail onto a pedestrian bridge to allow example, simply bolting a taller handrail onto a pedestrian bridge to allow
use by cyclists can be a very dubious prospect. The longer handrail will use by cyclists can be a very dubious prospect. The longer handrail will
impose greater twisting loads on the main beams, as well as increased impose greater twisting loads on the main beams, as well as increased
dead weight. dead weight.
• If the modifications require additional joints and holes, these will not have • If the modifications require additional joints and holes, these will not have
been allowed for in the original design - think carefully before you act. been allowed for in the original design - think carefully before you act.
• Railway bridges are designed to carry many hundreds of tons but may • Railway bridges are designed to carry many hundreds of tons but may
have no, or very low, handrails - how easy will it be to add a new and have no, or very low, handrails - how easy will it be to add a new and
suitable handrail? If the beams have been neglected for several decades, suitable handrail? If the beams have been neglected for several decades,
they may well be so corroded that the bridge is seriously unsafe. they may well be so corroded that the bridge is seriously unsafe.
• The tables included in Technical Sheets 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8 give guidance • The tables included in Technical Sheets 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8 give guidance
on the load carrying capacity of decks and handrails for different users to on the load carrying capacity of decks and handrails for different users to
assist in fitting a suitable new superstructure to existing beams. assist in fitting a suitable new superstructure to existing beams.
Most often, upgrading existing structures will require the services of a Most often, upgrading existing structures will require the services of a
qualified engineer. qualified engineer.
Site Survey Example 6.1 Site Survey Example 6.1
Section six I Technical Sheets I Site Survey Example
Section six I Technical Sheets I Site Survey Example

Cross section: Survey dimensions required to be taken to design bridge Cross section: Survey dimensions required to be taken to design bridge
X X
y y
Y Pad foundation Y Pad foundation
When siting a bridge over, say, a watercourse the main consideration is to design the bridge When siting a bridge over, say, a watercourse the main consideration is to design the bridge
dimensions so that the new structure does not interfere with the normal water flow in any dimensions so that the new structure does not interfere with the normal water flow in any
way. The sub-structure needs to be far enough away from banking edges to avoid the slip way. The sub-structure needs to be far enough away from banking edges to avoid the slip
zone and the underside of the bridge deck requires to be above frequent flood levels by a zone and the underside of the bridge deck requires to be above frequent flood levels by a
minimum of 300mm. minimum of 300mm.
X - Span distance between top of banks X - Span distance between top of banks
Y - Height of top of bank above bed Y - Height of top of bank above bed
y - Height of flood water above top of banking from local knowledge or calculation y - Height of flood water above top of banking from local knowledge or calculation
Plan of a new bridge Plan of a new bridge
Waterflow Waterflow
Bearing v = deck Bearing v = deck

length = Z
W length = Z
W
width width
Z1 = Distance from Z1 = Distance from

edge of banking to Z2 = Distance from edge of banking to Z2 = Distance from
bankseat. edge of banking to bankseat. edge of banking to
B = effective span B = effective span
Min 500mm bankseat. Min 500mm bankseat.
Min 500mm Min 500mm
V - Overall width of bridge deck required - see next note below. V - Overall width of bridge deck required - see next note below.
W - Ensure there is sufficient width on the ground to accommodate the bridge foundations. W - Ensure there is sufficient width on the ground to accommodate the bridge foundations.
(W min = V + 1m) (W min = V + 1m)
• Stability of banking and ground conditions will determine the distance the bankseat will • Stability of banking and ground conditions will determine the distance the bankseat will
sit from the edge of the top of banking (Z1 and Z2). This value may be different for the two sit from the edge of the top of banking (Z1 and Z2). This value may be different for the two
bankseats. Minimum = 500mm. (Scour can occur at the toe of a bank altering slip zone bankseats. Minimum = 500mm. (Scour can occur at the toe of a bank altering slip zone
significantly.) significantly.)
• Therefore, the overall length of bridge is B = X + Z1 + Z2 +2z • Therefore, the overall length of bridge is B = X + Z1 + Z2 +2z
where Z1 or Z2 = Distance from edge of banking to bankseat and z is the bearing length where Z1 or Z2 = Distance from edge of banking to bankseat and z is the bearing length
of the bridge on the bankseat. of the bridge on the bankseat.
• A simple pad foundation for a bankseat may not be appropriate at all locations due • A simple pad foundation for a bankseat may not be appropriate at all locations due
to physical/ground constraints. If this is the case then professional design help to physical/ground constraints. If this is the case then professional design help
may be required. may be required.
Flood Level Estimation 6.2 Flood Level Estimation 6.2
It is essential to estimate the maximum flood level of a watercourse to be It is essential to estimate the maximum flood level of a watercourse to be
Section six I Technical Sheets I Flood Level Estimation

crossed by a bridge. This is typically done for a 1-in-100 year flood. It is crossed by a bridge. This is typically done for a 1-in-100 year flood. It is
possible to calculate a level analytically using the following method: possible to calculate a level analytically using the following method:
• The Rational Formula calculates the quantity of flood water that will arrive • The Rational Formula calculates the quantity of flood water that will arrive
at a bridge site using the area of the catchment and the expected rainfall at a bridge site using the area of the catchment and the expected rainfall
for the ‘design’ storm. This method relies on assessing the geology and for the ‘design’ storm. This method relies on assessing the geology and
drainage characteristics of the catchment and determining a coefficient drainage characteristics of the catchment and determining a coefficient
which reflects this. It is regarded as being a fairly approximate method which reflects this. It is regarded as being a fairly approximate method
of flood calculation but may be useful for small catchments which have of flood calculation but may be useful for small catchments which have
uniform terrain. uniform terrain.
• Using the flood water figure generated, the Manning Equation can be used • Using the flood water figure generated, the Manning Equation can be used
to calculate the flow depth in a given channel, the parameters of which (i.e. to calculate the flow depth in a given channel, the parameters of which (i.e.
size, gradient and roughness) need to be assessed and quantified. size, gradient and roughness) need to be assessed and quantified.
Further details of both these calculations are beyond the scope of this guide. Further details of both these calculations are beyond the scope of this guide.
The complex nature of natural watercourses makes use of the Manning The complex nature of natural watercourses makes use of the Manning
formula particularly difficult and suitable for experienced hydrologists only. formula particularly difficult and suitable for experienced hydrologists only.
Alternatively, the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (www.ceh.ac.uk) Alternatively, the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (www.ceh.ac.uk)
publishes the Flood Estimation Handbook which can be used to calculate publishes the Flood Estimation Handbook which can be used to calculate
flood levels anywhere in the UK. They also produce a software package flood levels anywhere in the UK. They also produce a software package
which has catchment, rainfall and water course data built into it and can give which has catchment, rainfall and water course data built into it and can give
accurate flood water flows across the country. accurate flood water flows across the country.
All of these ways of estimating flood levels require specialist input and sound All of these ways of estimating flood levels require specialist input and sound
judgement. Various websites describe the derivation and uses of both the judgement. Various websites describe the derivation and uses of both the
Rational formula and Manning’s equation. Rational formula and Manning’s equation.
In many cases flood water levels can be estimated sufficiently using local In many cases flood water levels can be estimated sufficiently using local
knowledge and site observations. knowledge and site observations.
• Speak to local land managers and ask them to describe flood levels as far • Speak to local land managers and ask them to describe flood levels as far
back as they can remember. back as they can remember.
• Look at the level of other bridges on the same watercourse. • Look at the level of other bridges on the same watercourse.
• Look at debris from previous floods and measure its level. Note that debris • Look at debris from previous floods and measure its level. Note that debris
may only be from a recent flood, which may have been a lot lower than a may only be from a recent flood, which may have been a lot lower than a
1-in-100 year flood. 1-in-100 year flood.
6.2 Flood Level Estimation 6.2 Flood Level Estimation
What method you use to determine the flood level at a bridge site should What method you use to determine the flood level at a bridge site should

be done by risk assessment. Assess the consequences of the bridge being be done by risk assessment. Assess the consequences of the bridge being
flooded – the risk to users, the likelihood of damage and the cost of repairs flooded – the risk to users, the likelihood of damage and the cost of repairs
or replacement. Assess the availability of local knowledge on historic flood or replacement. Assess the availability of local knowledge on historic flood
levels. In general, areas subject to severe floods will be well known and levels. In general, areas subject to severe floods will be well known and
easily identifiable. If local knowledge is not sufficient it may be wise to utilise easily identifiable. If local knowledge is not sufficient it may be wise to utilise
the services of a consultant hydrologist to assess and calculate flood levels the services of a consultant hydrologist to assess and calculate flood levels
and flow depths. and flow depths.
Loads 6.3 Loads 6.3
This sheet explains how the loads used in path bridge design have been This sheet explains how the loads used in path bridge design have been
Section six I Technical Sheets I Loads

derived and calculated. The load table that follows quantifies these loads in derived and calculated. The load table that follows quantifies these loads in
terms of their impact on the main bridge components. terms of their impact on the main bridge components.
The calculation of user loading The calculation of user loading

The user loading suggested in the current British Standards (BS) and Codes The user loading suggested in the current British Standards (BS) and Codes
of Practice (CP) were evaluated in the context of major structures in heavily of Practice (CP) were evaluated in the context of major structures in heavily
trafficked urban situations. Most path bridges will be of restricted width (900 trafficked urban situations. Most path bridges will be of restricted width (900
to 1800mm) and located in areas where it is unlikely that extreme crowd to 1800mm) and located in areas where it is unlikely that extreme crowd
loading or other extraordinary loads will be encountered. Therefore, loadings loading or other extraordinary loads will be encountered. Therefore, loadings
for such structures were derived from consideration of their likely uses and for such structures were derived from consideration of their likely uses and
included in ‘Footbridges in the Countryside’ in 1981. These have proved included in ‘Footbridges in the Countryside’ in 1981. These have proved
to be adequate and have become standard reference figures. The basis on to be adequate and have become standard reference figures. The basis on
which they have been calculated is shown below. It is important which they have been calculated is shown below. It is important
to understand the distinction between point loads and uniformly distributed to understand the distinction between point loads and uniformly distributed
live loads. live loads.
Point load - best illustrated by a stiletto heel acting on a bridge deck. The full Point load - best illustrated by a stiletto heel acting on a bridge deck. The full
weight of a person impacts through one particular point. weight of a person impacts through one particular point.
Uniformly distributed load (UDL) - the sum of point loads considered over Uniformly distributed load (UDL) - the sum of point loads considered over
the length of a bridge. Usually expressed as kN/m2. the length of a bridge. Usually expressed as kN/m2.
Pedestrian Loading Pedestrian Loading
Pedestrian Normal Pedestrian Crowd Pedestrian Normal Pedestrian Crowd

950
950
950
950
900 900 700 700 900 900 700 700
= person weighing = person weighing = person weighing = person weighing
90.7kg (200 lbs) 72kg (160 lbs) 90.7kg (200 lbs) 72kg (160 lbs)
Impact factor 1.12 Impact factor 1 Impact factor 1.12 Impact factor 1
2.3 kN/m2 3.2 kN/m2 2.3 kN/m2 3.2 kN/m2
Main beams and girders - a uniformly distributed live load (UDLL) over the Main beams and girders - a uniformly distributed live load (UDLL) over the
whole span equivalent to that shown in the sketches for Pedestrian Normal whole span equivalent to that shown in the sketches for Pedestrian Normal
and Pedestrian Crowd Loading respectively. and Pedestrian Crowd Loading respectively.
6.3 Section six I Technical Sheets I Loads
Loads 6.3 Loads

Deck members - as for Crowd Loading on the previous page. However, Deck members - as for Crowd Loading on the previous page. However,
where the deck is of small individual units, such as deck boards, consider where the deck is of small individual units, such as deck boards, consider
as alternatives either a fully loaded person running with their whole weight as alternatives either a fully loaded person running with their whole weight
on one foot (a point load of 1.8kN) and an Impact Factor 1.25 - or a line of on one foot (a point load of 1.8kN) and an Impact Factor 1.25 - or a line of
people of mass 112kg at 650mm centres along the member with an Impact people of mass 112kg at 650mm centres along the member with an Impact
Factor of 1. Factor of 1.
Horse and rider/cattle loadings Horse and rider/cattle loadings

Main beams and girders - horses and riders in single file at 1.5 horse length Main beams and girders - horses and riders in single file at 1.5 horse length
spacings with an Impact Factor of 1.3 or cattle two abreast in a 1400m width spacings with an Impact Factor of 1.3 or cattle two abreast in a 1400m width
at 2200mm centres with an Impact Factor of 1.125. at 2200mm centres with an Impact Factor of 1.125.
Deck members - where the deck is of small individual units, such as Deck members - where the deck is of small individual units, such as
deck boards, consider as an alternative the full weight of a moving animal deck boards, consider as an alternative the full weight of a moving animal
transmitted through one hoof. For a horse this load will be on a 175mm transmitted through one hoof. For a horse this load will be on a 175mm
square and for cattle on a 120mm square with an Impact Factor of 1.25. square and for cattle on a 120mm square with an Impact Factor of 1.25.
Load Table for path bridges Load Table for path bridges
900mm - 1800mm wide 900mm - 1800mm wide
The table opposite summarises the intensity of the different types of loading The table opposite summarises the intensity of the different types of loading
applicable to path bridges. The horizontal loadings given for handrails are applicable to path bridges. The horizontal loadings given for handrails are
similar to those given in the relevant British Standards and Codes of Practice similar to those given in the relevant British Standards and Codes of Practice
and DfT Memoranda as are the wind speeds. Snow loads and wind loads are and DfT Memoranda as are the wind speeds. Snow loads and wind loads are
included for information but the assumption is generally that if the bridge is included for information but the assumption is generally that if the bridge is
affected by either in extreme conditions significant numbers of pedestrians affected by either in extreme conditions significant numbers of pedestrians
will not use it at the same time. will not use it at the same time.
Loads 6.3 Loads 6.3

MEMBER LOAD TYPE LOADING REMARKS MEMBER LOAD TYPE LOADING REMARKS
UDL POINT LOAD Use BS 5400 UDL POINT LOAD Use BS 5400
Main Beams Pedestrian - For urban or Main Beams Pedestrian - For urban or
Normal 2.3kN/m2 wide bridges Normal 2.3kN/m2 wide bridges
Crowd 3.2kN/m2 use BS 5400 Crowd 3.2kN/m2 use BS 5400
Horse Cattle 5kN/m2 Horse Cattle 5kN/m2

Sheep Sheep
Quad Bikes 10kN Could be Quad Bikes 10kN Could be

greater greater
Short span Pedestrian - 1.8kN point load Short span Pedestrian - 1.8kN point load
Deck Boards Normal Deck Boards Normal
Crowd Crowd
Sheep Sheep
Horses & Rider 7kN point load Horses & Rider 7kN point load
Cattle 7kN point load Cattle 7kN point load
Horizontal Pedestrians - 0.74kN/m Horizontal Pedestrians - 0.74kN/m

Handrails Normal 1.1m above deck Handrails Normal 1.1m above deck
Crowd 1.4kN/m BS 5400 Crowd 1.4kN/m BS 5400

1.1m above deck normal 1.1m above deck normal
Horse & Rider 1.3kN/m Handrail heights Horse & Rider 1.3kN/m Handrail heights
Cattle 1.25m above deck are not the same Cattle 1.25m above deck are not the same
as height of as height of
Cycles 1.4kN/m load application Cycles 1.4kN/m load application
1.15m above deck 1.15m above deck
> 3m drop below 1.4kN/m > 3m drop below 1.4kN/m

bridge deck 1.1m above deck bridge deck 1.1m above deck
All Members Snow 0.4kN/m2 All Members Snow 0.4kN/m2
Wind 1.4kN/m2 loaded Consult engineer Wind 1.4kN/m2 loaded Consult engineer
0.7kN/m2 for long spans 0.7kN/m2 for long spans
unloaded unloaded
Collision 50kN @ 3m high Collision 50kN @ 3m high
6.3 Section six I Technical Sheets I Loads
Loads 6.3 Loads

Deflections Deflections
The deflection of the individual structural members and the main beams The deflection of the individual structural members and the main beams
and girders under full loading should be limited to 1/240th of the span. and girders under full loading should be limited to 1/240th of the span.
Clearances at all parts of the structure should be checked to ensure that this Clearances at all parts of the structure should be checked to ensure that this
deflection does not cause other problems. deflection does not cause other problems.
Where possible, structures should be built with a precamber which should Where possible, structures should be built with a precamber which should
be at least equal to the dead load deflection. The appearance of bridges is be at least equal to the dead load deflection. The appearance of bridges is
improved by making this precamber substantial. Between 10mm and 35mm improved by making this precamber substantial. Between 10mm and 35mm
per metre of total spans is a suitable range. The top end of this range results per metre of total spans is a suitable range. The top end of this range results
in a deck gradient of about 1 in 15, which is reasonable for pedestrian traffic, in a deck gradient of about 1 in 15, which is reasonable for pedestrian traffic,
is wheelchair accessible and will be suitable for horses as long as the deck is wheelchair accessible and will be suitable for horses as long as the deck
has grip. has grip.
Dynamic deflection Dynamic deflection

Longer span (over 15m) bridges should be checked for their response to Longer span (over 15m) bridges should be checked for their response to
dynamic loading and to excitation by wind. The bridge design should avoid dynamic loading and to excitation by wind. The bridge design should avoid
structures whose primary natural frequency coincides with the frequency of structures whose primary natural frequency coincides with the frequency of
pedestrians’ pace i.e. approximately 2.0 cycles per second or several people pedestrians’ pace i.e. approximately 2.0 cycles per second or several people
jumping on the bridge at 2.5 cycles per second. Horses require stiff bridges jumping on the bridge at 2.5 cycles per second. Horses require stiff bridges
of a minimum 5 cycles per second.* of a minimum 5 cycles per second.*
The calculation of frequency of vibration of a structure is complex and The calculation of frequency of vibration of a structure is complex and
requires a great deal of judgment. As these calculations will apply to the requires a great deal of judgment. As these calculations will apply to the
longer spans an experienced designer must be employed. longer spans an experienced designer must be employed.
Where bridges are found to be susceptible to vibration this can be dampened Where bridges are found to be susceptible to vibration this can be dampened
in a variety of ways, including the use of rubber bearings and side guys to in a variety of ways, including the use of rubber bearings and side guys to
suspension spans. suspension spans.
* Work on this is on-going. Hence this figure is an estimation. * Work on this is on-going. Hence this figure is an estimation.
Abutment Design Options 6.4 Abutment Design Options 6.4
Section six I Technical Sheets I Abutment Design Options

General principles General principles
Constructing abutments and forming approach paths can be a substantial Constructing abutments and forming approach paths can be a substantial
part of the overall cost of a bridge project and every effort in siting the bridge part of the overall cost of a bridge project and every effort in siting the bridge
to limit the work required on them is worthwhile. to limit the work required on them is worthwhile.
However, sophisticated abutments are rarely necessary for narrow bridges. However, sophisticated abutments are rarely necessary for narrow bridges.
Often plain mass blocks built in concrete, brick or stone are sufficient and Often plain mass blocks built in concrete, brick or stone are sufficient and
the most economic. Even these simple abutments will need to accommodate the most economic. Even these simple abutments will need to accommodate
a variety of situations, the most common of which and their suggested a variety of situations, the most common of which and their suggested
solutions are illustrated below: solutions are illustrated below:
Air gap max 12mm Air gap max 12mm

Keep beam ends dry and free from Keep beam ends dry and free from
encroachment of fill material by encroachment of fill material by
providing a good air space and providing a good air space and
adequate drainage at the bearing area. adequate drainage at the bearing area.
Maximum gap 12mm. Maximum gap 12mm.
Bridges can be light structures and Bridges can be light structures and
their deadweight may not be sufficient their deadweight may not be sufficient
to hold them in position under vibrating to hold them in position under vibrating
live loads, flooding etc. Bolt or clamp live loads, flooding etc. Bolt or clamp
beams to the abutments if necessary. beams to the abutments if necessary.
The simplest abutment is a bankseat, The simplest abutment is a bankseat,

where the bridge superstructure meets where the bridge superstructure meets
the ground at its natural level on a the ground at its natural level on a
stable area of suitable bearing capacity. stable area of suitable bearing capacity.
In this case, a concrete strip foundation In this case, a concrete strip foundation
will do. Try to avoid steps. will do. Try to avoid steps.
Timber bankseats can be used but Timber bankseats can be used but
these will have a limited life. Timber these will have a limited life. Timber
must be durable or pressure treated. A must be durable or pressure treated. A
tile drain is necessary. tile drain is necessary.
6.4 Section six I Technical Sheets I Abutment Design Options
Abutment Design Options 6.4 Abutment Design Options

Air gap Air gap
Where the bridge deck level is above Where the bridge deck level is above
natural ground level, a mass abutment natural ground level, a mass abutment
can be constructed and the upfilling can be constructed and the upfilling
used to ramp the path allowed to spill used to ramp the path allowed to spill
naturally around it. naturally around it.
On steep slopes it may be On steep slopes it may be

necessary to retain the upfilling for necessary to retain the upfilling for
the path by widening the abutment the path by widening the abutment
or providing wingwalls. or providing wingwalls.
above 6m high
above 6m high
Where high abutments (over 3m) Where high abutments (over 3m)
up to 6m high
up to 6m high
are required, or if poor bearing are required, or if poor bearing
capacity demands a light structure, capacity demands a light structure,
more sophisticated solutions can be Cantilever type Counterfort type
more sophisticated solutions can be Cantilever type Counterfort type
designed in reinforced concrete, designed in reinforced concrete,
or piled foundations can be or piled foundations can be
adopted. In all these cases, the adopted. In all these cases, the
advice of an experienced designer advice of an experienced designer
should be sought. should be sought.
Buried Abutment Piled Foundation Buried Abutment Piled Foundation
Poor Ground Poor Ground Poor Ground Poor Ground
Bearing pressure of soils Bearing pressure of soils

Some examples from BS 8004 Some examples from BS 8004
Substrate Presumed allowable Substrate Presumed allowable

bearing value kN/m2 bearing value kN/m2
Hard rock 10,000 Hard rock 10,000

Strong limestone and strong sandstone 3,000 Strong limestone and strong sandstone 3,000
Dense sand and gravel >600 Dense sand and gravel >600
Loose sand and gravel <200 Loose sand and gravel <200
Stiff boulder clay 300 - 600 Stiff boulder clay 300 - 600
Soft clays and silts <75 Soft clays and silts <75

Typical end bearing details Typical end bearing details
Bridge beams must be: Bridge beams must be:
• Supported - bearing pressure within permissible limits • Supported - bearing pressure within permissible limits
• Held down - holding down bolts required. Bearing must have sufficient • Held down - holding down bolts required. Bearing must have sufficient
weight weight
• Restrained against lateral and longitudinal movement - holding down bolts • Restrained against lateral and longitudinal movement - holding down bolts
required required
Junction of the bridge and the path must be constructed: Junction of the bridge and the path must be constructed:
• by building an end wall retaining fill (as shown) • by building an end wall retaining fill (as shown)
• by constructing a ramp from the deck to the natural ground level • by constructing a ramp from the deck to the natural ground level
• by installing steps. Try to make this approach a last resort to maximise • by installing steps. Try to make this approach a last resort to maximise
accessibility accessibility
Bridge beams Bridge beams
Bearing pad Bearing pad

Holding down bolts Holding down bolts
Original ground level Original ground level
Concrete or masonry end wall Concrete or masonry end wall

Drystone drain Drystone drain
SECTION - ALONG DECK SECTION - ALONG DECK
6.4 Section six I Technical Sheets I Abutment Design Options
Abutment Design Options 6.4 Abutment Design Options

Typical support piers Typical support piers
Separate support piers - Separate support piers -
• Allow circulation of air and keeps bearing dry • Allow circulation of air and keeps bearing dry
• Are not required to retain fill • Are not required to retain fill
• Reduce complication of constructing an end wall as part of the abutment • Reduce complication of constructing an end wall as part of the abutment
1. Timber beam bridges under 10m span fixed at both ends. 1. Timber beam bridges under 10m span fixed at both ends.
For smaller piers use hatched top of section as shown. For smaller piers use hatched top of section as shown.
300 300
300 300
600
600
not greater than 1500

1500
1500
480 50 50 480 50 50
steel fabric steel fabric
reinforcement reinforcement
BS Ref. A252 BS Ref. A252
Weight 3.92kg/m2 Weight 3.92kg/m2
750 750
300
300
Mass Concrete - 1:2:4 mix Mass Concrete - 1:2:4 mix
Max. bearing pressure 115 kN/m2 800 Max. bearing pressure 115 kN/m2 800
Semi Reinforced Concrete - 1:1½:3 mix Semi Reinforced Concrete - 1:1½:3 mix
Max. bearing pressure 132 kN/m2 Max. bearing pressure 132 kN/m2
2. Steel beam bridges under 10m span. Fixed at one end and free to 2. Steel beam bridges under 10m span. Fixed at one end and free to
expand at the other. expand at the other.
300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

less than
less than
500
500
500 to 1000
500 to 1000

1000 to 1500
1000 to 1500
650 650
50 50 50 50
steel fabric steel fabric
reinforcement reinforcement
750 BS Ref. A252 750 BS Ref. A252
Weight Weight
3.92kg/m2 3.92kg/m2
800 800
400
400
Mass Concrete - 1:2:4 mix Mass Concrete - 1:2:4 mix
Max. bearing pressure 112 kN/m2 1000 Max. bearing pressure 112 kN/m2 1000
Semi Reinforced Concrete - 1:1½:3 mix Semi Reinforced Concrete - 1:1½:3 mix
Max. bearing pressure 90 kN/m2 Max. bearing pressure 90 kN/m2
For concrete mixes refer to Technical Sheet 6.5. For concrete mixes refer to Technical Sheet 6.5.

Mass piers and walls - masonry and brick Mass piers and walls - masonry and brick
Mass work can be built solid in stone or engineering-quality Mass work can be built solid in stone or engineering-quality
brick with solid mortar bed and joints, or used as face work to a brick with solid mortar bed and joints, or used as face work to a
mass concrete infill. Care must be taken to make the face work mass concrete infill. Care must be taken to make the face work
strong enough to withstand the pressure of the wet concrete. strong enough to withstand the pressure of the wet concrete.
Floating geogrid construction Floating geogrid construction

Dress sides Concrete bank seat - thickness Dress sides Concrete bank seat - thickness
with topsoil as required with topsoil as required
battered to 150 depth Type 1 or similar top layer battered to 150 depth Type 1 or similar top layer
1/1.5 1/1.5
Woven geotextile sheet Woven geotextile sheet
Plastic geogrid Plastic geogrid
100 down crushed aggregate or 100 down crushed aggregate or
200-100 rock fill for very wet areas 200-100 rock fill for very wet areas
Plastic geogrid Plastic geogrid

Woven geotextile sheet Woven geotextile sheet
Sleeper crib wall Sleeper crib wall
Wall can be set vertically Wall can be set vertically

if 3 sleepers or less high. if 3 sleepers or less high.
Suitable rock For sandy soils lay Drive 12mm dia steel Angle back into slope up Suitable rock For sandy soils lay Drive 12mm dia steel Angle back into slope up
to support end geogrid behind wall re-bar pins through rail to 45° for higher walls and to support end geogrid behind wall re-bar pins through rail to 45° for higher walls and
sleepers as to retain soil while clamp holes and into place ties into retained sleepers as to retain soil while clamp holes and into place ties into retained
required vegetation establishes ground to refusal soil if required - seek required vegetation establishes ground to refusal soil if required - seek
engineering advice engineering advice
Sleeper arrangement can be varied to suit different situations. For example, outer sleepers can be Sleeper arrangement can be varied to suit different situations. For example, outer sleepers can be
angled back into wingwalls. angled back into wingwalls.
Typical simple concrete bankseat with integral Typical simple concrete bankseat with integral
end wall end wall
These dimensions are equal. Width to be bridge deck plus These dimensions are equal. Width to be bridge deck plus
Match to level of bridge deck. 500mm min. Increase to Match to level of bridge deck. 500mm min. Increase to
Bearing detail ensure path verges Bearing detail ensure path verges
as required are adequately retained as required are adequately retained
Path Vary to required Path Vary to required
as required. as required.
level. Min 150mm level. Min 150mm
Can be shuttered and poured Can be shuttered and poured
as one complete unit or in as one complete unit or in
two parts - pad and end wall. two parts - pad and end wall.
Sub-soil Sub-soil
If end wall retains more than If end wall retains more than
300mm depth of sub-soil, 300mm depth of sub-soil,
include drainage gravel layer include drainage gravel layer
and weep holes. and weep holes.
C30 (4:2:1) Damp proof 100mm road mesh reinforcement C30 (4:2:1) Damp proof 100mm road mesh reinforcement
Concrete membrane with minimum 30mm cover Concrete membrane with minimum 30mm cover
6.4 Abutment Design Options 6.4 Abutment Design Options
Typical mass concrete abutment and wingwalls Typical mass concrete abutment and wingwalls

retaining granular fill retaining granular fill
Experienced joiners and concrete Experienced joiners and concrete

workers are required. workers are required.
For heights of 3m and above or For heights of 3m and above or
where foundation conditions are where foundation conditions are
doubtful engineering advice should doubtful engineering advice should
be sought. be sought.
Concrete: Concrete:
1:2:4 mix (21N/mm2) using up to 1:2:4 mix (21N/mm2) using up to
40mm aggregate. 40mm aggregate.
Bearing area should be drained. Bearing area should be drained.
A drainage layer should be formed A drainage layer should be formed
behind the wall with single size stone behind the wall with single size stone
and water released through and water released through
weepholes and at the weepholes and at the
ends of the walls. ends of the walls.
225
225
225
225
225
225
Wingwalls may be: Wingwalls may be:
• as shown • as shown
batter batter
• inclined to the line 1:8 • inclined to the line 1:8
• of the abutment • of the abutment
batter batter
1:8 1:8
• parallel to the path 1200
• parallel to the path
1200
Fill should be spread Fill should be spread
300
300
and comparted in thin and comparted in thin
z varies z varies
(150mm to 225mm) TYPICAL ELEVATION - WITH WINGWALLS x y (150mm to 225mm) TYPICAL ELEVATION - WITH WINGWALLS x y
layers. Soft clays, x y x.x y.y layers. Soft clays, x y x.x y.y
peats etc. should not CROSS-SECTIONS peats etc. should not CROSS-SECTIONS
be used for filling. be used for filling.
Concrete facework Concrete facework
can be straight from can be straight from
the shutter. Alternatively, z the shutter. Alternatively, z
it can be bush-hammered PLAN x y it can be bush-hammered PLAN x y
width to suit width to suit
or point tooled to provide bridge or point tooled to provide bridge
300
200
400
300
400
300
200
400
300
400
a variety of finishes. The a variety of finishes. The
original concrete face original concrete face
must be sound and free must be sound and free
varies
varies
drainage drainage
varies
varies
from blemishes and a from blemishes and a
1500 max
1500 max
channel channel
batter batter
hard stable aggregate 1:8 batter
hard stable aggregate 1:8 batter
must be used if this is must be used if this is
3000 max
3000 max
1:8 1:8
varies
varies
150 150
to be successful. to be successful.
706 706
Concrete facework Concrete facework
1500
1500
906 906
may also be painted. may also be painted.
max. bearing pressure max. bearing pressure
300
300
1175 300 170kN/m2 1175 300 170kN/m2
1475 1475
max. bearing pressure 239 kN/m 2 SIMPLE SECTION FOR max. bearing pressure 239 kN/m2 SIMPLE SECTION FOR
CROSS-SECTION Z-Z SHALLOW ABUTMENTS CROSS-SECTION Z-Z SHALLOW ABUTMENTS
Using Concrete 6.5 Using Concrete 6.5
Section six I Technical Sheets I Using Concrete

Concrete is usually made from the following components: Concrete is usually made from the following components:
• Sharp gritty sand usually termed concreting sand (fine aggregate) • Sharp gritty sand usually termed concreting sand (fine aggregate)
• Gravel (coarse aggregate) • Gravel (coarse aggregate)
• Portland cement • Portland cement
• Water • Water
Ratio of I part cement: 2½ parts sand: 4 parts gravel by volume. Ratio of I part cement: 2½ parts sand: 4 parts gravel by volume.
Sea sand and sea water must never be used. Small quantities of concrete Sea sand and sea water must never be used. Small quantities of concrete
can be mixed by hand or machine. can be mixed by hand or machine.
Machine mixing Machine mixing

Load half the gravel and half the water first; then all the sand; allow a Load half the gravel and half the water first; then all the sand; allow a
thorough mix; then add the cement, and the remainder of the gravel. Mix thorough mix; then add the cement, and the remainder of the gravel. Mix
and add enough water to make a workable mix. Mixing should continue for and add enough water to make a workable mix. Mixing should continue for
at least two minutes after adding the cement. The proportion of water is at least two minutes after adding the cement. The proportion of water is
important. Too little means that the concrete will not set properly; too much important. Too little means that the concrete will not set properly; too much
weakens the concrete and shortens its life. Half a bucket of water per bucket weakens the concrete and shortens its life. Half a bucket of water per bucket
of cement is a good guide. The concrete mix should be like very stiff porridge. of cement is a good guide. The concrete mix should be like very stiff porridge.
Hand mixing Hand mixing

Use the sequence illustrated here Use the sequence illustrated here
- pile up sand, then aggregate, then - pile up sand, then aggregate, then
cement, mix thoroughly, form a cement, mix thoroughly, form a
hollow and add water. Mix to correct hollow and add water. Mix to correct
consistency. A good rule is to turn consistency. A good rule is to turn
the batch three times dry and three the batch three times dry and three
times wet or until an even colour times wet or until an even colour
is achieved. is achieved.
6.5 Section six I Technical Sheets I Using Concrete
Using Concrete 6.5 Using Concrete

Laying and compacting Laying and compacting
Concrete is best compacted by means of a vibrating poker which encourages Concrete is best compacted by means of a vibrating poker which encourages
settlement and expels air bubbles from the mix. It should be laid in layers. settlement and expels air bubbles from the mix. It should be laid in layers.
Each layer should be vibrated at about 450mm centres until no more air Each layer should be vibrated at about 450mm centres until no more air
bubbles rise to the surface. If no vibrator is available concrete can be bubbles rise to the surface. If no vibrator is available concrete can be
consolidated by podging with metal bars and tramping in by people wearing consolidated by podging with metal bars and tramping in by people wearing
wellington boots. In this case, the concrete must be placed in thin layers. The wellington boots. In this case, the concrete must be placed in thin layers. The
concrete next to any shuttered face requires particular attention if it is not to concrete next to any shuttered face requires particular attention if it is not to
remain honeycombed. The top surface of concrete should be tamped with remain honeycombed. The top surface of concrete should be tamped with
the edge of a board and then trowelled smooth with a wooden trowel. the edge of a board and then trowelled smooth with a wooden trowel.
Over-trowelling must be avoided. It causes a cement-rich layer to form on the Over-trowelling must be avoided. It causes a cement-rich layer to form on the
surface which will quickly deteriorate and spall off during frosty weather. surface which will quickly deteriorate and spall off during frosty weather.
Concrete will take at least three days to set completely and seven to develop Concrete will take at least three days to set completely and seven to develop
its full strength. Strike or loosen any shuttering after one day and remove its full strength. Strike or loosen any shuttering after one day and remove
after three. Prevent exposed surfaces from frost damage or drying out too after three. Prevent exposed surfaces from frost damage or drying out too
quickly with polythene sheeting and keep wet in dry weather. quickly with polythene sheeting and keep wet in dry weather.
Specifying Timber Decking 6.6 Specifying Timber Decking 6.6
Section six I Technical Sheets I Specifying Timber Decking

The table overleaf shows the timber sections that are required to construct The table overleaf shows the timber sections that are required to construct
safe decks for a variety of bridge widths and user types using different safe decks for a variety of bridge widths and user types using different
timbers. For all tables refer to the diagram below and the associated key. timbers. For all tables refer to the diagram below and the associated key.
KEY C S C KEY C S C
Deckboards t Deckboards t
Span = S or a+2t, b
deckboard d
Span = S or a+2t, b
deckboard d
whichever is the shorter nailing whichever is the shorter nailing
strip strip
Cantilever =C Cantilever =C
w a w w a w
Width =b Width =b
Thickness =t Thickness =t
Bearers Bearers
Width =w Width =w
Depth =d Depth =d
All dimensions given in mm All dimensions given in mm
6.6 Section six I Technical Sheets I Specifying Timber Decking
Specifying Timber Decking 6.6 Specifying Timber Decking
The table below gives the maximum span and cantilever for a variety of

The table below gives the maximum span and cantilever for a variety of
deckboard sections, timber strength classes and user groups. deckboard sections, timber strength classes and user groups.
Pedestrians * Livestock, horses Pedestrians * Livestock, horses

and cyclists and ATVs and cyclists and ATVs
Strength Strength
Class C16 C24 D50 C16 C24 D50 Class C16 C24 D50 C16 C24 D50
Size t x b Size t x b
Span Cant Span Cant Span Cant Span Cant Span Cant Span Cant Span Cant Span Cant Span Cant Span Cant Span Cant Span Cant
mm mm
36 x 100 - - - - 750 200 - - - - - - 36 x 100 - - - - 750 200 - - - - - -
36 x 125 - - - - 925 250 - - - - - - 36 x 125 - - - - 925 250 - - - - - -
36 x 150 - - - - 1100 300 - - - - - - 36 x 150 - - - - 1100 300 - - - - - -
50 x 100 500 150 700 200 1400 350 - - - - - - 50 x 100 500 150 700 200 1400 350 - - - - - -
50 x 125 625 175 850 230 1500 450 - - - - - - 50 x 125 625 175 850 230 1500 450 - - - - - -
50 x 150 725 200 1000 270 1575 525 300 100 360 130 570 185 50 x 150 725 200 1000 270 1575 525 300 100 360 130 570 185
75 x 100 1050 300 1450 400 2050 890 - - - - - - 75 x 100 1050 300 1450 400 2050 890 - - - - - -
75 x 125 1300 350 1800 475 2225 960 420 150 520 175 900 270 75 x 125 1300 350 1800 475 2225 960 420 150 520 175 900 270
75 x 150 1550 400 2000 550 2350 1000 470 160 590 190 1060 300 75 x 150 1550 400 2000 550 2350 1000 470 160 590 190 1060 300
75 x 200 1900 525 2200 725 2600 1125 560 185 730 225 1350 380 75 x 200 1900 525 2200 725 2600 1125 560 185 730 225 1350 380
100 x 150 2275 700 2675 950 - - 700 220 960 270 - - 100 x 150 2275 700 2675 950 - - 700 220 960 270 - -
100 x 200 2500 900 2950 1275 - - 875 260 1160 330 - - 100 x 200 2500 900 2950 1275 - - 875 260 1160 330 - -
For an explanation of timber strength classes See Section 4.6.1 For an explanation of timber strength classes See Section 4.6.1
* includes Pedestrian Normal and Pedestrian Crowd * includes Pedestrian Normal and Pedestrian Crowd
Pedestrian Normal Pedestrian Normal Pedestrian Crowd Horses ATV
2 Beam 3 Beam 3 Beam 3 Beam 5 Beam 5 Beam
Effective 1m deck 1.2m deck 1.2m deck 1.5m deck 1.2m deck 1.5m deck 1.8m deck 1.8m deck 1.8m deck
Span (m) 0.7m crs 0.9m crs 0.45m crs 0.7m crs 0.45m crs 0.7m crs 0.8m crs 0.45m crs 0.45m crs
3 150 x 75 250 x 100 150 x 75 200 x 75 200 x 100 200 x 75 250 x 100 200 x 75 250 x 150
4 200 x 100 250 x 100 200 x 100 200 x 100 200 x 100 250 x 100 250 x 100 250 x 100 250 x 150
5 250 x 150 250 x 150 250 x 150 250 x 150 250 x 150 250 x 150 300 x 225 250 x 150 300 x 225
Specifying Beams
6 250 x 150 300 x 225 250 x 150 300 x 225 250 x 150 300 x 225 300 x 225 300 x 225 300 x 225
7 250 x 150 300 x 225 250 x 150 300 x 225 250 x 150 300 x 225 350 x 250 300 x 225 300 x 225
8 300 x 225 350 x 250 300 x 225 300 x 225 300 x 225 300 x 225 - 300 x 225 350 x 250
9 300 x 225 350 x 250 300 x 225 350 x 250 300 x 225 350 x 250 - 350 x 250 350 x 250
Sawn timber beams (strength class C24)
beam dimensions shown as depth x width
Produced by the Paths for All Partnership with support from Scottish Natural Heritage and Forestry Civil Engineering
Path Bridges - planning design construction and maintenance
Section six I Technical Sheets I Specifying Beams
6.7
November 2006
3 150 x 75 250 x 100 150 x 75 200 x 75 200 x 100 200 x 75 250 x 100 200 x 75 250 x 150
4 200 x 100 250 x 100 200 x 100 200 x 100 200 x 100 250 x 100 250 x 100 250 x 100 250 x 150
5 250 x 150 250 x 150 250 x 150 250 x 150 250 x 150 250 x 150 300 x 225 250 x 150 300 x 225
Specifying Beams
6 250 x 150 300 x 225 250 x 150 300 x 225 250 x 150 300 x 225 300 x 225 300 x 225 300 x 225
7 250 x 150 300 x 225 250 x 150 300 x 225 250 x 150 300 x 225 350 x 250 300 x 225 300 x 225
8 300 x 225 350 x 250 300 x 225 300 x 225 300 x 225 300 x 225 - 300 x 225 350 x 250
9 300 x 225 350 x 250 300 x 225 350 x 250 300 x 225 350 x 250 - 350 x 250 350 x 250
Sawn timber beams (strength class C24)
beam dimensions shown as depth x width


6.7
November 2006
6.7
November 2006
152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89

3 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17
152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89
4
x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17
Mild steel beams
152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133
5
x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 25 x 25 x 25
152 x 89 203 x 133 152 x 89 203 x 133 152 x 89 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133
6
x 17 x 25 x 17 x 25 x 17 x 25 x 30 x 25 x 25
152 x 89 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 254 x 146 203 x 133 203 x 133
7

x 17 x 25 x 25 x 25 x 25 x 25 x 37 x 30 x 25
Specifying Beams
203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 254 x 146 203 x 133 203 x 133
8
x 25 x 25 x 25 x 30 x 25 x 30 x 37 x 30 x 30
254 x 146 254 x 146 203 x 133 254 x 146 203 x 133 254 x 146 305 x 165 254 x 146 254 x 146
9 x 30 x 30 x 30 x 30 x 30 x 30 x 40 x 37 x 37
N.B. when specifying steel the figures give dimensions and mass.
For example 152 x 89 x 17

(depth in mm) x (width in mm) x (kg/m of beam)
6.7
November 2006
152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89

3 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17
152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89
4
x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17
Mild steel beams
152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 152 x 89 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133
5
x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 25 x 25 x 25
152 x 89 203 x 133 152 x 89 203 x 133 152 x 89 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133
6
x 17 x 25 x 17 x 25 x 17 x 25 x 30 x 25 x 25
152 x 89 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 254 x 146 203 x 133 203 x 133
7
x 17 x 25 x 25 x 25 x 25 x 25 x 37 x 30 x 25
Specifying Beams
203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 203 x 133 254 x 146 203 x 133 203 x 133
8
x 25 x 25 x 25 x 30 x 25 x 30 x 37 x 30 x 30
254 x 146 254 x 146 203 x 133 254 x 146 203 x 133 254 x 146 305 x 165 254 x 146 254 x 146
9 x 30 x 30 x 30 x 30 x 30 x 30 x 40 x 37 x 37
N.B. when specifying steel the figures give dimensions and mass.
For example 152 x 89 x 17

(depth in mm) x (width in mm) x (kg/m of beam)
Handrail Specification and Handrail Specification and
Fixing Details 6.8 Fixing Details 6.8
Section six I Technical Sheets I Handrail Specification and Fixing Details

Calculating handrail dimensions d Calculating handrail dimensions d
The tables below allow sizes for suitable b b The tables below allow sizes for suitable b b
1000
1000
handrails and supporting posts to be handrails and supporting posts to be
calculated for a variety of situations. calculated for a variety of situations.
100 100
An accompanying table giving suggested Spacing An accompanying table giving suggested Spacing
CL of bolt CL of bolt
handrail heights is overleaf. handrail heights is overleaf.
Post dimensions and maximum spacing for handrails (mm) Post dimensions and maximum spacing for handrails (mm)
Post size (mm) Loading Height (m) Spacings Post size (mm) Loading Height (m) Spacings
(b x d) C16 C24 D50 (b x d) C16 C24 D50
75 x 75 Normal 1.0 550 800 1700 75 x 75 Normal 1.0 550 800 1700
Crowd 1.0 300 400 900 Crowd 1.0 300 400 900
Livestock 1.25 0 400 850 Livestock 1.25 0 400 850
Cycles 1.4 0 400 850 Cycles 1.4 0 400 850
Horse & Rider 1.6 0 0 500 Horse & Rider 1.6 0 0 500
75 x 100 Normal 1.0 1000 1400 2000 75 x 100 Normal 1.0 1000 1400 2000
Crowd 1.0 525 750 1600 Crowd 1.0 525 750 1600
Cycles 1.4 500 700 1500 Cycles 1.4 500 700 1500
75 x 125 Normal 1.0 1575 2000 2000 75 x 125 Normal 1.0 1575 2000 2000
Crowd 1.0 825 1175 2000 Crowd 1.0 825 1175 2000
Cycles 1.4 800 1125 2000 Cycles 1.4 800 1125 2000
75 x 150 Normal 1.0 2000 2000 2000 75 x 150 Normal 1.0 2000 2000 2000
Crowd 1.0 1200 1700 2000 Crowd 1.0 1200 1700 2000
Cycles 1.4 1125 1625 2000 Cycles 1.4 1125 1625 2000
100 x 100 Normal 1.0 1350 2000 2000 100 x 100 Normal 1.0 1350 2000 2000
Crowd 1.0 700 1000 2000 Crowd 1.0 700 1000 2000
Cycles 1.4 675 950 2000 Cycles 1.4 675 950 2000
100 x 125 Normal 1.0 2000 2000 2000 100 x 125 Normal 1.0 2000 2000 2000
Crowd 1.0 1100 1575 2000 Crowd 1.0 1100 1575 2000
Cycles 1.4 1000 1500 2000 Cycles 1.4 1000 1500 2000
100 x 150 Normal 1.0 2000 2000 2000 100 x 150 Normal 1.0 2000 2000 2000
Crowd 1.0 1600 2000 2000 Crowd 1.0 1600 2000 2000
Cycles 1.4 1525 2000 2000 Cycles 1.4 1525 2000 2000
6.8 Section six I Technical Sheets I Handrail Specification and Fixing Details
Fixing Details 6.8 Fixing Details

Suggested handrail heights above deck Suggested handrail heights above deck
1.0m Normal and Crowd Loading for deck heights up to 3m and 1.0m Normal and Crowd Loading for deck heights up to 3m and
dismounted cycles. dismounted cycles.
1.25m Livestock, cycles for deck heights up to 5m and dismounted 1.25m Livestock, cycles for deck heights up to 5m and dismounted
horses (with low risk). horses (with low risk).
1.4m Cycles over roads, dismounted horses (high risk) and deck height 1.4m Cycles over roads, dismounted horses (high risk) and deck height
over 5m. over 5m.
1.6m Mounted horses (low risk). 1.6m Mounted horses (low risk).
1.8m Mounted horses (high risk). Not covered in this guide. 1.8m Mounted horses (high risk). Not covered in this guide.
Maximum spans for rails and vertical infill (mm) Maximum spans for rails and vertical infill (mm)
RAIL Size (mm) C16 C24 D50 RAIL Size (mm) C16 C24 D50
Horizontal 75 x 50 1150 1370 2000 Horizontal 75 x 50 1150 1370 2000
(Intermediate) (Intermediate)
100 x 50 1330 1580 2310 100 x 50 1330 1580 2310
Rail Rail
150 x 50 1630 1940 2830 150 x 50 1630 1940 2830
Top Rail 30 x 100 1460 1750 2530 Top Rail 30 x 100 1460 1750 2530
30 x 150 2190 2600 3800 30 x 150 2190 2600 3800
Vertical Infill 35 x 35 - - 770 Vertical Infill 35 x 35 - - 770
40 x 40 440 570 1080 40 x 40 440 570 1080
50 x 50 750 1000 2000 50 x 50 750 1000 2000
b b
Also note that: top rail d Also note that: top rail d
(arrangement (arrangement
• all rails designed for crowd loading provides extra d • all rails designed for crowd loading provides extra d
• for horses maximum span is stiffness) • for horses maximum span is stiffness)
always 1250mm b always 1250mm b
• horse parapet as BHS • horse parapet as BHS

recommendations with top rail at recommendations with top rail at
1250 and 1600mm. Use horizontal 1250 and 1600mm. Use horizontal
rails rather than vertical infill and a rails rather than vertical infill and a
kickboard of minimum height 250mm. kickboard of minimum height 250mm.
horizontal rails horizontal rails
d d
Fixing Details 6.8 Fixing Details 6.8

Fixing details (all dimensions in mm) Fixing details (all dimensions in mm)
C. L. 41 C. L. 41
Fixed to face of post Fixed to face of post
Galvanised steel countersunk screws to Top Rail Galvanised steel countersunk screws to Top Rail
be No. 12 (5.6 dia) penetrating the post be No. 12 (5.6 dia) penetrating the post
50
50
not less than 41mm. not less than 41mm.
30 70
30 70
Predrilled holes. Predrilled holes.
Fixing at half-checked splice shown. Fixing at half-checked splice shown.

Fixing for continuous rail is similar. Fixing for continuous rail is similar.
Mid Rail Mid Rail
30 40 30
30 40 30
Spliced joint Spliced joint
Only one rail to be spliced at any Elevation Section Only one rail to be spliced at any Elevation Section
one post. one post.
Treat all cut edges with preservative Treat all cut edges with preservative
if the wood is treated if the wood is treated
Plan 60 60 Half check splice Plan 60 60 Half check splice
Half check joints not located at a post 120 Half check joints not located at a post 120
seriously weaken the horizontal seriously weaken the horizontal
strength of the handrail. strength of the handrail.
Top rail over post 40 40 30 30 Top rail over post 40 40 30 30

76 x 64 x6.2mm galvanised steel angles 76 x 64 x6.2mm galvanised steel angles
drilled and countersunk for screws. drilled and countersunk for screws.
Screws No 12 x 50 long for normal Screws No 12 x 50 long for normal
56
56
loading or No 16 x 63 for crowd loading. loading or No 16 x 63 for crowd loading.
Pre-drilled holes. Pre-drilled holes.
Mid rail Mid rail

Half checked into post. Fixed with 2 No. Half checked into post. Fixed with 2 No.
30
30
12 screws penetrating the post not less 12 screws penetrating the post not less
than 41mm. than 41mm.
30
30
Elevation Section Elevation Section
Butt joint Butt joint

Top rail over the post. Top rail over the post.
Cut ends treated with preservative, if Cut ends treated with preservative, if
the wood is treated. the wood is treated.
Plan Plan
C. L. C. L.
Nuts, Bolts and Other Connectors 6.9 Nuts, Bolts and Other Connectors 6.9
Section six I Technical Sheets I Nuts, Bolts and Other Connectors

Nails Nails
Nails are commonly used for attaching deck boards to beams or deck bearers. Nails are commonly used for attaching deck boards to beams or deck bearers.
They can be used to attach handrails to posts but this is less effective than They can be used to attach handrails to posts but this is less effective than
using screws. Nail guns are now available, making for rapid construction with using screws. Nail guns are now available, making for rapid construction with
minimal disturbance of the pieces being joined. The nails are stronger and minimal disturbance of the pieces being joined. The nails are stronger and
slimmer and their use is very accurate. Smooth and ridged nails are available. slimmer and their use is very accurate. Smooth and ridged nails are available.
Nail guns require training for their safe use. Nail guns require training for their safe use.
With larger nails, a predrilled hole of 0.6-0.8 times the With larger nails, a predrilled hole of 0.6-0.8 times the
diameter of the nail and 0.9 of its length is required to diameter of the nail and 0.9 of its length is required to
prevent timber splitting. With smaller nails hammer a flat prevent timber splitting. With smaller nails hammer a flat
onto the nail point and it will chisel its way into the wood onto the nail point and it will chisel its way into the wood
without splitting it. without splitting it.
• Always use galvanised nails to reduce corrosion • Always use galvanised nails to reduce corrosion
• Remember that it is very difficult to remove a nail once it is hammered in • Remember that it is very difficult to remove a nail once it is hammered in
• If you need to remove a section for maintenance then use a screw or bolt • If you need to remove a section for maintenance then use a screw or bolt
The chart below will help in choosing the right gauge of nail for the job in hand. The chart below will help in choosing the right gauge of nail for the job in hand.
Remember that: Remember that:
• When working with softwoods over half of the nail length should penetrate • When working with softwoods over half of the nail length should penetrate
the main member of a joint the main member of a joint
• In hardwoods a minimum of 2/5 of the length should be in the main member • In hardwoods a minimum of 2/5 of the length should be in the main member
The table allows the correct gauge to be chosen once the length has been The table allows the correct gauge to be chosen once the length has been
determined. determined.
Standard Wire Gauge (diameter in mm) Standard Wire Gauge (diameter in mm)
Nail Nail
Length (mm) 12 (2.65) 11 (3.0) 10 (3.35) 9 (3.75) 8 (4.0) 7 (4.5) 6 (5.0) 5 (5.6) 4 (6.0) Length (mm) 12 (2.65) 11 (3.0) 10 (3.35) 9 (3.75) 8 (4.0) 7 (4.5) 6 (5.0) 5 (5.6) 4 (6.0)
50 - - - - - - 50 - - - - - -
75 - - - - - - 75 - - - - - -
100 - - - - - - 100 - - - - - -
125 - - - - - - - 125 - - - - - - -
150 - - - - - - - 150 - - - - - - -
To take its full design load the Minimum spacing and edge distances To take its full design load the Minimum spacing and edge distances
penetration of the nail should penetration of the nail should
5d 5d 5d 5d
be in accordance with Table 3d be in accordance with Table 3d
10d 10d
57 of BS 5268 and should 5d 57 of BS 5268 and should 5d
5d 5d
comply with the minimum comply with the minimum
10d 10d 10d 10d
spacing and edge distances 20d 20d spacing and edge distances 20d 20d
shown right. Without predrilling With predrilling shown right. Without predrilling With predrilling
Predrilled holes should not be greater than 0.8 times the diameter of the nail. Predrilled holes should not be greater than 0.8 times the diameter of the nail.
6.9 Section six I Technical Sheets I Nuts, Bolts and Other Connectors
Nuts, Bolts and Other Connectors 6.9 Nuts, Bolts and Other Connectors

Screws Screws
The technology of screws has shown huge developments and the materials The technology of screws has shown huge developments and the materials
and coatings from which they are now made give them an extremely and coatings from which they are now made give them an extremely
wide application – even if choice can be bewildering. Always refer to the wide application – even if choice can be bewildering. Always refer to the
manufacturers’ specifications. manufacturers’ specifications.
Many screws now cut their own thread without the need for pre-drilling and Many screws now cut their own thread without the need for pre-drilling and
can be easily driven with battery operated screwdrivers. Steel is strong but can be easily driven with battery operated screwdrivers. Steel is strong but
it must be galvanised or sheradised (nickel plated) to prevent them from it must be galvanised or sheradised (nickel plated) to prevent them from
corroding. Brass screws do not corrode and so are better for marine or very corroding. Brass screws do not corrode and so are better for marine or very
wet environments. They are essential for oak as steel will cause black stains wet environments. They are essential for oak as steel will cause black stains
in the wood. in the wood.
Drill pilot holes (if required) of 0.4-0.6 times the diameter Drill pilot holes (if required) of 0.4-0.6 times the diameter
of the screw and 0.9 the length. The drilling size is usually of the screw and 0.9 the length. The drilling size is usually
given on the box the screws are supplied in. given on the box the screws are supplied in.
You can calculate the correct length and gauge of screw for a job using You can calculate the correct length and gauge of screw for a job using
the table below. To do this you need to know the standard penetration of a the table below. To do this you need to know the standard penetration of a
given screw, that is, the depth to which a screw must be driven into the main given screw, that is, the depth to which a screw must be driven into the main
member to give sufficient strength to a joint. member to give sufficient strength to a joint.
Length of screw thickness of piece standard Length of screw thickness of piece standard
required = being attached to
main member
+ penetration required = being attached to
main member
+ penetration
Screw Gauge (diameter in mm) Screw Gauge (diameter in mm)

Screw length Screw length
(mm) 10 (4.9) 12 (5.6) 14 (6.3) 16 (5.0) 18 (7.7) 20 (8.4) (mm) 10 (4.9) 12 (5.6) 14 (6.3) 16 (5.0) 18 (7.7) 20 (8.4)
50 ✓ ✓ ✓ - - - 50 ✓ ✓ ✓ - - -
60 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ - - 60 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ - -
75 - ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 75 - ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
89 - ✓ ✓ ✓ - - 89 - ✓ ✓ ✓ - -
100 - ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 100 - ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Standard Standard
Penetration (mm) 34 39 44 49 54 59 Penetration (mm) 34 39 44 49 54 59
Nuts, Bolts and Other Connectors 6.9 Nuts, Bolts and Other Connectors 6.9
Predrilling - the hole for the shank should Minimum spacing and edge distances Predrilling - the hole for the shank should Minimum spacing and edge distances

be equal to the shank diameter and the be equal to the shank diameter and the
hole for the threaded portion should be 0.4 5d hole for the threaded portion should be 0.4 5d
to 0.6 times the diameter at the root of the 3d to 0.6 times the diameter at the root of the 3d
5d 5d
thread adjacent to the shank depending on thread adjacent to the shank depending on
the density of the timber - see Clause 42.1 10d 10d the density of the timber - see Clause 42.1 10d 10d
of BS 5268. The hole should be drilled to of BS 5268. The hole should be drilled to
0.9 of the total screw length. 0.9 of the total screw length.
To reduce friction (and arm ache) screws should be To reduce friction (and arm ache) screws should be
dipped in linseed oil before driving. dipped in linseed oil before driving.
Coach screws Coach screws

All coach screws should be galvanised or sheradised (nickel plated). Some All coach screws should be galvanised or sheradised (nickel plated). Some
common sizes of square head coach screws are given below: common sizes of square head coach screws are given below:
Diameter (mm) Diameter (mm)

Length (mm) 6.5 8.0 10.0 12.0 Length (mm) 6.5 8.0 10.0 12.0
75 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 75 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
100 - ✓ ✓ - 100 - ✓ ✓ -
125 - - ✓ - 125 - - ✓ -
150 - ✓ ✓ ✓ 150 - ✓ ✓ ✓
Longer lengths and larger diameters can be obtained to order. Spacing and Longer lengths and larger diameters can be obtained to order. Spacing and
predrilling are as for wood screws. predrilling are as for wood screws.
Bolts Bolts
Bolt holes in timber structures tend to rot much faster then other parts. This is Bolt holes in timber structures tend to rot much faster then other parts. This is
usually due to water getting into the hole and not getting out. Careful sealing usually due to water getting into the hole and not getting out. Careful sealing
of bolt holes in timber sections is therefore essential - use silicon sealant. of bolt holes in timber sections is therefore essential - use silicon sealant.
Specify large flat washers under bolt and nut heads to spread out stresses Specify large flat washers under bolt and nut heads to spread out stresses
and prevent localised crushing of timber. and prevent localised crushing of timber.
Holes for bolts should be slightly oversized to take account of manufacturing Holes for bolts should be slightly oversized to take account of manufacturing
tolerances. About 1-1.6mm oversize is generally fine, depending on the size tolerances. About 1-1.6mm oversize is generally fine, depending on the size
of the bolt. Any more will affect the strength of the joint. of the bolt. Any more will affect the strength of the joint.
6.9 Nuts, Bolts and Other Connectors 6.9 Nuts, Bolts and Other Connectors
Drilling holes on site will make lining up of holes easier, but a site-drilled Drilling holes on site will make lining up of holes easier, but a site-drilled

hole cannot be pressure treated (or galvanised on a steel structure) and rot hole cannot be pressure treated (or galvanised on a steel structure) and rot
or rust will be a problem. Using predrilled slots instead of holes can make or rust will be a problem. Using predrilled slots instead of holes can make
site construction easier as a little room for movement (or error) is introduced site construction easier as a little room for movement (or error) is introduced
when fixing members together. when fixing members together.
Coat threads of bolts with copper grease to prevent them Coat threads of bolts with copper grease to prevent them
rusting solid. This will greatly assist future maintenance if rusting solid. This will greatly assist future maintenance if
sections of the bridge need to be unbolted. sections of the bridge need to be unbolted.
Stainless steel nuts and bolts are the best option but will usually need to be Stainless steel nuts and bolts are the best option but will usually need to be
specially ordered. Zinc plated bolts are most usually used. Plated black bolts specially ordered. Zinc plated bolts are most usually used. Plated black bolts
will only resist rusting for around 5 years and untreated black bolts should be will only resist rusting for around 5 years and untreated black bolts should be
avoided. These days nearly all bolts will be metric and various diameters and avoided. These days nearly all bolts will be metric and various diameters and
lengths are available. Bolts are specified as M (for metric) followed by the lengths are available. Bolts are specified as M (for metric) followed by the
diameter in millimetres. So M12 is a metric, 12mm diameter bolt. diameter in millimetres. So M12 is a metric, 12mm diameter bolt.
Choosing the right bolt for the job Choosing the right bolt for the job
As a useful ‘rule of thumb’ the length of bolt ordered must allow for the As a useful ‘rule of thumb’ the length of bolt ordered must allow for the
thickness of the timbers jointed thickness of the timbers jointed
plus a washer under both head and Washer
plus a washer under both head and Washer
nut and the thickness of the nut nut and the thickness of the nut
Bolt Nut Size of Minimum Bolt Nut Size of Minimum
with at least 5mm protruding. For diameter thickness square or thickness with at least 5mm protruding. For diameter thickness square or thickness
complex situations bolt sizes are an (mm) (mm) diameter (mm) complex situations bolt sizes are an (mm) (mm) diameter (mm)
engineering calculation. (mm) engineering calculation. (mm)
10 8.5 50 3 10 8.5 50 3
As a general guide M10 joins 12 10.5 50 3 As a general guide M10 joins 12 10.5 50 3
rails to posts, M16 joins nailing rails to posts, M16 joins nailing
16 13.5 65 5 16 13.5 65 5
strips to steel beams and M20 strips to steel beams and M20
would be used to join a handrail 20 16.5 65 5 would be used to join a handrail 20 16.5 65 5
post to a transom. 24 19.7 76 6 post to a transom. 24 19.7 76 6
Washers Washers
Washers used for joining timber tend to be larger that those for fastening Washers used for joining timber tend to be larger that those for fastening
metal elements together to resist the greater potential of wood to be crushed. metal elements together to resist the greater potential of wood to be crushed.
Washers should have a nominal diameter of at least three times and a Washers should have a nominal diameter of at least three times and a
thickness of at least 0.25 times the bolt diameter - see BS 5268 Part 2: 1984 thickness of at least 0.25 times the bolt diameter - see BS 5268 Part 2: 1984
Clause 43.1. Clause 43.1.
Pre-drilling - Holes for bolts should be drilled not more than 1.6mm larger Pre-drilling - Holes for bolts should be drilled not more than 1.6mm larger
than the bolt diameter. than the bolt diameter.
Visual Timber Stress Grading 6.10 Visual Timber Stress Grading 6.10
Section six I Technical Sheets I Visual Timber Stress Grading

The following FCE specification can be used to identify suitable pieces of The following FCE specification can be used to identify suitable pieces of
home grown softwood timber which have not been machine graded or visually home grown softwood timber which have not been machine graded or visually
stress graded to BS 4978. This identification technique is ultimately a short stress graded to BS 4978. This identification technique is ultimately a short
cut visual grading which is relevant for timbers used for path bridge decks, but cut visual grading which is relevant for timbers used for path bridge decks, but
not for structural members. not for structural members.
The information contained in this sheet should only be The information contained in this sheet should only be
used by people experienced in assessing timber. used by people experienced in assessing timber.
Permitted timber species Permitted timber species

Species Grade Species Grade
Pine GS Pine GS
Larch GS Larch GS
Douglas Fir GS Douglas Fir GS
Rate of growth Rate of growth

Average width of annual rings no greater than 4mm. Average width of annual rings no greater than 4mm.
Fissures Fissures
(Resin pockets and bark pockets) (Resin pockets and bark pockets)
Codes permit up to ½ way through the thickness anywhere and all the Codes permit up to ½ way through the thickness anywhere and all the
way through for a restricted length. This specification takes a conservative way through for a restricted length. This specification takes a conservative
approach and allows only up to 25mm deep splits for a 500mm length. approach and allows only up to 25mm deep splits for a 500mm length.
Slope of grain Slope of grain

Not steeper than a gradient of 1 in 6. Not steeper than a gradient of 1 in 6.
Growth ring distribution Growth ring distribution

No fully boxed heart permitted No fully boxed heart permitted
6.10 Visual Timber Stress Grading 6.10 Visual Timber Stress Grading
Wane Wane

¼ of width for full length of a timber is acceptable or of the width for a ¼ of width for full length of a timber is acceptable or of the width for a
distance of 300mm. distance of 300mm.
Knots Knots
Knot area at any cross section not greater than of total cross Knot area at any cross section not greater than of total cross
sectional area. sectional area.
Distortion Distortion
Bow Maximum 10mm over 2m (ends up) Bow Maximum 10mm over 2m (ends up)
Spring Maximum 5mm over 2m (sides out) Spring Maximum 5mm over 2m (sides out)
Twist Maximum 8mm over 2m (corners up) Twist Maximum 8mm over 2m (corners up)
Cup Maximum 4mm (bow across section) Cup Maximum 4mm (bow across section)
Worm holes Worm holes

There shall be no wasp holes but pin worm holes are permitted in small There shall be no wasp holes but pin worm holes are permitted in small
numbers, which will not affect the wood strength. numbers, which will not affect the wood strength.
Fungal decay Fungal decay

Reject any piece with any decay. Reject any piece with any decay.
Sapstain Sapstain
This is not a defect. This is not a defect.
Abnormal defects Abnormal defects

Abnormal special defects, e.g. compression wood, which would weaken the Abnormal special defects, e.g. compression wood, which would weaken the
plank below its serviceability are grounds for rejection. plank below its serviceability are grounds for rejection.
Timber Bridges: Susceptibility Timber Bridges: Susceptibility
and Detailing 6.11 and Detailing 6.11
Section six I Technical Sheets I Timber Bridges: Susceptibility
Section six I Technical Sheets I Timber Bridges: Susceptibility

The table shows susceptible parts of timber bridge structures, with examples The table shows susceptible parts of timber bridge structures, with examples
of common detailing weaknesses and suggested improvements of common detailing weaknesses and suggested improvements
Part of the structure Examples of poor Examples of better Part of the structure Examples of poor Examples of better
detailing detailing detailing detailing
End grain of members in Exposed end grain leads Protected end grain, e.g. by End grain of members in Exposed end grain leads Protected end grain, e.g. by
general e.g. beams to fissures, is unattractive attaching other timber general e.g. beams to fissures, is unattractive attaching other timber
and ultimately a seat of decay members having side grain, and ultimately a seat of decay members having side grain,
or by ventilated capping/ or by ventilated capping/
sealing sealing
Upper edges of exposed Flat upper edges where water Chamfered and sloped upper Upper edges of exposed Flat upper edges where water Chamfered and sloped upper
and Detailing
and Detailing
members e.g. beams and lies and which trap dirt, edges which freely drain members e.g. beams and lies and which trap dirt, edges which freely drain
handrails especially when weathered/ handrails especially when weathered/
fissured Edges protected by fissured Edges protected by
ventilated capping ventilated capping
Joinery details e.g. handrails, Details which trap moisture Freely draining, ventilated Joinery details e.g. handrails, Details which trap moisture Freely draining, ventilated
parapet to beam connections in mortises, fixing holes, flush details parapet to beam connections in mortises, fixing holes, flush details
recesses etc. recesses etc.
Raise parapet above splash Raise parapet above splash
level with a separate drained level with a separate drained
kerb kerb
Decking and its attachments Deck which is tight jointed Deck which freely drains, Decking and its attachments Deck which is tight jointed Deck which freely drains,
or with a sealed surface but laterally and longitudinally or with a sealed surface but laterally and longitudinally
which merely traps moisture even when worn which merely traps moisture even when worn
Attachments to beams which Drip mouldings beneath Attachments to beams which Drip mouldings beneath
form traps deck boards form traps deck boards
DPC between deck and DPC between deck and

beams beams
DPC between deck and Intersection points can Not easily avoided, but DPC between deck and Intersection points can Not easily avoided, but
beams easily form moisture/dirt detail for maximum beams easily form moisture/dirt detail for maximum
entrapment regions ventilation and drainage, e.g. entrapment regions ventilation and drainage, e.g.
by drilling/arranging gaps by drilling/arranging gaps
Member intersection points, Intersection points can trap Design steelwork to allow Member intersection points, Intersection points can trap Design steelwork to allow
column bases, especially moisture and remain damp drainage and ventilation. column bases, especially moisture and remain damp drainage and ventilation.
with steelwork Avoid details which allow with steelwork Avoid details which allow
the collection of water the collection of water
Bearing points, supports, Poorly ventilated susceptible As well raised from Bearing points, supports, Poorly ventilated susceptible As well raised from
bank seats etc. to silting up, dirt and debris surroundings, e.g. by bank seats etc. to silting up, dirt and debris surroundings, e.g. by
entrapment masonry and supporting entrapment masonry and supporting
steel, as possible. steel, as possible.
Taken from Timber Bridges and Foundations Taken from Timber Bridges and Foundations
Steel Specification 6.12 Steel Specification 6.12
Section six I Technical Sheets I Steel Specification

Structural Steel Structural Steel
Steel can be obtained in different grades of uniform quality, each grade Steel can be obtained in different grades of uniform quality, each grade
having its own characteristic mechanical properties. BS EN 10025 defines having its own characteristic mechanical properties. BS EN 10025 defines
the various grades of which Grade S275 is ordinary mild steel. the various grades of which Grade S275 is ordinary mild steel.
Structural steel is supplied in a variety of sections: Structural steel is supplied in a variety of sections:
BS EN 10056 - 1:1999 BS EN 10056 - 1:1999

Angles - leg sizes vary from 20mm to 200mm in a variety of Angles - leg sizes vary from 20mm to 200mm in a variety of
metal thicknesses and equal and unequal legs. metal thicknesses and equal and unequal legs.
BS4:2005 BS4:2005
Channels - sizes vary from 76 x 38mm to 432 x 102mm. Channels - sizes vary from 76 x 38mm to 432 x 102mm.
Tees - sizes vary from 38 x 38mm to 127 x 254mm. Tees - sizes vary from 38 x 38mm to 127 x 254mm.
I-beam or Universal Beam - sizes vary from 127 x 76mm I-beam or Universal Beam - sizes vary from 127 x 76mm
to 914 x 419mm. to 914 x 419mm.
Universal Column or H beam - sizes vary from 152 x Universal Column or H beam - sizes vary from 152 x
152mm to 356 x 406mm. 152mm to 356 x 406mm.
BS EN 10219:2006 or BS EN 10210:2006 BS EN 10219:2006 or BS EN 10210:2006

Rectangular Hollow Sections - sides from 20mm to 450mm Rectangular Hollow Sections - sides from 20mm to 450mm
and with a variety of wall thicknesses. and with a variety of wall thicknesses.
rectangle square rectangle square
BS EN 7768:2004 BS EN 7768:2004
Circular Hollow Sections - outside diameter 21mm to Circular Hollow Sections - outside diameter 21mm to
457mm and with a variety of wall thicknesses. 457mm and with a variety of wall thicknesses.
Structural steelwork for bridges should be obtained from a competent Structural steelwork for bridges should be obtained from a competent
steelwork fabricator who will be responsible for the standard of workmanship steelwork fabricator who will be responsible for the standard of workmanship
being in accordance with BS 5950 and who will also prepare the steel and being in accordance with BS 5950 and who will also prepare the steel and
apply the protective coatings. apply the protective coatings.
6.12Section six I Technical Sheets I Steel Specification
Steel Specification 6.12 Steel Specification

Specifying Steel Specifying Steel
Steel is specified in different ways depending on the section chosen. Steel is specified in different ways depending on the section chosen.
I-beams, universal columns and channels are specified as I-beams, universal columns and channels are specified as
depth (mm) x width (mm) x mass (kg/m) depth (mm) x width (mm) x mass (kg/m)
Angles, tees, rectangular and circular hollow sections are Angles, tees, rectangular and circular hollow sections are
depth (mm) x width (mm) x wall thickness (mm) depth (mm) x width (mm) x wall thickness (mm)
Contract Documentation 6.13 Contract Documentation 6.13
Section six I Technical Sheets I Contract Documentation

An example of simplified contract documents follow. It is An example of simplified contract documents follow. It is
used by Forestry Civil Engineering (FCE) for small bridge used by Forestry Civil Engineering (FCE) for small bridge
construction projects. construction projects.
FCE use the ICE Minor Works Contract issued by the Institution of Civil FCE use the ICE Minor Works Contract issued by the Institution of Civil
Engineers. These are fronted with the 4 pages that follow and are used to Engineers. These are fronted with the 4 pages that follow and are used to
control rural jobs and sign agreements simply, which make contractors feel at control rural jobs and sign agreements simply, which make contractors feel at
ease. The introductory clauses vary slightly according to the job. ease. The introductory clauses vary slightly according to the job.
The simplified documents have been developed over many years of The simplified documents have been developed over many years of
experience by Geoff Freedman (FCE). They provide a good example of how experience by Geoff Freedman (FCE). They provide a good example of how
complex contract documentation can be honed down to a more simple and complex contract documentation can be honed down to a more simple and
usable set of agreements. usable set of agreements.
It must be stressed that this is for example purposes only and It must be stressed that this is for example purposes only and
simplified documents will need to be tailored to meet the needs of simplified documents will need to be tailored to meet the needs of
your own organisation and the project concerned. your own organisation and the project concerned.
Using the Designs 7.1 Using the Designs 7.1
Section seven I Standard Designs I Using the Designs

The designs offered in this guide have been chosen for their robustness and The designs offered in this guide have been chosen for their robustness and
ease of construction on site. They all offer options for a range of user groups. ease of construction on site. They all offer options for a range of user groups.
The designs in Footbridges in the Countryside have mainly been replaced The designs in Footbridges in the Countryside have mainly been replaced
because of their complex construction or their reliance on glued timber joints. because of their complex construction or their reliance on glued timber joints.
If not accurately cut and assembled in a workshop these joints have proved If not accurately cut and assembled in a workshop these joints have proved
points of weakness, either because of water ingress or poor fit. They have points of weakness, either because of water ingress or poor fit. They have
mainly been superseded by designs that can be more reliably assembled on mainly been superseded by designs that can be more reliably assembled on
site by unskilled labour under appropriate supervision. site by unskilled labour under appropriate supervision.
Each design includes a general layout and some notes for construction. To Each design includes a general layout and some notes for construction. To
simplify the process of choosing the correctly sized components, a table simplify the process of choosing the correctly sized components, a table
(like the one shown below) accompanies each design and gives suggested (like the one shown below) accompanies each design and gives suggested
solutions for different load classes. Long spans for certain load classes are solutions for different load classes. Long spans for certain load classes are
not safe for some of the designs and the appropriate boxes on the tables not safe for some of the designs and the appropriate boxes on the tables
have been hatched out. have been hatched out.
User Category Span (m) User Category Span (m)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pedestrian Normal Pedestrian Normal

usable width usable width
handrail height beam handrail height beam
handrail post section (b x d) section handrail post section (b x d) section
handrail section (d x b) (d x b) handrail section (d x b) (d x b)
deck section (t x b) deck section (t x b)
no. beams no. beams
Pedestrian Crowd Pedestrian Crowd

handrail section (d x b) handrail section (d x b)
no. beams no. beams
Horses Horses
handrail section (d x b) handrail section (d x b)
no. beams no. beams
7.1 Section seven I Standard Designs I Using the Designs
Using the Designs 7.1 Using the Designs

The suggested combinations of components will not always produce exactly The suggested combinations of components will not always produce exactly
the bridge you need. For example, you may wish to vary the handrail the bridge you need. For example, you may wish to vary the handrail
arrangements or choose a wider deck or to alter the number of beams. In arrangements or choose a wider deck or to alter the number of beams. In
these situations, or if you wish to use timber other than C24 (See Section these situations, or if you wish to use timber other than C24 (See Section
4.6.1), use the tables in Technical Sheets 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8 to specify the 4.6.1), use the tables in Technical Sheets 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8 to specify the
components individually and ensure the bridge fits your exact requirements. components individually and ensure the bridge fits your exact requirements.
Note that ‘Pedestrian Normal’ also includes occasional cycle use and Note that ‘Pedestrian Normal’ also includes occasional cycle use and
‘Pedestrian Crowd’ includes normal cycle use. For ‘Crowd Cycle’ use the ‘Pedestrian Crowd’ includes normal cycle use. For ‘Crowd Cycle’ use the
‘Horse’ specification. ‘Horse’ specification.
Designs for horse use with a 1.8m handrail are not included. Safe attachment Designs for horse use with a 1.8m handrail are not included. Safe attachment
of 1.8m handrail posts is difficult and the services of an engineer will be of 1.8m handrail posts is difficult and the services of an engineer will be
required. required.
Different handrail arrangements are shown on each of the designs. If Different handrail arrangements are shown on each of the designs. If
required, the handrailing details may be interchanged between the Sawn required, the handrailing details may be interchanged between the Sawn
Timber (7.3) and Glentrool (7.4) designs to give a greater variety of options. Timber (7.3) and Glentrool (7.4) designs to give a greater variety of options.
The appropriate load class must be adhered to. The appropriate load class must be adhered to.
Log Bridge 7.2 Log Bridge 7.2
Section seven I Standard Designs I Log Bridge

Log specification Timber to be rejected if it has: Log specification Timber to be rejected if it has:
Logs to be species Douglas fir, • Knots larger than 100mm Logs to be species Douglas fir, • Knots larger than 100mm
European larch, Scots pine, Oak or diameter European larch, Scots pine, Oak or diameter
telegraph poles. • Signs of fungal decay or other telegraph poles. • Signs of fungal decay or other
serious defects serious defects
They should be straight and of the They should be straight and of the
• Marked spiral grain slope • Marked spiral grain slope
minimum diameter specified within minimum diameter specified within
the middle of the log length. • Severe checking or fissures. the middle of the log length. • Severe checking or fissures.
Excessive taper will affect the Maximum width of surface cracks Excessive taper will affect the Maximum width of surface cracks
amount of cutting required to achieve at felling to be 0.2mm and after amount of cutting required to achieve at felling to be 0.2mm and after
a level deck. 10mm/m on each side seasoning to be 3mm. The total a level deck. 10mm/m on each side seasoning to be 3mm. The total
is acceptable. depth of all fissures must not is acceptable. depth of all fissures must not
exceed of the log diameter. exceed of the log diameter.
Branches to be removed but not Logs should be placed to achieve a Branches to be removed but not Logs should be placed to achieve a
trimmed flush. Bark to be removed level deck and a straight line of trimmed flush. Bark to be removed level deck and a straight line of
and the butt ends sealed soon handrail with the minimum of cutting. and the butt ends sealed soon handrail with the minimum of cutting.
after felling. after felling.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pedestrian Normal 250 250 300 350 350 Pedestrian Normal 250 250 300 350 350
usable width 1.0m usable width 1.0m
handrail height 1.0m Minimum handrail height 1.0m Minimum
handrail post section log dia handrail post section log dia
75mm x 100mm @ 1400 crs 75mm x 100mm @ 1400 crs
(mm) (mm)
handrail section 100mm x 50mm handrail section 100mm x 50mm
deck section 50mm x 100mm deck section 50mm x 100mm
2 logs @ 0.7crs 2 logs @ 0.7crs
Pedestrian Crowd 250 250 300 350 350 Pedestrian Crowd 250 250 300 350 350
100mm x 125mm @ 1475 crs 100mm x 125mm @ 1475 crs
(mm) (mm)
3 logs @ 0.45 crs 3 logs @ 0.45 crs
Horses 300 350 400 Horses 300 350 400

100mm x 150mm (mm) 100mm x 150mm (mm)
5 logs @ 0.45m crs 5 logs @ 0.45m crs
Note that widths can be increased by simply adding another log of the same Note that widths can be increased by simply adding another log of the same
section for a given span. section for a given span.
Glentrool Bridge - Steel 7.4 Glentrool Bridge - Steel 7.4
Section seven I Standard Designs I Glentrool Bridge
Section seven I Standard Designs I Glentrool Bridge

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Pedestrian Normal 152 152 152 152 152 203 254 Pedestrian Normal 152 152 152 152 152 203 254
usable width 1.0m x 89 x 89 x 89 x 89 x 89 x 133 x 146 usable width 1.0m x 89 x 89 x 89 x 89 x 89 x 133 x 146
handrail height 1.0m beam x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 25 x 30 handrail height 1.0m beam x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 25 x 30
handrail post section
section handrail post section
section
75mm x 100mm @ 1400 crs (mm) 75mm x 100mm @ 1400 crs (mm)
handrail section 100mm x 50mm (kg/m) handrail section 100mm x 50mm (kg/m)
2 beams @ 0.7m crs 2 beams @ 0.7m crs
Pedestrian Normal 152 152 152 152 203 203 203 Pedestrian Normal 152 152 152 152 203 203 203
handrail height 1.0m
beam x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 25 x 25 x 30 handrail height 1.0m
beam x 17 x 17 x 17 x 17 x 25 x 25 x 30
section handrail post section
section
Pedestrian Crowd 152 152 152 203 203 203 254 Pedestrian Crowd 152 152 152 203 203 203 254
beam x 17 x 17 x 17 x 25 x 25 x 30 x 30 handrail height 1.25m
beam x 17 x 17 x 17 x 25 x 25 x 30 x 30
section section
handrail post section handrail post section
Horses 152 152 203 203 203 203 254 Horses 152 152 203 203 203 203 254
beam x 17 x 17 x 25 x 25 x 30 x 30 x 37 beam x 17 x 17 x 25 x 25 x 30 x 30 x 37
handrail height 1.6m handrail height 1.6m
section section
handrail post section handrail post section
100mm x 150mm @1250crs (mm) 100mm x 150mm @1250crs (mm)
Bedfordshire’s Crash Bedfordshire’s Crash
Barrier Bridges 8.1 Barrier Bridges 8.1
Section eight I Case Studies I Bedfordshire’s Crash Barrier Bridges

Since 1992 Bedfordshire County Council has constructed a number of Since 1992 Bedfordshire County Council has constructed a number of
bridges for their public Rights of Way network based on standard crash bridges for their public Rights of Way network based on standard crash
barrier sections. Currently two designs have been developed, one using a barrier sections. Currently two designs have been developed, one using a
closed section barrier for beams, the other using the open section barrier closed section barrier for beams, the other using the open section barrier
familiar on motorways. These have been used at over 20 locations and have familiar on motorways. These have been used at over 20 locations and have
proved easy to install, robust and low maintenance. Crash barriers and many proved easy to install, robust and low maintenance. Crash barriers and many
of the other steel components used in the bridges are standard materials of the other steel components used in the bridges are standard materials
already manufactured and galvanised to a very high specification. The already manufactured and galvanised to a very high specification. The
barriers are available in large quantities and at reasonable cost either new barriers are available in large quantities and at reasonable cost either new
or secondhand. or secondhand.
Closed box section Closed box section

Bridge Bridge
This footbridge at Arlesey Common This footbridge at Arlesey Common
has been designed by NAT Bridges has been designed by NAT Bridges
and is a 6.4m single span over the and is a 6.4m single span over the
River Hiz. A minimum soffit height River Hiz. A minimum soffit height
requirement was imposed by the requirement was imposed by the
Environment Agency to maximise Environment Agency to maximise
the clearance between the river and the clearance between the river and
bridge in this flood plain location. bridge in this flood plain location.
This could have resulted in the This could have resulted in the
bridge deck being much higher bridge deck being much higher
than the surrounding land, adding than the surrounding land, adding
the need for ramped or stepped the need for ramped or stepped
approaches – so the thin (200mm approaches – so the thin (200mm
x 100mm) crash barrier beams x 100mm) crash barrier beams
seemed like an excellent solution. seemed like an excellent solution.
To reduce the depth of the bridge still further, the deck was fixed to a rail To reduce the depth of the bridge still further, the deck was fixed to a rail
attached to the inside face of the beam. Conventional ‘I’ beams would have attached to the inside face of the beam. Conventional ‘I’ beams would have
been much deeper and required a deck support board between beam and been much deeper and required a deck support board between beam and
deck. The handrail post brackets were prefabricated and galvanised before deck. The handrail post brackets were prefabricated and galvanised before
being bolted to the beams. The end post brackets were incorporated into the being bolted to the beams. The end post brackets were incorporated into the
anchoring system that attaches to existing jointing holes in the crash barrier. anchoring system that attaches to existing jointing holes in the crash barrier.
The bridge is in a location prone to vandalism so tubular steel handrails were The bridge is in a location prone to vandalism so tubular steel handrails were
fitted. KeyKlamp is a versatile galvanised tubing system used for cow stalls, fitted. KeyKlamp is a versatile galvanised tubing system used for cow stalls,
milking parlours and many other applications. It is readily available in 6.4m milking parlours and many other applications. It is readily available in 6.4m
lengths with threaded ends. End-to-end jointing with external threaded collars lengths with threaded ends. End-to-end jointing with external threaded collars
makes longer runs simple to achieve. The three upper rails pass through makes longer runs simple to achieve. The three upper rails pass through
holes in the posts and are secured by external locking collars slid along the holes in the posts and are secured by external locking collars slid along the
rails. The ends are finished with threaded caps. Stainless steel fixings are rails. The ends are finished with threaded caps. Stainless steel fixings are
used throughout. used throughout.
8.1 Section eight I Case Studies I Bedfordshire’s Crash Barrier Bridges
Barrier Bridges 8.1 Barrier Bridges

The toe rails are separate sections The toe rails are separate sections
attached between the post brackets. attached between the post brackets.
They do not pass through the posts They do not pass through the posts
as a 42mm diameter hole so close as a 42mm diameter hole so close
to the fixing point could lead to the to the fixing point could lead to the
post fracturing under severe side post fracturing under severe side
loading or impact. With their many loading or impact. With their many
fittings, this proved an expensive fittings, this proved an expensive
option compared to a simple option compared to a simple
wooden rail but was specially wooden rail but was specially
requested by the client (Arlesey requested by the client (Arlesey
Conservation for Nature). The deck Conservation for Nature). The deck
comprises 50mm thick grooved comprises 50mm thick grooved
softwood decking, supplied by a softwood decking, supplied by a
local timber merchant. Stainless local timber merchant. Stainless
steel fixings were used throughout. steel fixings were used throughout.
Due to the lightness of the There are many careful design features but Due to the lightness of the There are many careful design features but
construction all assembly was particularly note the handrail post bracket with construction all assembly was particularly note the handrail post bracket with
upright flange added to stop rainwater, shed upright flange added to stop rainwater, shed
done on site without the aid of from the deck, soaking into the wooden post.
done on site without the aid of from the deck, soaking into the wooden post.
any lifting gear. any lifting gear.
This design is copyright N.A.T. This design is copyright N.A.T.
Bridges. Bridges.
Barrier Bridges 8.1 Barrier Bridges 8.1

Open box section bridge Open box section bridge
The open section bridge transfers The open section bridge transfers
the shape of the beam into the rake the shape of the beam into the rake
on the handrail. This type of crash on the handrail. This type of crash
barrier is readily available in 4.8m barrier is readily available in 4.8m
and 2.4m standard lengths and can and 2.4m standard lengths and can
be joined using internal fishplates. be joined using internal fishplates.
For use as a footbridge the beam For use as a footbridge the beam
is rotated through 90 degrees is rotated through 90 degrees
from its usual roadside orientation from its usual roadside orientation
and any joints are reinforced with and any joints are reinforced with
an additional brace. The wooden an additional brace. The wooden
handrail posts are simply bolted handrail posts are simply bolted
through the wall of the box. The through the wall of the box. The
deck is screwed to a thin (37mm) deck is screwed to a thin (37mm)
board which seals the top of the board which seals the top of the
open box. This design has been open box. This design has been
used for clear span footbridges up used for clear span footbridges up
to 8.4m in length. In this remote location a handrail on one to 8.4m in length. In this remote location a handrail on one
side was considered adequate. side was considered adequate.
No longer needed at its present location this 7.2m footbridge was removed using a farm No longer needed at its present location this 7.2m footbridge was removed using a farm
forklift for reuse on another of Bedfordshire’s paths. forklift for reuse on another of Bedfordshire’s paths.
8.1 Section eight I Case Studies I Bedfordshire’s Crash Barrier Bridges
Barrier Bridges 8.1 Barrier Bridges

General comments General comments
Bedfordshire County Council has developed these solutions instead of Bedfordshire County Council has developed these solutions instead of
I-beam constructions for some locations for the following reasons: I-beam constructions for some locations for the following reasons:
• The bridge beams are thin in section and less ‘chunky looking’ than • The bridge beams are thin in section and less ‘chunky looking’ than
I-beams. I-beams.
• They are more likely to get approval by bodies such as the Environment • They are more likely to get approval by bodies such as the Environment
Agency or local drainage board because they present less of an obstacle Agency or local drainage board because they present less of an obstacle
to flood water. to flood water.
• Material costs are likely to be less, the bridges are lighter and therefore • Material costs are likely to be less, the bridges are lighter and therefore
much cheaper and safer to construct. much cheaper and safer to construct.
• They are less likely to require ramps or steps and are therefore more likely • They are less likely to require ramps or steps and are therefore more likely
to conform to the requirements of the DDA. to conform to the requirements of the DDA.
• The bridges are long lasting and low maintenance. • The bridges are long lasting and low maintenance.
Both crash barrier designs have been used with wider, thicker decks for Both crash barrier designs have been used with wider, thicker decks for
bridleways. For equine use a third beam (barrier) is added down the centre. bridleways. For equine use a third beam (barrier) is added down the centre.
(an odd number of beams are always a good idea with horses as they usually (an odd number of beams are always a good idea with horses as they usually
walk down the middle of a bridge). walk down the middle of a bridge).
For more information contact Chris Nicol chris.nicol@bedscc.gov.uk or For more information contact Chris Nicol chris.nicol@bedscc.gov.uk or
Adrian Fett (NAT Bridges) adrian.fett@hotmail.com Adrian Fett (NAT Bridges) adrian.fett@hotmail.com
Dollar Glen Aerial Mast Bridges 8.2 Dollar Glen Aerial Mast Bridges 8.2
Section eight I Case Studies I Dollar Glen Aerial Mast Bridges

Background Background
In the 1980s six timber footbridges were built by the Army through a number In the 1980s six timber footbridges were built by the Army through a number
of Military Aid to the Civil Community (MACC) schemes, allowing access up of Military Aid to the Civil Community (MACC) schemes, allowing access up
the precipitous and scenic gorge of Dollar Glen. By 2001 the timber beams the precipitous and scenic gorge of Dollar Glen. By 2001 the timber beams
had failed and the sloping walking surface had become very slippery due to had failed and the sloping walking surface had become very slippery due to
the damp nature of the site. The potential courses of action were both difficult; the damp nature of the site. The potential courses of action were both difficult;
either to replace all of the bridges, construct new ones and replace a section either to replace all of the bridges, construct new ones and replace a section
of land-slipped path; or close a popular site permanently. of land-slipped path; or close a popular site permanently.
Dollar Glen (an SSSI) is extremely steep and access to the site is by path Dollar Glen (an SSSI) is extremely steep and access to the site is by path
only. All materials would have to be carried into and out of the Glen by only. All materials would have to be carried into and out of the Glen by
hand. Taking the first option was therefore a challenging job. hand. Taking the first option was therefore a challenging job.
Forestry Civil Engineering were employed to Forestry Civil Engineering were employed to
• Survey the bridges • Survey the bridges
• Come up with a design & specification tailored for this site, that would • Come up with a design & specification tailored for this site, that would
provide safe access up the steep Glen, offer visitors a real ‘gorge provide safe access up the steep Glen, offer visitors a real ‘gorge
experience’ and deal with the inevitable ‘slippy walking surface’ problem experience’ and deal with the inevitable ‘slippy walking surface’ problem
• Act as Planning Supervisor for the contract • Act as Planning Supervisor for the contract
Action Environment Ltd won the contract and the work was completed in July Action Environment Ltd won the contract and the work was completed in July
2002. 2002.
The solution The solution

A series of 6 new Ranger A series of 6 new Ranger
footbridges (a Forestry footbridges (a Forestry
Commission design) were Commission design) were
erected in the Glen linked by erected in the Glen linked by
improved sections of path. The improved sections of path. The
construction consisted of 3m construction consisted of 3m
aerial mast sections bolted aerial mast sections bolted
together to form the main together to form the main
beams, hardwood runners fixed beams, hardwood runners fixed
to the beams and Rocol Acme to the beams and Rocol Acme
panels screwed on to form panels screwed on to form
the deck. These panels, 1000 the deck. These panels, 1000
x 900mm marine ply, were x 900mm marine ply, were
designed to contain 2 integral designed to contain 2 integral
steps to form a slope of 1 in 4 up the Glen. To form a lasting non-slip surface, steps to form a slope of 1 in 4 up the Glen. To form a lasting non-slip surface,
the panels were dipped in resin after being holed for screws and the surface the panels were dipped in resin after being holed for screws and the surface
dusted with bauxite chips. Hardwood posts were then bolted to the mast dusted with bauxite chips. Hardwood posts were then bolted to the mast
sections and treated softwood handrails attached. Some additional sections and treated softwood handrails attached. Some additional
pathwork and handrails were also carried out. The total cost of the project pathwork and handrails were also carried out. The total cost of the project
was around £80k. was around £80k.
8.2 Section eight I Case Studies I Dollar Glen Aerial Mast Bridges
Dollar Glen Aerial Mast Bridges 8.2 Dollar Glen Aerial Mast Bridges

Construction and contract Construction and contract
Health and safety requirements are so central today that jobs as dangerous Health and safety requirements are so central today that jobs as dangerous
as this can easily be ruled out on grounds of cost. There is always debate as this can easily be ruled out on grounds of cost. There is always debate
about what a safe working platform is and so the trick is to design a solution about what a safe working platform is and so the trick is to design a solution
with a method statement that a contractor will believe in. with a method statement that a contractor will believe in.
This job entailed the manual carrying in of every item and carrying out of This job entailed the manual carrying in of every item and carrying out of
every piece of demolition material. The designer must make this as easy every piece of demolition material. The designer must make this as easy
as possible to ensure safety, high morale and low cost. In the Glen all as possible to ensure safety, high morale and low cost. In the Glen all
construction was carried out using winches operated by men in full harness, construction was carried out using winches operated by men in full harness,
hanging on double-anchored safety lines. Any fall would have been fatal, hanging on double-anchored safety lines. Any fall would have been fatal,
so a secure feeling was necessary not only to meet health and safety so a secure feeling was necessary not only to meet health and safety
requirements but also to ensure good morale. This sometimes requires requirements but also to ensure good morale. This sometimes requires
measures greater than are required for safety alone. For example, forming measures greater than are required for safety alone. For example, forming
the bearings on rock outcrops minimised the volume of concrete that had to the bearings on rock outcrops minimised the volume of concrete that had to
be carried and hauled in, reducing the strain, effort and anxiety of the workers be carried and hauled in, reducing the strain, effort and anxiety of the workers
on site. on site.
The secret of success for a difficult job is a good practical design which The secret of success for a difficult job is a good practical design which
operatives can identify with and will believe in its ‘buildability’. If builders operatives can identify with and will believe in its ‘buildability’. If builders
criticise a design or method statement the job starts on the wrong foot. criticise a design or method statement the job starts on the wrong foot.
Difficult jobs need good design. Difficult jobs need good design.
For more information contact Christopher Cassels ccassels@nts.org.uk or For more information contact Christopher Cassels ccassels@nts.org.uk or
Dr. Geoff Freedman geoff.freedman@forestry.gsi.gov.uk Dr. Geoff Freedman geoff.freedman@forestry.gsi.gov.uk
Puck’s Glen Bridges 8.3 Puck’s Glen Bridges 8.3
Section eight I Case Studies I Puck’s Glen Bridges

In the mid 1980s a walk through the steep-sided glen near Dunoon in In the mid 1980s a walk through the steep-sided glen near Dunoon in
Argyllshire, with waterfalls and spectacular scenery, was opened to its Argyllshire, with waterfalls and spectacular scenery, was opened to its
full potential with the construction of 10 short span bridges. They were of full potential with the construction of 10 short span bridges. They were of
timber construction and without adequate preservative treatment. When an timber construction and without adequate preservative treatment. When an
inspection in 2002 condemned 8 of the bridges Forestry Civil Engineering inspection in 2002 condemned 8 of the bridges Forestry Civil Engineering
(FCE) were asked to replace them with budget bridges while creating some (FCE) were asked to replace them with budget bridges while creating some
structural interest. The glen is about 1km long with a severe gradient only structural interest. The glen is about 1km long with a severe gradient only
suitable for fit, experienced walkers. There was access from a forest road at suitable for fit, experienced walkers. There was access from a forest road at
the top and similarly from the bottom. Every item of material had to be carried the top and similarly from the bottom. Every item of material had to be carried
to its site. to its site.
Design Design
FCE were developing a new form of construction known as mechanical FCE were developing a new form of construction known as mechanical
stress lamination of timber (SLT) for bridges. This has been used successfully stress lamination of timber (SLT) for bridges. This has been used successfully
in the USA for 25 years and in Australia and Europe for 15 years, but never in the USA for 25 years and in Australia and Europe for 15 years, but never
in the UK. FCE began a programme of assimilation of the techniques for UK in the UK. FCE began a programme of assimilation of the techniques for UK
species and construction practice. They also decided to develop an arch species and construction practice. They also decided to develop an arch
to utilise timber in compression as that is its strongest property. To utilise to utilise timber in compression as that is its strongest property. To utilise
the opportunity to the full, a flat SLT deck was proposed as well as an arch the opportunity to the full, a flat SLT deck was proposed as well as an arch
and a tied arch. The other 5 bridges were designed as standard Glentrool and a tied arch. The other 5 bridges were designed as standard Glentrool
footbridges. footbridges.
Glentrool Glentrool
This design was developed so This design was developed so
that unskilled labour could build that unskilled labour could build
a bridge which would never be a bridge which would never be
unsafe. It comprises 2 small steel unsafe. It comprises 2 small steel
beams diaphragmed together beams diaphragmed together
using steel angles welded to the using steel angles welded to the
top and bottom flanges at intervals top and bottom flanges at intervals
coinciding with the position of the coinciding with the position of the
handrail posts. This diaphragm handrail posts. This diaphragm
arrangement provides an excellent arrangement provides an excellent
fixing for the posts - which is fixing for the posts - which is
precise and permits a good flow of precise and permits a good flow of
air to keep the timber dry and avoid air to keep the timber dry and avoid
rot. (See Standard Design 7.4) rot. (See Standard Design 7.4)
8.3 Section eight I Case Studies I Puck’s Glen Bridges
Puck’s Glen Bridges 8.3 Puck’s Glen Bridges

Stress lamination Stress lamination
Stress-lamination of timber is a form Stress-lamination of timber is a form
of construction where sawn sections of construction where sawn sections
of timber are placed on edge and of timber are placed on edge and
compressed together by high tensile compressed together by high tensile
steel or carbon fibre bars or strands. steel or carbon fibre bars or strands.
The bars are passed through pre- The bars are passed through pre-
drilled holes in the wide face of the drilled holes in the wide face of the
timber sections and are anchored to timber sections and are anchored to
the deck edges using bearing plates. the deck edges using bearing plates.
Stress laminated flat deck Stress laminated flat deck
The tensile force introduced into the The tensile force introduced into the
bars, by a hydraulic jack, compresses the timber sections (laminations) bars, by a hydraulic jack, compresses the timber sections (laminations)
together forming a solid load-bearing timber plate or deck. A large arched together forming a solid load-bearing timber plate or deck. A large arched
version is described in Case Study 8.6. version is described in Case Study 8.6.
Loading and materials Loading and materials

Each bridge was designed for a rural crowd loading of 3.2kN/m2 and a Each bridge was designed for a rural crowd loading of 3.2kN/m2 and a
standard handrail loading of 0.74kN/m run. standard handrail loading of 0.74kN/m run.
All timber was C16 pressure treated FSC approved. The steel was grade All timber was C16 pressure treated FSC approved. The steel was grade
275N/mm2 ultimate strength and galvanized. 275N/mm2 ultimate strength and galvanized.
Construction Construction
Because of the restricted site conditions and poor access, prefabrication was Because of the restricted site conditions and poor access, prefabrication was
important, but weight had to be restricted to what could be manhandled. The important, but weight had to be restricted to what could be manhandled. The
Glentrool frames were fully fabricated and arrived with all angles welded to Glentrool frames were fully fabricated and arrived with all angles welded to
the beams. They weighed up to 300kg and were carried in a 4-person lift with the beams. They weighed up to 300kg and were carried in a 4-person lift with
special shoulder harnesses, distributing the load evenly. special shoulder harnesses, distributing the load evenly.
The existing abutments were re-used but some new concrete was required. The existing abutments were re-used but some new concrete was required.
This was kept to an absolute minimum. The SLT technique was fully This was kept to an absolute minimum. The SLT technique was fully
appreciated by the operatives as the materials were light and easy to carry appreciated by the operatives as the materials were light and easy to carry
and, in effect, the deck was also the structure because there are no beams. and, in effect, the deck was also the structure because there are no beams.
There was a boast that one 5m deck was constructed in one hour! There was a boast that one 5m deck was constructed in one hour!
Conclusion Conclusion
Difficult access demands careful design and lightweight materials. The Difficult access demands careful design and lightweight materials. The
standard Glentrool provides a robust suitable solution but the SLT bridges will standard Glentrool provides a robust suitable solution but the SLT bridges will
become the future solution when fully developed. become the future solution when fully developed.
For more information contact Dr. Geoff Freedman For more information contact Dr. Geoff Freedman
geoff.freedman@forestry.gsi.gov.uk geoff.freedman@forestry.gsi.gov.uk
On-site Conversion of Log to On-site Conversion of Log to
Bridge 8.4 Bridge 8.4
Section eight I Case Studies I On-site Conversion of Log to Bridge

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle - a sustainable solution for Callander Reduce, Reuse, Recycle - a sustainable solution for Callander
Setting Setting
Callander Lower Wood Walk is managed by Stirling Council Countryside Callander Lower Wood Walk is managed by Stirling Council Countryside
Service. As part of Callander’s path network it is well used by both local Service. As part of Callander’s path network it is well used by both local
people and visitors. In 2001 when a concrete surfaced bridge spanning a people and visitors. In 2001 when a concrete surfaced bridge spanning a
gorge mid-way along the path became unsafe, how to replace it became a gorge mid-way along the path became unsafe, how to replace it became a
challenging issue. challenging issue.
The bridge lay right in the middle of the woodland at the highest point on the The bridge lay right in the middle of the woodland at the highest point on the
path. The nearest and, indeed the only feasible access, was along a path. The nearest and, indeed the only feasible access, was along a
steep, metre-wide path with many tight bends - so no access for machinery. steep, metre-wide path with many tight bends - so no access for machinery.
A bridge demolition and replacement solution was therefore required that A bridge demolition and replacement solution was therefore required that
minimised bringing in and removing material. minimised bringing in and removing material.
The solution The solution

Following local consultation a plan was developed that met a number of local Following local consultation a plan was developed that met a number of local
objectives in one go. Long overdue woodland thinning, path infrastructure objectives in one go. Long overdue woodland thinning, path infrastructure
improvements and the bridge replacement were rolled into one project improvements and the bridge replacement were rolled into one project
funded by a Woodland Improvement Grant. The scheme involved recycling funded by a Woodland Improvement Grant. The scheme involved recycling
much of the existing bridge and building a new one from the trees growing on much of the existing bridge and building a new one from the trees growing on
site. A 6.5m oak bridge was designed for the purpose. site. A 6.5m oak bridge was designed for the purpose.
Work commenced with felling Work commenced with felling
two large oak trees next to two large oak trees next to
the old bridge, improving the old bridge, improving
the views to Loch Venachar the views to Loch Venachar
and letting light in for bank and letting light in for bank
revegetation. The main beams revegetation. The main beams
(6.5m x 300mm x 120mm) (6.5m x 300mm x 120mm)
and deck boards were milled and deck boards were milled
from these using an Alaskan from these using an Alaskan
Lumbermill - a guide which Lumbermill - a guide which
clamps onto a chainsaw bar allowing material to be cut on site. Handrails clamps onto a chainsaw bar allowing material to be cut on site. Handrails
were prefabricated at the Countryside Service workshops, from air-dried oak were prefabricated at the Countryside Service workshops, from air-dried oak
taken from other Council-managed areas. taken from other Council-managed areas.
On-site Conversion of Log to On-site Conversion of Log to
8.4 Section eight I Case Studies I On-site Conversion of Log to Bridge
Bridge 8.4 Bridge
Before demolition work commenced, the new beams were winched across

Before demolition work commenced, the new beams were winched across
the old bridge. Foundations were dug into the top of the banks by hand and the old bridge. Foundations were dug into the top of the banks by hand and
rubble concrete from the demolition work used as a base for a shuttered rubble concrete from the demolition work used as a base for a shuttered
200mm concrete pad, reinforced with reused metalwork from the demolition 200mm concrete pad, reinforced with reused metalwork from the demolition
process. The rubble was compacted with a vibrating plate. Concrete mixed process. The rubble was compacted with a vibrating plate. Concrete mixed
in a Belle mixer was transported down the narrow path in a tracked powered in a Belle mixer was transported down the narrow path in a tracked powered
wheelbarrow. When required, the vibrating plate and concrete were ferried wheelbarrow. When required, the vibrating plate and concrete were ferried
across the gorge via an aerial ropeway constructed through creative use of a across the gorge via an aerial ropeway constructed through creative use of a
Tirfor winch, a pulley, a shackle, two lengths of thin rope and a bucket! Tirfor winch, a pulley, a shackle, two lengths of thin rope and a bucket!
The beams were lifted onto the The beams were lifted onto the
pad foundation, aligned and pad foundation, aligned and
secured using prefabricated secured using prefabricated
clamps and threaded rod epoxy, clamps and threaded rod epoxy,
grouted into the concrete. grouted into the concrete.
Drilling for bolt holes and pilot Drilling for bolt holes and pilot
holes was powered by petrol holes was powered by petrol
generator. The approaches generator. The approaches
were finished by casting a were finished by casting a
concrete sill at either end of concrete sill at either end of
the bridge to prevent the path the bridge to prevent the path
slumping and prematurely slumping and prematurely
rotting the new beams. Arisings rotting the new beams. Arisings
from the excavation of the from the excavation of the
foundations were graded and foundations were graded and
compacted, to provide a new compacted, to provide a new
path surface. path surface.
Project evaluation Project evaluation

• Bridge was constructed with • Bridge was constructed with
little new or foreign material little new or foreign material
being imported to the site. being imported to the site.
• Virtually all of the old • Virtually all of the old
structure was reused and structure was reused and
recycled. recycled.
• Achieved multiple aims • Achieved multiple aims
agreed by the Stirling agreed by the Stirling
Countryside Service, the Countryside Service, the
local community and the local community and the
Forestry Commission. Forestry Commission.
For more information contact For more information contact

Richard Barron Richard Barron
barronr@stirling.gov.uk barronr@stirling.gov.uk
Forestry Commission Inspection Forestry Commission Inspection
Regime 8.5 Regime 8.5
Section eight I Case Studies I Forestry Commission Inspection Regime

These examples of a bridge record sheet and bridge inspection sheet are These examples of a bridge record sheet and bridge inspection sheet are
taken from the Forest Civil Engineering Handbook taken from the Forest Civil Engineering Handbook
Bridge recording, inspection and maintenance Bridge recording, inspection and maintenance
1. All bridges and large culverts (i.e. those greater than 1.5m span or 1. All bridges and large culverts (i.e. those greater than 1.5m span or
diameter) should have a Record Form such as the example shown at the diameter) should have a Record Form such as the example shown at the
end of this section. end of this section.
2. It is advisable to create an inspection schedule of all bridges and large 2. It is advisable to create an inspection schedule of all bridges and large
culverts. The schedule should contain the required minimum frequency of culverts. The schedule should contain the required minimum frequency of
inspections recommended by a competent engineer. inspections recommended by a competent engineer.
3. Inspections should be carried out by a competent person. The inspector 3. Inspections should be carried out by a competent person. The inspector
should make use of an Inspection Form such as the example shown at the should make use of an Inspection Form such as the example shown at the
end of this section. end of this section.
4. Inspection periods are a matter of considerable importance. When 4. Inspection periods are a matter of considerable importance. When
deciding on the frequency of inspection of a particular structure, points to deciding on the frequency of inspection of a particular structure, points to
bear in mind are: bear in mind are:
• Type of structure • Type of structure
• Age • Age
• Position (i.e. level of public access) • Position (i.e. level of public access)
• Use • Use
• Stream characteristics (if appropriate) • Stream characteristics (if appropriate)
• Known history • Known history
5. Advice on inspection periods can be obtained from the Design Engineer. 5. Advice on inspection periods can be obtained from the Design Engineer.
It is likely that these periods will range from 6 months for temporary or It is likely that these periods will range from 6 months for temporary or
unstable structures to a maximum of 3 years for stable, reliable structures. unstable structures to a maximum of 3 years for stable, reliable structures.
However, there will be cases where even 6 months is too long. However, there will be cases where even 6 months is too long.
6. Where the competent person inspecting a bridge has any reason to 6. Where the competent person inspecting a bridge has any reason to
suspect a change in structural characteristics (e.g. serious cracking), a suspect a change in structural characteristics (e.g. serious cracking), a
Chartered Engineer should be called in to carry out an assessment. Chartered Engineer should be called in to carry out an assessment.
7. Should the assessment lead to the imposition of a weight restriction, the 7. Should the assessment lead to the imposition of a weight restriction, the
Forest District Manager must be informed immediately. Advice on weight Forest District Manager must be informed immediately. Advice on weight
restrictions can be obtained from the Design Engineer. restrictions can be obtained from the Design Engineer.
8. All the inspections and remedial works should be recorded. The Service 8. All the inspections and remedial works should be recorded. The Service
Level Agreement will dictate the information to be passed to Forest District Level Agreement will dictate the information to be passed to Forest District
Managers. Managers.
9. Records of inspections should be retained for at least 5 years. However, 9. Records of inspections should be retained for at least 5 years. However,
there is scope for the use of an Inspection and Maintenance Record if there is scope for the use of an Inspection and Maintenance Record if
desired. An example of such a form is shown at the end of this section. desired. An example of such a form is shown at the end of this section.
The FCE database is, however, the main method for storing this The FCE database is, however, the main method for storing this
information. information.
8.5 Section eight I Case Studies I Forestry Commission Inspection Regime
Regime 8.5 Regime
Forth and Achray Stress Forth and Achray Stress
Laminated Timber Bridges 8.6 Laminated Timber Bridges 8.6
Section eight I Case Studies I Forth and Achray Stress Laminated Timber Bridges
Background Background
In 2003 a number of path improvements in Queen Elizabeth Forest Park In 2003 a number of path improvements in Queen Elizabeth Forest Park
were proposed. These included 4 new bridges with spans between 15m and were proposed. These included 4 new bridges with spans between 15m and
20m. Coincidentally, Forestry Civil Engineering (FCE) and Napier University 20m. Coincidentally, Forestry Civil Engineering (FCE) and Napier University
had already begun to develop a new form of timber structure using short had already begun to develop a new form of timber structure using short
sections of timber - the Stress Laminated Timber Arch - but so far had not sections of timber - the Stress Laminated Timber Arch - but so far had not
built one ‘for real’. Two 20m span arches over the Achray Water and the built one ‘for real’. Two 20m span arches over the Achray Water and the
River Forth were planned - they would be the first structures of their type in River Forth were planned - they would be the first structures of their type in
the world and probably the longest non-truss timber spans ever, being 100 the world and probably the longest non-truss timber spans ever, being 100
times the depth of the structure. The structures would be a shop window for times the depth of the structure. The structures would be a shop window for
the capacity of short, low-strength timbers used to span great distances. the capacity of short, low-strength timbers used to span great distances.
The two sites are spectacular and deserved an investment to create a The two sites are spectacular and deserved an investment to create a
feature rather than just build a bridge. The client showed great courage to try feature rather than just build a bridge. The client showed great courage to try
something new. something new.
Testing and research Testing and research

Research testing was carried out at Napier University to provide the design, Research testing was carried out at Napier University to provide the design,
and finally a 20m test arch was built and put through its paces in Glentress and finally a 20m test arch was built and put through its paces in Glentress
Forest. Surprisingly, the vibration frequency of the bridge became the main Forest. Surprisingly, the vibration frequency of the bridge became the main
design issue, not the low strength of fast-grown Scottish timber which, design issue, not the low strength of fast-grown Scottish timber which,
because of the arch structure, was being used in compression - the best load because of the arch structure, was being used in compression - the best load
bearing characteristic of the product. bearing characteristic of the product.
Design Design
The design was finalised using C16 timbers (2m long and 200mm deep) The design was finalised using C16 timbers (2m long and 200mm deep)
cut identically with holes and cuts made before pressure treatment. Bridge cut identically with holes and cuts made before pressure treatment. Bridge
design parameters included; loading rural crowds and horses, minimising design parameters included; loading rural crowds and horses, minimising
barriers and handrail heights and strengths designed for livestock at 1250mm barriers and handrail heights and strengths designed for livestock at 1250mm
and 1.4kN/m run. and 1.4kN/m run.
Stress laminated timber arches rely on the strength of timber in compression. Stress laminated timber arches rely on the strength of timber in compression.
The most critical aspects of the design are the friction between timbers, The most critical aspects of the design are the friction between timbers,
the moisture content of the timbers, the types of stressing bars and their the moisture content of the timbers, the types of stressing bars and their
tensions. The combination of these remain the subject of a PhD thesis which tensions. The combination of these remain the subject of a PhD thesis which
has led to a design code. has led to a design code.
8.6 Section eight I Case Studies I Forth and Achray Stress Laminated Timber Bridges
Laminated Timber Bridges 8.6 Laminated Timber Bridges
There was much debate about building the bridges at the river edge and There was much debate about building the bridges at the river edge and
lifting them into place or building them in situ. The final decision was to erect lifting them into place or building them in situ. The final decision was to erect
a full scaffold and build in situ, providing the best harmony between cost and a full scaffold and build in situ, providing the best harmony between cost and
safety. The scaffold to support the builders could also be used to support safety. The scaffold to support the builders could also be used to support
the construction. As the bridge took shape the arch would become self the construction. As the bridge took shape the arch would become self
supporting. An initial narrow arch was formed and widened out to the finished supporting. An initial narrow arch was formed and widened out to the finished
dimensions. The technique lends itself to building a splayed structure of 3m dimensions. The technique lends itself to building a splayed structure of 3m
width at abutments and 2m at mid span. width at abutments and 2m at mid span.
Good foundations were necessary to take the lateral thrust from the arch. Good foundations were necessary to take the lateral thrust from the arch.
The Achray bridge had good rock at each bank which made matters easier. The Achray bridge had good rock at each bank which made matters easier.
One side of the Forth bridge required a substantial amount of concrete One side of the Forth bridge required a substantial amount of concrete
because the ground was poor. because the ground was poor.
The building technique was highly dependant on accuracy and tolerances. The building technique was highly dependant on accuracy and tolerances.
Hole diameters need tolerance and end cuts had to be exact to result in the Hole diameters need tolerance and end cuts had to be exact to result in the
butt ends transferring compression. The deck was placed, allowed to settle butt ends transferring compression. The deck was placed, allowed to settle
and then stressed in situ using a hand pump. The external timbers were of and then stressed in situ using a hand pump. The external timbers were of
hardwood in order to sustain the high local pressures. hardwood in order to sustain the high local pressures.
Laminated Timber Bridges 8.6 Laminated Timber Bridges 8.6
Finishing Finishing
The deck was covered with 40mm of dense bitumen macadam to stiffen it, The deck was covered with 40mm of dense bitumen macadam to stiffen it,
waterproof it and provide a safe wearing surface. It was profiled to provide waterproof it and provide a safe wearing surface. It was profiled to provide
the all ability gradients necessary. When complete the natural frequency the all ability gradients necessary. When complete the natural frequency
was measured to ensure it was above the vandal frequency of 2.5Hz thus was measured to ensure it was above the vandal frequency of 2.5Hz thus
avoiding any risk of resonance. avoiding any risk of resonance.
Conclusion Conclusion
This form of construction has a great future because of aesthetics and This form of construction has a great future because of aesthetics and
sustainability, once the construction difficulties are fully resolved. There is sustainability, once the construction difficulties are fully resolved. There is
only 11m3 of fabricated timber and some steel bars in the materials with a only 11m3 of fabricated timber and some steel bars in the materials with a
total cost of about £6000 (2004 figures). The square area of deck is 50m2. total cost of about £6000 (2004 figures). The square area of deck is 50m2.
The staff hours, scaffold and foundations are approximately the same cost The staff hours, scaffold and foundations are approximately the same cost
as the materials so a unit cost of £500 per m2 represents a teasing target to as the materials so a unit cost of £500 per m2 represents a teasing target to
be improved on by innovative construction techniques. Achieving gradients be improved on by innovative construction techniques. Achieving gradients
that meet accessability standards at either end of the bridge remains a that meet accessability standards at either end of the bridge remains a
key challenge. key challenge.
8.6 Section eight I Case Studies I Forth and Achray Stress Laminated Timber Bridges
Laminated Timber Bridges 8.6 Laminated Timber Bridges
For more information contact Dr. Geoff Freedman For more information contact Dr. Geoff Freedman
geoff.freedman@forestry.gsi.gov.uk geoff.freedman@forestry.gsi.gov.uk
Drummuir 21 - A Creative Drummuir 21 - A Creative
Low-cost Solution 8.7 Low-cost Solution 8.7
Section eight I Case Studies I Drummuir 21 - A Creative Low-cost Solution

Drummuir 21 is a community group near Dufftown comprising of a number of Drummuir 21 is a community group near Dufftown comprising of a number of
partners including the local estate and the Community Council. In 2002 they partners including the local estate and the Community Council. In 2002 they
sought funding to replace the long-since disappeared bridge over the River sought funding to replace the long-since disappeared bridge over the River
Isla. Historically the bridge had linked the village to the railway station and Isla. Historically the bridge had linked the village to the railway station and
had always been popular with those using the line. Since decommissioning, had always been popular with those using the line. Since decommissioning,
the bridge had fallen into disrepair and eventually failed. the bridge had fallen into disrepair and eventually failed.
Remains of the wooden footbridge that once linked Drummuir village with Drummuir Remains of the wooden footbridge that once linked Drummuir village with Drummuir
railway station railway station
Subsequently Keith and Dufftown Railway Association restored the line Subsequently Keith and Dufftown Railway Association restored the line
between Dufftown and Keith, with a stop at Drummuir. More recently between Dufftown and Keith, with a stop at Drummuir. More recently
Drummuir 21 has worked tirelessly to develop a community woodland Drummuir 21 has worked tirelessly to develop a community woodland
adjacent to the line and a network of paths on the local estate. A new bridge adjacent to the line and a network of paths on the local estate. A new bridge
was seen by the group as a missing link that would allow visitors using the was seen by the group as a missing link that would allow visitors using the
line to explore the area. line to explore the area.
8.7 Section eight I Case Studies I Drummuir 21 - A Creative Low-cost Solution
Low-cost Solution 8.7 Low-cost Solution

Financing the project Financing the project
The proposed 2m by 15m bridge would cost in the region of £10,000. In The proposed 2m by 15m bridge would cost in the region of £10,000. In
partnership with the local estate, Drummuir 21 secured 50% of the costs partnership with the local estate, Drummuir 21 secured 50% of the costs
from Forestry Commission Scotland as the bridge lay within the woodland from Forestry Commission Scotland as the bridge lay within the woodland
boundary. Finding a 50% match required some creative thought and the boundary. Finding a 50% match required some creative thought and the
group set about identifying cost-effective ways of building and designing group set about identifying cost-effective ways of building and designing
a bridge. The Cambridge Officer Training Corps (COTS) agreed to design a bridge. The Cambridge Officer Training Corps (COTS) agreed to design
and build the bridge as a training exercise if they were supplied with and build the bridge as a training exercise if they were supplied with
accommodation, materials and their activities were indemnified. Coupled accommodation, materials and their activities were indemnified. Coupled
with this, the estate agreed to supply some materials, labour and access with this, the estate agreed to supply some materials, labour and access
to machinery. Putting a monetary value on these contributions allowed the to machinery. Putting a monetary value on these contributions allowed the
group to match the FCS grant. group to match the FCS grant.
Building the bridge Building the bridge
The Services have built many bridges around Scotland as training exercises. They design The Services have built many bridges around Scotland as training exercises. They design
and build, and like a challenge. and build, and like a challenge.
The bridge is primarily timber supported by two steel beams. These were The bridge is primarily timber supported by two steel beams. These were
lowered onto concrete abutments by a crane borrowed from the railway lowered onto concrete abutments by a crane borrowed from the railway
group. Once these where in place the bridge was then built in situ. It is a group. Once these where in place the bridge was then built in situ. It is a
simple construction but was specifically designed for the location by the simple construction but was specifically designed for the location by the
army. Initial concerns that the bridge was over-designed have been laid to army. Initial concerns that the bridge was over-designed have been laid to
rest as the bridge has withstood a recent spate of damaging floods much to rest as the bridge has withstood a recent spate of damaging floods much to
the relief of the community. Planning permission was required but through the the relief of the community. Planning permission was required but through the
community council Drummuir 21 were able to get a discount and save money community council Drummuir 21 were able to get a discount and save money
- partnership in action! - partnership in action!
Low-cost Solution 8.7 Low-cost Solution 8.7

Pros and cons Pros and cons
Would the group have done it differently? They felt it made a substantial Would the group have done it differently? They felt it made a substantial
saving using the army, which solved two vexing problems of design and saving using the army, which solved two vexing problems of design and
construction. Using the army also meant they could support the local construction. Using the army also meant they could support the local
community by sourcing accommodation for them locally, spreading more of community by sourcing accommodation for them locally, spreading more of
the benefit. If they were to choose one aspect of the project that had worried the benefit. If they were to choose one aspect of the project that had worried
them, it would be the health and safety side and in particular the CDM them, it would be the health and safety side and in particular the CDM
Regulations and their role as a client. It was also a serious cost for them to Regulations and their role as a client. It was also a serious cost for them to
indemnify COTS while on site. indemnify COTS while on site.
The future The future

The inspection of the bridge is carried out by the estate free of charge. The inspection of the bridge is carried out by the estate free of charge.
Planned maintenance in the future will be sourced out of the development Planned maintenance in the future will be sourced out of the development
for the community woodland. The bridge has been well received by the for the community woodland. The bridge has been well received by the
community. It is heavily used and provides a valuable link to the path community. It is heavily used and provides a valuable link to the path
network. In fact, it has opened up the opportunity for further development network. In fact, it has opened up the opportunity for further development
including the possible construction of a visitor centre. including the possible construction of a visitor centre.
Handover time. The community takes possession of its new bridge Handover time. The community takes possession of its new bridge
For more information contact www.botriphnie.org.uk For more information contact www.botriphnie.org.uk
Glossary 9 Glossary 9
Section nine I Glossary

abutments foundation/end support for a bridge, either stone, abutments foundation/end support for a bridge, either stone,
concrete or timber concrete or timber
bankseat simple pad abutments suitable for the top bankseat simple pad abutments suitable for the top
of bankings of bankings
batter to form a slope between two levels batter to form a slope between two levels
borrow pits place where fill (as dug) material is sourced for borrow pits place where fill (as dug) material is sourced for
use elsewhere on a site use elsewhere on a site
BS British Standard BS British Standard
BSI British Standards Institute BSI British Standards Institute
CAT scanner hand-held device for detecting live electricity CAT scanner hand-held device for detecting live electricity
cables cables
chamfer a narrow flat surface at the corner of a beam or chamfer a narrow flat surface at the corner of a beam or
post etc. post etc.
checking minor cracking along the grain of timber/cut or checking minor cracking along the grain of timber/cut or
slot in timber section slot in timber section
coefficient of the fractional change in length, area or volume coefficient of the fractional change in length, area or volume
expansion per unit change in temperature at a given expansion per unit change in temperature at a given
constant pressure constant pressure
conditions of contract legally binding conditions between client and conditions of contract legally binding conditions between client and
contractor that cannot be altered without the contractor that cannot be altered without the
consent of both consent of both
culvert or Irish bridge multiple culverts laid side by side with a concrete culvert or Irish bridge multiple culverts laid side by side with a concrete
deck allowing flood water to flow over deck allowing flood water to flow over
dead weight the intrinsic and permanent self-weight of a dead weight the intrinsic and permanent self-weight of a
structure, exclusive of its load structure, exclusive of its load
deflection the movement of a structure or a part of a deflection the movement of a structure or a part of a
structure when it is bearing a load structure when it is bearing a load
detritus debris detritus debris
distomat piece of equipment for measuring distance distomat piece of equipment for measuring distance
9Section nine I Glossary
Glossary 9 Glossary

DPC damp proof course, usually waterproof plastic DPC damp proof course, usually waterproof plastic
material used to keep certain bridge components material used to keep certain bridge components
dry to help resist rotting dry to help resist rotting
dynamic load moving load dynamic load moving load
EN Europaischen Normen - European Standards EN Europaischen Normen - European Standards
flange horizontal component of a steel cross-section flange horizontal component of a steel cross-section
frost out the action of freeze/thaw which causes frost out the action of freeze/thaw which causes
structures to degrade structures to degrade
gabion baskets a rectangular wire mesh basket filled with graded gabion baskets a rectangular wire mesh basket filled with graded
rock which can be used as a revetment or bridge rock which can be used as a revetment or bridge
abutment abutment
geogrid woven or moulded mesh, usually plastic, used to geogrid woven or moulded mesh, usually plastic, used to
reinforce slopes or provide support for material on reinforce slopes or provide support for material on
soft ground soft ground
geotextile water-permeable woven sheet used to support geotextile water-permeable woven sheet used to support
foundations or fill materials on soft ground or as a foundations or fill materials on soft ground or as a
filtration membrane for drains filtration membrane for drains
glulam glue laminated timber glulam glue laminated timber
hand auger hand powered drill for taking soil cores and hand auger hand powered drill for taking soil cores and
assessing soil conditions assessing soil conditions
hanger usually a simple steel fastening that allow one hanger usually a simple steel fastening that allow one
piece of timber to be suspended from another piece of timber to be suspended from another
without the need of timber joints without the need of timber joints
IDB Internal Drainage Board IDB Internal Drainage Board
impact factor factor applied to an imposed load that impacts impact factor factor applied to an imposed load that impacts
on a structure. For example, a stationary person on a structure. For example, a stationary person
will impose a load through their feet onto a bridge will impose a load through their feet onto a bridge
deck. The impact factor will assess the extra force deck. The impact factor will assess the extra force
from that person running over the deck. from that person running over the deck.
jaegers ready-mix concrete lorries jaegers ready-mix concrete lorries
lateral shear horizontal spreading of material due to vertical lateral shear horizontal spreading of material due to vertical
loading loading

level (engineer’s) adjustable telescope mounted on a tripod with level (engineer’s) adjustable telescope mounted on a tripod with
a spirit level to allow precisely horizontal sights a spirit level to allow precisely horizontal sights
to be taken. Measurements can be read off a to be taken. Measurements can be read off a
graduated staff which is moved around a site such graduated staff which is moved around a site such
that height differences between points can be that height differences between points can be
noted to allow calculation of gradients and noted to allow calculation of gradients and
spot heights spot heights
luffing to move the jib (of a crane) or raise / lower the luffing to move the jib (of a crane) or raise / lower the
boom (of a derrick) in order to shift a load boom (of a derrick) in order to shift a load
mechlam mechanically laminated timber mechlam mechanically laminated timber
modulus of elasticity the force on an elastic body is proportional to modulus of elasticity the force on an elastic body is proportional to
the ratio of the body’s extension to its original the ratio of the body’s extension to its original
length: the constant of proportionality is called the length: the constant of proportionality is called the
modulus of elasticity modulus of elasticity
mortar a mixture of sand, water and cement or lime that mortar a mixture of sand, water and cement or lime that
becomes hard like stone and is used in building becomes hard like stone and is used in building
to join and hold bricks and stones together to join and hold bricks and stones together
piles foundations (usually concrete, steel or wood) piles foundations (usually concrete, steel or wood)
that are driven into the ground mechanically that are driven into the ground mechanically
or by hand or by hand
podging agitating concrete to expel air podging agitating concrete to expel air
point load the load exerted at a discreet point, i.e. the load point load the load exerted at a discreet point, i.e. the load
through a horse’s hoof on a bridge deck through a horse’s hoof on a bridge deck
pointing the visible mortar between the bricks or stones in pointing the visible mortar between the bricks or stones in
a wall a wall
poker vibrator a tool (usually powered by compressed air) used poker vibrator a tool (usually powered by compressed air) used
to dispel air from concrete prior to setting to dispel air from concrete prior to setting
precamber setting a curve into a structural element prior precamber setting a curve into a structural element prior
to construction to construction
proprietary standard or ‘off the shelf’ manufactured item proprietary standard or ‘off the shelf’ manufactured item
revetments general term for all types of retaining structures, revetments general term for all types of retaining structures,
(retaining walls) timber walls, stone walls, gabions or other (retaining walls) timber walls, stone walls, gabions or other
commercial retaining walls used to stabilise or commercial retaining walls used to stabilise or
retain a slope retain a slope
9Section nine I Glossary
Glossary 9 Glossary

rip-rap rock armouring rip-rap rock armouring
shakes cracks (sometimes substantial) along the grain in shakes cracks (sometimes substantial) along the grain in
timber developed in the standing tree, at felling or timber developed in the standing tree, at felling or
in seasoning in seasoning
shear legs a device for lifting heavy weights consisting of shear legs a device for lifting heavy weights consisting of
2 or more spars lashed together at the upper 2 or more spars lashed together at the upper
ends from which a lifting tackle is suspended ends from which a lifting tackle is suspended
slip zone the area of a bank liable to collapse due to slip zone the area of a bank liable to collapse due to
inherent instability of the bank material inherent instability of the bank material
SLT deck mechanical stress lamination of timber for bridges SLT deck mechanical stress lamination of timber for bridges
soffit the underside of a part of a building or a structural soffit the underside of a part of a building or a structural
component, such as an arch, beam or stair component, such as an arch, beam or stair
spall flaking and breaking up of the surface of stone or spall flaking and breaking up of the surface of stone or
concrete often due to action of frost concrete often due to action of frost
spar a bracing or supporting strut spar a bracing or supporting strut
standard wire gauge measurement of wire diameter standard wire gauge measurement of wire diameter
static load a stationary imposed load static load a stationary imposed load
superstructure collectively all parts of a bridge except the superstructure collectively all parts of a bridge except the
abutments abutments
surform a rasp used to smooth timber surform a rasp used to smooth timber
tamping manually compressing and consolidating material tamping manually compressing and consolidating material
(usually aggregate) by repeated tapping (usually aggregate) by repeated tapping
theodolite instrument that allows precise measurement of theodolite instrument that allows precise measurement of
angles between points or ‘stations’ on a piece angles between points or ‘stations’ on a piece
of land of land
TIRFOR manufacturer of a manual winch TIRFOR manufacturer of a manual winch
torsional restraint resists twisting and stiffens the bridge torsional restraint resists twisting and stiffens the bridge
transoms supports fixed at right angles between main transoms supports fixed at right angles between main
beams to add stiffness and resist twisting; beams to add stiffness and resist twisting;
sometimes they form part of the deck sometimes they form part of the deck
truss a roof, bridge or other elevated structure truss a roof, bridge or other elevated structure

supported or strengthened with a network of supported or strengthened with a network of
beams and bars beams and bars
u-bolted linked laterally using steel angles bolted to the top u-bolted linked laterally using steel angles bolted to the top
and bottom of a tube and bottom of a tube
wane the defective edge of a timber board caused by wane the defective edge of a timber board caused by
remaining bark or a beveled end remaining bark or a beveled end
web vertical component of a steel cross-section web vertical component of a steel cross-section
wingwall attached to an abutment, it contains and supports wingwall attached to an abutment, it contains and supports
a splayed ramp onto a bridge a splayed ramp onto a bridge
Bibliography 10.1 Bibliography 10.1
Section ten I Further Information I Bibliography

A Brief Guide to Occupiers Legal Liabilities in Scotland - in relation to Public A Brief Guide to Occupiers Legal Liabilities in Scotland - in relation to Public
Outdoor Access. Scottish Natural Heritage (2005) Outdoor Access. Scottish Natural Heritage (2005)
[Download from www.snh.gov.uk] [Download from www.snh.gov.uk]
Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004. HMSO Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004. HMSO
Concrete Practice. Blackledge, G. British Cement Association (2002) Concrete Practice. Blackledge, G. British Cement Association (2002)
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002. HMSO Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002. HMSO
Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994. HMSO Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994. HMSO
Countryside for All Good Practice Guide. The Fieldfare Trust (2005) Countryside for All Good Practice Guide. The Fieldfare Trust (2005)
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Vol.2: Highway structures: design Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Vol.2: Highway structures: design
(substructures), materials. Section 2: Special structures. Part 8: Design (substructures), materials. Section 2: Special structures. Part 8: Design
criteria for footbridges. The Highways Agency (2003) criteria for footbridges. The Highways Agency (2003)
Disability Discrimination Act 1995. HMSO Disability Discrimination Act 1995. HMSO
Dry Stone Walling - a practical handbook. Brooks, A; Adcock, S & Agate, E. Dry Stone Walling - a practical handbook. Brooks, A; Adcock, S & Agate, E.
British Trust for Conservation Volunteers (1999) British Trust for Conservation Volunteers (1999)
[Download from handbooks.btcv.org.uk] [Download from handbooks.btcv.org.uk]
Equestrian Access Factsheets. British Horse Society, The Paths for All Equestrian Access Factsheets. British Horse Society, The Paths for All
Partnership, Scottish Natural Heritage. (2004) Partnership, Scottish Natural Heritage. (2004)
[Download from www.pathsforall.org.uk] [Download from www.pathsforall.org.uk]
ESI External Works. Endat Standard Indexes. ESI External Works. Endat Standard Indexes.
[Download from www.endat.com] [Download from www.endat.com]
Fact sheet 2.3 Writing briefs for Consultancy Work. Paths for All Partnership Fact sheet 2.3 Writing briefs for Consultancy Work. Paths for All Partnership
(2004) [Download from: www.pathsforall.org.uk] (2004) [Download from: www.pathsforall.org.uk]
Fact sheet 2.4 Choosing and Managing Consultants. Paths for All Partnership Fact sheet 2.4 Choosing and Managing Consultants. Paths for All Partnership
(2004) [Download from: www.pathsforall.org.uk] (2004) [Download from: www.pathsforall.org.uk]
Fact sheet 5.3 Health and Safety in Path Construction - an overview. Fact sheet 5.3 Health and Safety in Path Construction - an overview.
Paths for All Partnership (2002) Paths for All Partnership (2002)
[Download from www.pathsforall.org.uk] [Download from www.pathsforall.org.uk]
Fact sheet 5.4 A Guide to the Construction (Design and Management) Fact sheet 5.4 A Guide to the Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 1994. Paths for All Partnership (2002) Regulations 1994. Paths for All Partnership (2002)
[Download from: www.pathsforall.org.uk] [Download from: www.pathsforall.org.uk]
10.1Section ten I Further Information I Bibliography
Bibliography 10.1 Bibliography

Footbridges: A Manual for Construction at Community and District Level. Footbridges: A Manual for Construction at Community and District Level.
Department for International Development.UK (2004) Department for International Development.UK (2004)
[Download from: www.ittransport.co.uk] [Download from: www.ittransport.co.uk]
Footbridges in the Countryside - Design and Construction. Footbridges in the Countryside - Design and Construction.
2nd Edition, Reiach Hall Blyth Partnership. Countryside Commission for 2nd Edition, Reiach Hall Blyth Partnership. Countryside Commission for
Scotland (1989) Scotland (1989)
ICE Conditions of Contract for Minor Works. 3rd Edition, Institution of Civil ICE Conditions of Contract for Minor Works. 3rd Edition, Institution of Civil
Engineers, Association of Consulting Engineers and Civil Engineering Engineers, Association of Consulting Engineers and Civil Engineering
Contractors Association, Thomas Telford Ltd (2001) Contractors Association, Thomas Telford Ltd (2001)
Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations (LOLER) 1998. Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations (LOLER) 1998.
(SI 1998 NO 2307), HMSO (SI 1998 NO 2307), HMSO
Lowland Path Construction Guide: A Guide to Good Practice. Lowland Path Construction Guide: A Guide to Good Practice.
Scottish Natural Heritage, Scottish Enterprise & Paths for All Partnership. Scottish Natural Heritage, Scottish Enterprise & Paths for All Partnership.
(2001) [Download from www.pathsforall.org.uk] (2001) [Download from www.pathsforall.org.uk]
Manual of River Restoration. Web Edition, The River Restoration Centre Manual of River Restoration. Web Edition, The River Restoration Centre
(2002) [Download from www.therrc.co.uk] (2002) [Download from www.therrc.co.uk]
Occupiers Liability (Scotland) Act 1960. HMSO Occupiers Liability (Scotland) Act 1960. HMSO
Pollution Prevention Guidelines, Works in, near or liable to affect water Pollution Prevention Guidelines, Works in, near or liable to affect water
courses: PPG5. Scottish Environmental Protection Agency. courses: PPG5. Scottish Environmental Protection Agency.
[Download from www.sepa.org.uk [Download from www.sepa.org.uk
Pollution Prevention Guidelines, Working at construction and demolition sites: Pollution Prevention Guidelines, Working at construction and demolition sites:
PPG6. Scottish Environmental Protection Agency PPG6. Scottish Environmental Protection Agency
[Download from www.sepa.org.uk] [Download from www.sepa.org.uk]
The Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996. HMSO The Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996. HMSO
The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. HMSO The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. HMSO
The Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003. HMSO The Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003. HMSO
[Download from www.scotland.gov.uk] [Download from www.scotland.gov.uk]
The Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992. HMSO The Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992. HMSO
The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992. HMSO The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992. HMSO
Managing for Access - Guidance for Owners and Managers of Land. Scottish Managing for Access - Guidance for Owners and Managers of Land. Scottish
Rural Property and Business Association (2004) Rural Property and Business Association (2004)
Bibliography 10.1 Bibliography 10.1

Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004. HMSO Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004. HMSO
The Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at Work Regulations 1992. HMSO The Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at Work Regulations 1992. HMSO
The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 1992. The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 1992.
HMSO HMSO
The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations
(RIDDOR) 1995. HMSO (RIDDOR) 1995. HMSO
Scottish Outdoor Access Code. Scottish Natural Heritage (2004) Scottish Outdoor Access Code. Scottish Natural Heritage (2004)
Timber Bridges and Foundations. Freedman,G; Mettem,C; Larsen,P; Timber Bridges and Foundations. Freedman,G; Mettem,C; Larsen,P;
Edwards,S; Reynolds,T; Enjily,V. Forestry Commission (2002). Unpublished. Edwards,S; Reynolds,T; Enjily,V. Forestry Commission (2002). Unpublished.
Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1997. HMSO Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1997. HMSO
The Working at Height Regulations 2005. HMSO The Working at Height Regulations 2005. HMSO
Upland Pathwork - Construction Standards for Scotland. Hamilton, A; Hunt, J. Upland Pathwork - Construction Standards for Scotland. Hamilton, A; Hunt, J.
(Ed); Jones, B; and Thomas, M. Scottish Natural Heritage (1999) (Ed); Jones, B; and Thomas, M. Scottish Natural Heritage (1999)
Upland Path Management - Standards for delivering path projects in Upland Path Management - Standards for delivering path projects in
Scotland’s Mountains. Upland Path Advisory Group. Scottish Natural Scotland’s Mountains. Upland Path Advisory Group. Scottish Natural
Heritage (2002) Heritage (2002)
Water Environment (Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2005. Water Environment (Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2005.
HMSO HMSO
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. HMSO Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. HMSO
N.B. All HMSO and DfT publications can be N.B. All HMSO and DfT publications can be
downloaded from www.opsi.gov.uk downloaded from www.opsi.gov.uk
Relevant Standards and Relevant Standards and
10.2Section ten I Further Information I Relevant Standards and Codes of Practice
Codes of Practice 10.2 Codes of Practice
Section ten I Further Information I Relevant Standards and Codes of Practice

BS 4:2005. Structural steel sections. Specification for hot rolled sections. BS 4:2005. Structural steel sections. Specification for hot rolled sections.
BS 729:1995. Quality requirements for welding. BS 729:1995. Quality requirements for welding.
BS 1706:1990. Method for specifying electroplated coatings of zinc and BS 1706:1990. Method for specifying electroplated coatings of zinc and
cadmium on iron and steel. cadmium on iron and steel.
BS 4360:1986 Specification for weldable structural steels. BS 4360:1986 Specification for weldable structural steels.
BS 4848: Part 2: 1975. Specification for hot-rolled structural steel sections. BS 4848: Part 2: 1975. Specification for hot-rolled structural steel sections.
BS 4978: Specification for visual strength grading of softwood. BS 4978: Specification for visual strength grading of softwood.
BS 5268: Structural use of timber. BS 5268: Structural use of timber.
BS 5328 - 1:1997 Concrete - Guide to specifying concrete. BS 5328 - 1:1997 Concrete - Guide to specifying concrete.
BS 5400:1978. Steel, concrete and composite bridges. BS 5400:1978. Steel, concrete and composite bridges.
BS 5756:1997 Specification for visual strength grading of hardwood. BS 5756:1997 Specification for visual strength grading of hardwood.
BS 5950: Structural use of steelwork in building. BS 5950: Structural use of steelwork in building.
BS 7668:2004. Weldable structural steels. Hot finished structural hollow BS 7668:2004. Weldable structural steels. Hot finished structural hollow
sections in weather resistant steels specification. sections in weather resistant steels specification.
BS 8004: Code of Practice for foundations. BS 8004: Code of Practice for foundations.
BS 8118 - 2:1991 Structural use of aluminium. BS 8118 - 2:1991 Structural use of aluminium.
BS 8500: Complementary standard to BS EN 206-1. Method of specifying BS 8500: Complementary standard to BS EN 206-1. Method of specifying
and guidance for specifiers and specification for constituent materials. and guidance for specifiers and specification for constituent materials.
BS EN 206-1: Concrete. Specification, performance, production and BS EN 206-1: Concrete. Specification, performance, production and
conformity. conformity.
BS EN 519: Structural timber. Grading. Requirements for machine strength BS EN 519: Structural timber. Grading. Requirements for machine strength
graded timber and grading machines. graded timber and grading machines.
BS EN 7768:2004. Weldable structural steels hot finished structural hollow BS EN 7768:2004. Weldable structural steels hot finished structural hollow
sections in weather resistant steels specification. sections in weather resistant steels specification.
BS EN 10025:2004. Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels various BS EN 10025:2004. Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels various
properties for flats and plates. properties for flats and plates.
Relevant Standards and Relevant Standards and
Codes of Practice 10.2 Codes of Practice 10.2

BS EN 10056:1999. Specification for structural steel equal and BS EN 10056:1999. Specification for structural steel equal and
unequal angles. unequal angles.
BS EN 10210:2006. Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and BS EN 10210:2006. Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and
fine grained steels. Various properties, specifications and requirements. fine grained steels. Various properties, specifications and requirements.
BS EN 10219:2006. Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of BS EN 10219:2006. Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of
non-alloy and fine grained steels. Various properties, specifications and non-alloy and fine grained steels. Various properties, specifications and
requirements. requirements.
EN 460: Durability of wood and wood-based products. EN 460: Durability of wood and wood-based products.
The following extracts from the Highway Agency publication Design Manual The following extracts from the Highway Agency publication Design Manual
for Roads and Bridges are relevant to path bridge design: for Roads and Bridges are relevant to path bridge design:
BD 29/04 Design criteria for footbridges BD 29/04 Design criteria for footbridges
BD 37/01 Loads for highway bridges BD 37/01 Loads for highway bridges
BD 52/93 The design of highway bridge parapets BD 52/93 The design of highway bridge parapets
10.3Section ten I Further Information I Contacts
Contacts 10.3 Contacts
Section ten I Further Information I Contacts

British Standards Scottish Timber Trade Association British Standards Scottish Timber Trade Association
Technical Indexes Limited Office 14, John Player Building, Technical Indexes Limited Office 14, John Player Building,
Willoughby Road, Bracknell, Stirling Enterprise Park, Willoughby Road, Bracknell, Stirling Enterprise Park,
Berkshire, RG12 8DW Springbank Road, Stirling Berkshire, RG12 8DW Springbank Road, Stirling
Tel: 01344 404429 Tel: 01786 451623 Tel: 01344 404429 Tel: 01786 451623
www.bsoline.bsi-global.com www.stta.org.uk www.bsoline.bsi-global.com www.stta.org.uk
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology SEPA Corporate Office Centre for Ecology and Hydrology SEPA Corporate Office
Hill of Brathens, Banchory, Erskine Court, Castle Business Park, Hill of Brathens, Banchory, Erskine Court, Castle Business Park,
Aberdeenshire, AB31 4BW Stirling, FK9 4TR Aberdeenshire, AB31 4BW Stirling, FK9 4TR
Tel: 01330 826300 Tel: 01786 457700 Tel: 01330 826300 Tel: 01786 457700
www.ceh.ac.uk Fax: 01786 446885 www.ceh.ac.uk Fax: 01786 446885
www.sepa.org.uk www.sepa.org.uk
Endat Standard Indexes Ltd Endat Standard Indexes Ltd
Ochil House, Springkerse Business SUSTRANS Ochil House, Springkerse Business SUSTRANS
Park, Stirling, FK7 7XE 16a Randolph Crescent, Park, Stirling, FK7 7XE 16a Randolph Crescent,
Tel: 01786 407000 Edinburgh, EH3 7TT Tel: 01786 407000 Edinburgh, EH3 7TT
www.endat.com Tel: 0131 539 8122 www.endat.com Tel: 0131 539 8122
www.sustrans.org.uk www.sustrans.org.uk
Forestry Civil Engineering Forestry Civil Engineering
Greenside, Peebles, EH45 8JA The Concrete Society Greenside, Peebles, EH45 8JA The Concrete Society
Tel: 01721 720448 Riverside House, 4 Meadows Tel: 01721 720448 Riverside House, 4 Meadows
www.forestry.gov.uk Business Park, Station Approach, www.forestry.gov.uk Business Park, Station Approach,
Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey, Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey,
Forestry Commission Scotland Forestry Commission Scotland
GU17 9AB GU17 9AB
Silvan House, 231 Corstorphine Road, Silvan House, 231 Corstorphine Road,
Tel: 01276 607140 Tel: 01276 607140
Edinburgh, EH12 7AT Edinburgh, EH12 7AT
www.concreteinfo.org.uk www.concreteinfo.org.uk
www.forestry.gov.uk www.forestry.gov.uk
The Fieldfare Trust The Fieldfare Trust
Health and Safety Executive Health and Safety Executive
67a The Wicker, Sheffield, 67a The Wicker, Sheffield,
Rose Court, 2 Southwark Bridge, Rose Court, 2 Southwark Bridge,
South Yorkshire, S3 8HT South Yorkshire, S3 8HT
London, SE1 9HS London, SE1 9HS
www.fieldfare.org.uk www.fieldfare.org.uk
Infoline: 0845 345 0555 Infoline: 0845 345 0555
Publications: 01787 881165 Timber Research and Publications: 01787 881165 Timber Research and
www.hse.gov.uk Development Association www.hse.gov.uk Development Association
Stocking Lane, Hughenden Valley, Stocking Lane, Hughenden Valley,
Paths for All Partnership Paths for All Partnership
High Wycombe, HP14 4ND High Wycombe, HP14 4ND
Inglewood House, Tullibody Road, Inglewood House, Tullibody Road,
Tel: 01494 569600 Tel: 01494 569600
Alloa, FK10 2HU Alloa, FK10 2HU
Tel: 01259 218888 www.trada.co.uk Tel: 01259 218888 www.trada.co.uk
www.pathsforall.org.uk WRAP (The Waste and Resources www.pathsforall.org.uk WRAP (The Waste and Resources
Scottish Lime Centre Trust Action Programme) Scottish Lime Centre Trust Action Programme)
Charlestown Workshops, Rocks Road, The Old Academy, 21 Horse Fair, Charlestown Workshops, Rocks Road, The Old Academy, 21 Horse Fair,
Charlestown, Fife, KY11 3EN Banbury, Oxen Charlestown, Fife, KY11 3EN Banbury, Oxen
Tel: 01383 872722 Tel: 0808 100 2040 Tel: 01383 872722 Tel: 0808 100 2040
www.scotlime.org.uk www.wrap.org.uk www.scotlime.org.uk www.wrap.org.uk
Scottish Natural Heritage Scottish Natural Heritage

Great Glen House, Leachkin Road, Great Glen House, Leachkin Road,
Inverness, IV3 8NW Inverness, IV3 8NW
www.snh.gov.uk www.snh.gov.uk
Image Locations and Credits 10.4 Image Locations and Credits 10.4
Section ten I Further Information I Image Locations and Credits

Glamis Burn - Strong Bridges Glamis Burn - Strong Bridges
Ekki Bridge on A9 cycle route - PFAP Ekki Bridge on A9 cycle route - PFAP
Shaky Bridge, Comrie - PFAP Shaky Bridge, Comrie - PFAP
River Ayr suspension bridge - East Ayrshire Access Project River Ayr suspension bridge - East Ayrshire Access Project
Section one Section one

Urquhart Wood, Drumnadrochit - Strong Bridges Urquhart Wood, Drumnadrochit - Strong Bridges
Land manager consultation - PFAP Land manager consultation - PFAP
Ben Wyvis information cairn - SNH Ben Wyvis information cairn - SNH
Cyclists - PFAP Cyclists - PFAP
Sheep - SRPBA Sheep - SRPBA
Path construction machinery - Stirling Council Path construction machinery - Stirling Council
Carrie Footbridge, Tay Forest Park, Rannoch - Strong Bridges Carrie Footbridge, Tay Forest Park, Rannoch - Strong Bridges
Peckham Rye Common, South London - Strong Bridges Peckham Rye Common, South London - Strong Bridges
Strathnaver - PFAP Strathnaver - PFAP
Fish bridge Kidston Mill near Peebles - Jeremy Cunningham Fish bridge Kidston Mill near Peebles - Jeremy Cunningham
Section two Section two

Dalvreck Ford, Crieff - PFAP Dalvreck Ford, Crieff - PFAP
Craigvinnean, Dunkeld - Perth and Kinross Council Craigvinnean, Dunkeld - Perth and Kinross Council
Falls of Leny, Callander (photomontage) - Forestry Commission Scotland Falls of Leny, Callander (photomontage) - Forestry Commission Scotland
Bridge delivery lorry - North Lanarkshire Council Bridge delivery lorry - North Lanarkshire Council
Section three Section three

Green oak bridge, Luss - Loch Lomond and Trossachs National Park Green oak bridge, Luss - Loch Lomond and Trossachs National Park
Strathclyde Park - PFAP Strathclyde Park - PFAP
Stone arch bridge, Strathclyde Park - PFAP Stone arch bridge, Strathclyde Park - PFAP
Brick culvert - Bedfordshire County Council Brick culvert - Bedfordshire County Council
10.4Section ten I Further Information I Image Locations and Credits
Image Locations and Credits 10.4 Image Locations and Credits

River Ayr suspension bridge - East Ayrshire Access Project River Ayr suspension bridge - East Ayrshire Access Project
Stress laminated timber arch, Achray - FCE Stress laminated timber arch, Achray - FCE
Aerial mast bridge - FCE Aerial mast bridge - FCE
Darn Road Bridge, Dunblane - Stirling Council Darn Road Bridge, Dunblane - Stirling Council
Section four Section four

Glentrool bridge, Penfield Loch, Dumfries and Galloway - PFAP Glentrool bridge, Penfield Loch, Dumfries and Galloway - PFAP
Bankseat construction - Perth and Kinross Council Bankseat construction - Perth and Kinross Council
Concrete abutment, Broadwood Loch - North Lanarkshire Council Concrete abutment, Broadwood Loch - North Lanarkshire Council
Timber abutments - Fife Council Timber abutments - Fife Council
Sluggan Bridge, Inverness-shire - PFAP Sluggan Bridge, Inverness-shire - PFAP
Drumpellier Country Park - PFAP Drumpellier Country Park - PFAP
Broadwood Loch, Cumbernauld - North Lanarkshire Council Broadwood Loch, Cumbernauld - North Lanarkshire Council
Broadwood Loch, Cumbernauld - PFAP Broadwood Loch, Cumbernauld - PFAP
Deck Boards and wheelchair - Ali Hibbert Deck Boards and wheelchair - Ali Hibbert
Drumpellier Country Park - PFAP Drumpellier Country Park - PFAP
Grooved deck boards - PFAP Grooved deck boards - PFAP
Bridge construction in workshop - Perth and Kinross Council Bridge construction in workshop - Perth and Kinross Council
Vertical handrail, Achray - FEC Vertical handrail, Achray - FEC
Curved handrail posts, Broadwood Loch, Cumbernauld - PFAP Curved handrail posts, Broadwood Loch, Cumbernauld - PFAP
Tubular handrail - Bedfordshire County Council Tubular handrail - Bedfordshire County Council
Mounting Block, Tillicoultry - PFAP Mounting Block, Tillicoultry - PFAP
Handrail post attachment, Glentrool bridge - PFAP Handrail post attachment, Glentrool bridge - PFAP
Glentrool timber bridge in workshop - FCE Glentrool timber bridge in workshop - FCE
Haselbury New Bridge, (artists - Andrew Hutchins and Paul Hately) - River Haselbury New Bridge, (artists - Andrew Hutchins and Paul Hately) - River
Parret Trail Parret Trail
Handrail post attachment, Strathclyde Loch - PFAP Handrail post attachment, Strathclyde Loch - PFAP
Tillicoultry Glen - Clackmannanshire Council Tillicoultry Glen - Clackmannanshire Council
Image Locations and Credits 10.4 Image Locations and Credits 10.4

Section five Section five
Throwing a Stone over a Torrent - The Bridge Builders by William Heath Throwing a Stone over a Torrent - The Bridge Builders by William Heath
Robinson - Reproduced by permission of Pollinger Limited and the proprieter Robinson - Reproduced by permission of Pollinger Limited and the proprieter
Bridge construction, River Turrett, Crieff - Perth and Kinross Countryside Bridge construction, River Turrett, Crieff - Perth and Kinross Countryside
Trust Trust
Dyfi Millennium Bridge, (Artist - Jon Mills, Engineer - Bruce Pucknell) Photo Dyfi Millennium Bridge, (Artist - Jon Mills, Engineer - Bruce Pucknell) Photo
credit - Cywaith Cymru. Artworks Wales credit - Cywaith Cymru. Artworks Wales
Lochwinnoch Calder Bridge - Sustrans Lochwinnoch Calder Bridge - Sustrans
Mini-excavator - Drummuir 21 Mini-excavator - Drummuir 21
Bridge winching - FCE Bridge winching - FCE
Scaffolding construction platform - FCE Scaffolding construction platform - FCE
Section eight Section eight

8.2 All images - National Trust for Scotland 8.2 All images - National Trust for Scotland
8.3 All images - FCE 8.3 All images - FCE
8.4 All images - Stirling Council 8.4 All images - Stirling Council
8.6 All images - FCE 8.6 All images - FCE
8.7 Cambridge OTC on Drummuir Bridge - John Lyne 8.7 Cambridge OTC on Drummuir Bridge - John Lyne
Drummuir old bridge - Priscilla Gordon Duff Drummuir old bridge - Priscilla Gordon Duff
Drummuir handover - John Lyne Drummuir handover - John Lyne
6.13 Short Description of Works FORESTRY CIVIL
6.13
All Permanent and Temporary Works in connection with :- ENGINEERING
is part of

Construction of a 6 new footbridges, overlay deck of one footbridge, new footpaths and FOREST ENTERPRISE
new handrails for access through Dollar Glen. an executive agency of
FORESTRY COMMISSION
Form of Tender
To Forestry Civil Engineering
Greenside
Name of Tenderer
Peebles
EH45 8JA -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Gentlemen, Address & Tel

Having examined the Drawings, Conditions of Contract, Specification, Bills of Quantities -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
and Schedules for the construction of the above mentioned works (and the matters set out in
the Appendix and Contract Schedule hereto) we offer to construct and complete the whole of
the said works in conformity with the said Drawings, Conditions of Contract, Specification,
Bills of Quantities and Schedules for the sum of :-
CONSTRUCTION OF FOOTBRIDGES, FENCING
£ (amount in words ) all excluding VAT AND PATHS AT DOLLAR GLEN
If our Tender is accepted we will, if required, provide security for the due performance of the Job No FCE/0202
contract as stipulated in the Appendix hereto.
We undertake to complete and deliver the whole of the Permanent Works comprised in the
Contract within the time stated in the Appendix hereto.
NATIONAL TRUST FOR SCOTLAND
Unless and until a formal Agreement is prepared and executed this Tender together with your
written acceptance thereof, shall constitute a binding contract between us. TENDER DOCUMENTS
We certify that this is a bona fide tender, and that the sums have not been disclosed to anyone
except as necessary for financial guarantees.
We understand that you are not bound to accept the lowest or any tender you may receive. Tenders to be returned by 2pm on Friday 22nd February 2002
Anticipated start date of Works : 1st March 2002

We are, Gentlemen
Your faithfully,
Signature
Engineer for the Works: Planning Supervisor Resident Engineer
Address Mr G. Freedman Geoff Freedman Geoff Freedman
Forestry Civil
Engineering
Date Greenside
Peebles
EH45 8JA
Tel 01721 720 448
Fax: 01721 723 041
November 2006 Path Bridges - planning design construction and maintenance Path Bridges - planning design construction and maintenance November 2006
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6.13 Contract Schedule STANDARD CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT FOR FORESTRY CIVIL
6.13
(list of documents forming part of the contract) ENGINEERING CONTRACTS
1 Letters of invitation and acceptance
Instructions to Tenderers Conditions of Contract

2 The Contractor’s Tender on the Form of Tender(excluding any items introduced by the Contractor) • The Contract will not include a price fluctuation clause. The rates The Conditions of Contract governing this contract shall be the ICE
3 Instructions to tenderers and prices will remain fixed for the duration of the Contract. If the Conditions of Contract for Minor Works 2nd Edition 1995 incorporating
Tender is altered or qualified in any way it will be disqualified. · the Amendments to the ICE Conditions of Contract Minor Works 2nd
4 Conditions of Contract Edition, to take into account the Housing Grants, Construction and
• The Contractor will return the Form of Tender and the Bills of
5 Appendix to the Conditions of Contract Quantities only. They will be completed and signed in ink.· Regeneration Act 1996 (Part ||) Ref ICE/MW2/HGCR/March 1998,
as published by the Institution of Civil Engineers, The Association of
6 Modifications, additions and exclusions to the Conditions of Contract. • Before work commences on site the Contractor must provide the Consulting Engineers and The Civil Engineering Contractors Association
Engineer with the following: and incorporating the modifications and additions as noted hereunder:-
7 The following letters
Health & Safety Plan, Modifications and additions
from................................................ to........................................................ Risk Assessments for all tas • Insert Clause 3.2 (4) The Contractor will ascertain by inspection
dated............... Proposed programme of work & method statement, the existence of any overhead High Voltage Cables which could
from................................................ to........................................................ Assurance that SEPA/EA have been informed, constitute a hazard to working. If any are found he will notify
the Engineer and the Electricity Company and take action as
dated............... A CIS 5 or 6 or equivalent to permit full payment of invoices recommended by them before commencement of the works.
without deduction of tax,
from................................................ to........................................................ • Insert Clause 3.2 (5) The Contractor is responsible for detecting the
A performance bond as required.(see appendix to Cdt of Cont)· existence of any underground services or hazards. He will then take
dated............... all measures required by the Local Authority or Utility to protect the
• If any errors occur between the rates and the extensions, the rates will
8 Appendices to documents. Drawings Nos FCE/0202/01,02,03 be taken as correct. The Engineer will make the necessary corrections pipe, cable or equipment. The contractor will make good any damage
and the Contractor will confirm or withdraw his Tender.· caused as a result of his operations.
Specifications for New Bridge Works and Deck Overlay
• The Engineer will inform the losing Tenderers within 7 days of the • Clause 3.8 Delete this clause. The Contractor takes all responsibility
Specification for Footpath opening of the tenders. The name, together with a list of the tendered and prices the tender accordingly.
Specification for Basic Pollution Control Kit sums, may be issued if the Engineer thinks fit. • Insert Clause 3.10 The Contractor will have a sighting level, staff
• Tenders to be submitted to the Engineer by the time and date marked and tape on site for the use of the Engineer.
Bills of Quantities on the front page. It will be returned in the envelope provided. It may • Clause 4.4 Delete sub paragraph ‘c’ relating to clause 3.8
Draft Method Statement be faxed through a third party and delivered sealed.
• Insert Clause 7.10 The Contract will be fixed price and no variation
• Late tenders will not be considered.
Draft Health & Safety Plan will be allowed except in respect of a quantity in the Bill of Quantities
• A site visit can be arranged by contacting the Engineer during the provided it has been agreed by the Engineer.
Draft Risk Assessment document tender period. • Clause 9.1 Renumber this clause to read 9.1 (a)
Location maps. (showing authorised access routes) • While working on FC land the Contractor will ensure that he is • Insert Clause 9.1 (b) Health Safety & Welfare
acquainted with the booklet “Forestry Commission Bylaws”. A copy
is held at the Forestry Enterprise District Office.· • The Contractor will notify the Health & Safety Executive (HSE)
unless the project can be completed in less than 30 days with less
• The Contractor will familiarise himself with the work site and
Appendix to The Conditions of Contract the authorised access. The use of the access routes will be at the
than 5 men.
Contractor’s own risk. The Engineer will not be liable for any damage • The Contractor will always notify the HSE if demolition works are
or injury which may occur while using the access. involved
1 Description and of Works - The Contractor will demolish and remove from site the equivalent of • The Contractor will comply with the following Acts and
• On completion of the works the Contractor will repair any damage
6 footbridges and construct 6 new footbridges and overlay the deck of one existing footbridge. to the access routes to the satisfaction of the Engineer. Regulations
The abutments are generally existing with some reconstruction and new concrete necessary. The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974
• The National Trust for Scotland’s objectives include encouraging Management of Health and Safety at Work Regs. 1999
Contractor will carry out new path-works where rock is protruding through existing paths. The recreational use of their properties while conserving the environment. Construction (Design and Management) Regs. 1994
Contractor will provide all of the labour and materials except for aerial mast sections which will The Contractor will take special care at all time to ensure these policy Construction [Health Safety and Welfare] Regulations 1996
objectives are upheld. This will entail making provision for the public
be delivered to site for him to assemble. and ensuring that the plant and wildlife are not harmed. • The Contractor will take specific precautions to protect the Public
in the same way as employees. Specific actions will include fencing
• The Glen is a Site of Special Scientific Interest therefore all demolished materials will be • The Contractor will hold a basic pollution control kit (see off dangers and notifying of excavations etc. These precautions will
removed from site and no damage to the fabric of the site will be tolerated. Specification for Basic Pollution Kit in Appendix) on site. In event be especially relevant if there are workings on roads or if there is
of a major incident he will call the SEPA office in Stirling to locate likely to be large numbers of public nearby.
2 Location and description of Works - The site is located just north of Dollar Village which is on full and adequate facilities to deal with the incident.
• The Contractor’s attention is drawn in particular to the following
the A91 between Kinross and Stirling. Site OS References NS 963 990. Access is by a minor • If there are other activities close by or through routes adjacent the relevant regulations:
public road to a car park area and a 300m walk to the first site, Junction bridge. There is also site boundaries will be marked on the plans. The Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regs. 1998
access from the North at the castle along a steep footpath approximately 200m long. The site • Site huts will be erected in a position agreed with the Engineer. This The Construction (Head Protection) Regulations 1989
is very dangerous with steep drops at the work areas. Access for materials may be possible by will be combined with the siting of the storage yard for materials. • The Contractor’s operators will show a CTA certificate on
Toxic chemicals and oils will be kept in double skinned containers demand.
polypropelene chute from the public road. There will be sufficient storage and working space in or bunded storage so they cannot spill into a watercourse. All stores
this area. Mobile phone communication is liable to be limited for reception. and lagoons for washing out to be a minimum distance of 25m from • The Contractor accepts the minimum standards relevant to the work
the watercourse. as defined and promulgated by Construction Industry Training Board
3 Method of Payment (Clause 7.2) Measure & value using the priced Bill of Publication PSN 01.
• The Contractor will ensure that other authorised users of Dollar Glen
Quantities are adequately warned of any dangers created by the contractor. • Insert Clause 9.4 The Contractor will comply with the requirements
of ‘The Forests and Water Guidelines’ (Forestry Commission 2000
4 Engineer (Clause 2.1) Mr G Freedman Access will not be severed without notice and agreement.
copy at FDO), SEPA/EA guidance for Civil Engineering Contracts
• The Contractor is not permitted to light fires in the Glen for any
5 Resident Engineer (Clause 2.2) Mr G Freedman reason whatsoever.
and UKWAS certification standards. This will not be to the
exclusion of other requirements. Particular attention will be given
6 Starting Date (Clause 4.1) 1st March 2002. • The Contractor will provide his operatives with full harnesses while to prevent silting, erosion or pollution of rivers, streams, waterways,
working at height. Those moving with the aid of ropes are to be watercourses, water supplies, groundwater, lakes and the likes or
7 Period for Completion(Clause 4.2) 10 weeks. adequately trained cause injury or death to animal, fish or plant life.
8 Liquidated Damages (Clause 4.6) £200 per week • Insert Clause 9.5 The Contractor shall safeguard all water supplies
and indemnify the employer against all losses and claims whatsoever
9 Defects Correction Period (clause 5.0) 6 months in respect of the Contractor’s failure so to do.
10 Rate of Retention (Clause 7.3) 5% , 2.5% for Defects Correction Period
11 Minimum interim certificate (Clause 7.3) £5 000.
12 Insurance of the Works (Clause 10.1) £100,000
13 Minimum amount of third party liability (Clause 10.6) £5,000,000
14 Planning Supervisor (Clause 13.1(b)) Mr G Freedman
15 Principle Contractor (Clause 13(1)(b)) ..................................................
16 Performance Bond - value £5,000
November 2006 November 2006
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7.2 Log Bridge Log Bridge 7.2

The log bridge is designed to present a cheap and short-term option. It will
Aim to lay log beams such that top surfaces have application where logs are available at sites where importing standard
are as near to level as possible. Use flat timber
packers on nailing strips to achieve this beams might be difficult. It can be built from readily available components
All transoms must be parallel and level
that do not require prefabrication.
For gaps greater than 10mm For gaps less than 10mm, single flat However, the fact that it is difficult to grade the log beams and, therefore
make up shallow tapered wedges timber packer planed to suit should be
and hammer in from both sides hammered in guarantee their structural integrity, means that not only are the loads
the bridge can accommodate kept to a minimum, the bridge cannot be
Detail showing method of packing out beams and transoms expected to last for more than 5 years.
Particular care is needed in cutting and bolting the handrail posts to the
Fencing wire tie
transoms (See Section 4.4). This is the most likely point of weakness, and
Upper accurate construction is imperative.
Nailing transom
strip
Deck
boards Handrail
Recess for post
bolt head
Extra plank on M20 bolts

transom to make up
height difference if
required
Transom
clamping bolt
Lower transom
This board must be
cut down to suit gap
22mm dia pre

drilled hole
Log bridge 3D
Notes:-
1. End handrail posts to be screwed to both beams and end faces of
bankseats with M20 x 200 coach bolt into suitable predrilled holes.
2. Lay self adhesive textured strips or similar non-skid treatment onto each
deck board.
3. Telegraph poles to be laid such that top surface is level and outer faces
are parallel.
4. Screw deck boards to nailing strips in sections or ‘pallets’. Lay pallets
on beams, loosely attach with wire ties and line up. Tighten until pallets
firm. Pallets can be removed for maintenance or replacement by simply
cutting ties.
5. Recessed holes on transoms to be filled with clear silicon sealant after
tightening of bolts.
6. Deck board thickness plus nailing strip must equal top transom depth.
November 2006 Path Bridges - planning design construction and maintenance November 2006
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7.2 Log Bridge 7.2
Handrails nailed to uprights with 2 no. per joint 8g x 100 1200
galvanised nails in 3mm dia x 90 deep predrilled holes. Joints
in rails to be half checked at a post. Only one joint per post. 100 x 50 top rail with 25mm
radius on top surface
span 6000
400
100 x 50 intermediate and lower rails
1475 1475 1475 1475 150 x 50
1000
deckboards
A
1500
100 sq. handrail uprights
50
100 sq. transom
350 nominal dia. telegraph pole

main beams
A
Cut deck boards to fit
adjacent to transoms
150 tk C30 100 sq. transom
Approach ramp
concrete pad
Plant large boulders around
Section AA
bank seat for scour protection
Telegraph pole sections used as
bankseat and facing to concrete pad
Side elevation Deck boards nailed to 100 x Recess for

Predrill top hole line
50 strips wired to logs with bolt head
50
up post then drill
4 no. per board 8g x 100
bottom hole in situ
galvanised nails in 3mm dia.
x 90 deep predrilled holes 50
Log Transom and bottom strut

50 x 100 nailing strip clamped to clamped to logs with 2 no. M20 galvanised bolts with 75
beams with heavy-duty fence wire ties galvanised M16 threaded dia. flat washers in 22mm hole
at 300 centres. See detail. rods with flat washers
under both nuts. Pack
logs with wooden wedges
to ensure transoms are
level. See detail.
Handrail and deck fixing detail
Twist wire together

between deck boards
Deck board
Plan view 50 x 100 deck nailing strip
(deck and handrails not shown)
Fencing wire ties at 300 centres
Deck/Bearer fixing detail
Example shown is 1.2m Pedestrian Normal NOT TO SCALE
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7.3 Sawn Timber Bridge Sawn Timber Bridge 7.3
This design uses timber throughout and is suitable for a range of spans
Section seven I Standard Designs I Sawn Timber Bridge
Section seven I Standard Designs I Sawn Timber Bridge

User Category Span (m)
depending on the availability of timber sections for main beams. A key
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 principle of the design is to avoid drilling or nailing into the main beams in
Pedestrian Normal 150 200 250 250 250 300 300 order to minimise timber decay. Please note:
usable width 1.0m x 75 x 100 x 150 x 150 x 150 x 225 x 225
beam
section
• For wider decks refer to tables for beam numbers and sizes
75mm x 100mm @ 1400 crs dxb • Structural timber to be Strength class C24. Visually graded to Forestry
(mm)
handrail detail refer to drawing Commission specification
deck section 50mm x 150mm
2 no. beams @ 0.7m crs • Drill transom/handrail post connecting holes in situ to ensure tight fit
around beams. Tighten transom clamping bolts to refusal
Pedestrian Normal 150 200 250 250 250 300 300
usable width 1.2m x 75 x 100 x 150 x 150 x 150 x 225 x225 • Nailing strips to be attached to beams using galvanised fencing wire ties.
beam Deck boards may be screwed to nailing strips prior to transportation to site
section for ease of installation
75mm x 100mm @ 1400 crs dxb
handrail detail refer to drawing (mm) • Plane smooth all handrail sections to remove splinters
• Use self-adhesive textured strip or similar non slip coating on deck boards
3 no. beams @ 0.45m crs
• Fasteners to be galvanised. Grease all threads prior to installation
Pedestrian Crowd 200 250 250 300 300 300 350
beam
section
100mm x 150mm @ 1500 crs dxb
handrail detail refer to drawing (mm)
Horses 200 250 250 250 300 300 350

beam
section
see handrail details - Glentrool table
(vertical infill not advised) dxb
deck section 100mm x 150mm (mm)
Note: Deck board thickness plus nailing strip must equal top transom depth.
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7.3 Sawn Timber Bridge 7.3
3000 1500
150 x 50 sections for top rail
100 x 125 handrail posts

75 x 35 inner handrail
1250
1250
75 x 75 outer rails with checks

cut to fit into posts
75 x 35 vertical slats
Upper
transom
For transom/beam arrangement

see detail
3 no. 250 x 100 x 100

150 timber beam lower transom
End elevation
Side elevation Example concrete bankseat 315

See detail 1800 x 75 x 6 beam
clamping plate across
beams drilled to suit
15 no. 150 x 50 deck holding down bolts
25
boards nailed to runners
12mm tk rubber pad
M20 x 120 Bolt with large flat washers

Cast M16 studding under head/nut in 21mm dia hole
into abutment to
pass through beam
100 x 50 nailing strip clamping plate
strapped to beam
Concrete bankseat.
Vary design to suit
circumstances
1600
Main beam
Ensure
Handrail post transoms fit
tightly around
75 x 50 top rail
beam
100 x 100 screwed to posts
upper transom after slats are
75 x 75 rails installed
screwed to
outside of
posts
75 x 35 slats
screwed to outside 30O chamfer
End deck board 125 x 100 nailed rails at 50 centres
to top transom, not main beam M16 studding with flat washers under nuts. Recess
top nut into transom and fill with clear silicon sealant.
Plan Details Nuts tightened after handrails are bolted in place
Example shown is 1.5m Pedestrian Crowd NOT TO SCALE
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7.4 Glentrool Bridge - Steel Glentrool Bridge - Steel 7.4
Section seven I Standard Designs I Glentrool Bridge - Steel
Section seven I Standard Designs I Glentrool Bridge - Steel

1. Typical span shown for pedestrian/cycle use. Determine beam sizes and This is a simple bridge design developed by Forestry Civil Engineering
numbers depending on required span and use. Extra beams may be and has been used in many situations. It is seen as a replacement for the
added to beam/angle frame as required. Galloway timber and steel bridges, being simpler to construct and more
durable. It utilises steel main beams and angle transoms with a timber
2. Beam/angle frame to be fabricated in factory, including base plates. Bolt deck and handrail. The steel beam/angle frame is fabricated in a factory,
holes are drilled as required and then whole frame is galvanised. All base galvanised and then delivered to the site as one unit. Good access is
plates must sit flat to within 5mm or less post-galvanising. Frame to be
delivered on site and installed as one unit. therefore essential for this design. This bridge is suitable for all users and a
range of spans.
3. Holding down bolts can be changed to M20 expansion bolts for attaching
to existing abutments.
4. If a more secure handrail is required add galvanised weldmesh or use

vertical timber strip infill.
5.Construction sequence as follows:-

• Construct abutments and approaches
• Lift in and bolt down steel frame
• Bolt on nailing strips (note, if bridge is spanning inaccessible gap such as
a deep gorge, the nailing strips should be bolted before frame is lifted in)
• Nail down deck boards
• Bolt on handrail posts
• Screw on handrails
Note handrail/deck members can be progressed together across the bridge

if gap is inaccessible. An adequate lifting device will be required. Provide a
safe working platform and plan lift carefully.
Frame Construction
The steel frame can be either:
1. Welded together and galvanised (as shown in drawings) and transported
to site as one unit.
2. Bolted together on site. In this case the angles and beam flanges must be
predrilled and then galvanised. For bridges of 9m or less, use M12 bolts
and drill holes centrally.
13mm bolt holes located halfway between 0.5 x

outer edge of flange and face of web flange size
0.5 x flange size
0.5 x post size 30

(146 flange) M12 stainless
bolts with flat
Lower transom similar penny washers
End view Plan
Transom bolting detail

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7.4 Glentrool Bridge - Steel 7.4
1300
UB
Universal Beam Centres of nailing Nailing strip Plan on steel
(UB) with holes Nailing strip
strip fixings fixings
1200
1300
Plan on deck
Posts 75 x 100 for

100 x 50 softwood 1000 handrail.
planks screwed
to nailing strips
100 x 50 softwood
nailing strip bolts
70 x 70 x 8
Angle Transoms UB
Elevation on bridge
Typical section
Main
Beam
UB
Angle/Beam connection detail Holding down bolt detail Base plate detail
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7.5 Glentrool Bridge - Timber Glentrool Bridge - Timber 7.5
Section seven I Standard Designs I Glentrool Bridge - Timber
Section seven I Standard Designs I Glentrool Bridge - Timber

NOTES: This version of the Glentrool uses timber beams in conjunction with a series
1. All dimensions are in millimetres unless stated otherwise. of steel frames which both restrain the beams and act as attachments
2. Structural timber - As schedule and visual graded to Forestry Commission for the handrail posts. Unlike the steel beam version, this bridge can only
specification by others. All timber to be provided from a sustainable accommodate pedestrian normal loads as the design restricts the number of
source, i.e. an FSC registered supplier or equal and approved. beams to two.
3. Timber finishes - sawn except for rails, which are to be sawn and sanded The table below suggests a combination of components and beam sizes but
in situ. these may be altered as needs dictate by referring to the tables in Technical
4. Handrail joints must not be adjacent. Rails cut on site. Sheets 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8.
5. Back fill to abutments to be free draining granular material. Back fill not to
be taken above beam bearing level until beams are fixed.
6. Coach screws to be dipped in light oil before use.
7. Steel beams and end plates must be made from grade S275 steel. All
steel to BSEN10025.
8. All beams and end plates to be hot-dip galvanised in accordance with
BS729:1986.
9. All bolts, screws and washers to be zinc plated in accordance with
BS1706:1990, Classification Code Fe.Zn25.
10. Epoxy resin for holding down bolts to be approved.
User Category Span (m)
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Pedestrian Normal 150 200 250 250 250 300 300

usable width 1.0m x 75 x 100 x 150 x150 x 150 x 225 x 225
handrail height 1.0m beam
handrail post section section
75mm x 100mm @ 1400 crs dxb
handrail section 100mm x 50mm (mm)
2 beams @ 0.7m crs
The order of erection is as follows:

1. Lay abutments
2. Position timber beams with steel frame at either end (with welded angle
and holding down bolt) on abutments, and fix with holding down bolts.
3. Position internal steel frames and wedge beams with timber wedges if
necessary. Fix posts.
4. Lay runners and deck.
5. Attach handrails.
A3 SHEETS-cn.indd 9 1/12/06 16:39:08

7.5 Glentrool Bridge - Timber 7.5
5000 22O hole 22O hole 25O hole 25O hole
1250 1250 1250 1250
60
25
70 x 70 x 8 60
Angle 250 300 300 250
250 1350
1100
according to
beam size
Varies
Plan on vertical Plan on Plan on

steel rod post angle bearing angle
45 No. 100 x 75 975 long deck planks with 44 spaces of 13mm between
planks. Fixed to nailing strips with 4 No. wood screws per plank
1350 1350
Plan on bridge 1000
1000
175 x 35 top rail
Top and side rails fixed with 75 x 125 treated
270
12O 90 long plated screws softwood posts
5500
1000
1000
150 x 50 side rails
250 1250 1250 1250 1250 250
270
100 x 75 Runner 100 x 75 timber
(not fixed to Beam)
decking
Proposed 250 x 150
50
390
Ground Level timber beam
timber wedges
varies (if required)
according 30°
1100 angle
to beam 70 x 70 x 8 Angles
size
25mm O steel bar welded to
4000 angles with 6mm fillet weld
2 No. 250 x 150
Timber Beam Section through bridge Section through bridge at support
Abutment details depend on site
Elevation on bridge
250 x 150
Timber
100 x 75 Oak nailing strip Beam
on 250 x 150 Timber beams
100
125
4925
20mm thk grout

Concrete abutment
300
Epoxy resin - to be
installed in accordance 6 No. 20O Holding
1350
1100
with manufacturers Down Bolts

instructions
1250 1250 1250 1175

125
Plan on beams Holding down bolt detail
A3 SHEETS-cn.indd 10 1/12/06 16:39:12

8.5 Regime Regime 8.5
NOTES

1. This could refer to a forest block, river name, local area name etc.
2. OS survey reference: 2 letters, 6 digits.
3. Arch, RC slab, PSC beams and insitu infill, composite steel and concrete,
tramrail, steel beam with timber deck, aerial mast, Bailey, large culvert,
timber footbridge, suspension, etc..
4. This should refer to the current classification i.e.
A Arterial Route: B Spur Road :C Other Road: D Footpath
5. This refers to joint ownership or joint maintenance agreements or multiple users.
Entry to show FE’s percentage liability and names of partners.
6. Dimensions in metres and hectares for short record and millimetres for detailed
record below. (Imperial units used where necessary for old sections.)
7. Approximate dimension.
8. Area and description of topography, vegetal cover etc.
9. Average within 50m up and downstream of bridge and an indication of flow
characteristics – sluggish, torrent, meandering etc.
10. This will probably be the same as load capacity, but for certain (possibly non-
engineering) reasons, it may differ.
11. This should be total cost i.e. construction plus overhead / design cost.
12. Electricity, water supply or other services attached to deck.
13. Construction and survey drawings if any.
14. Metal members to have their protective coating detailed under type e.g. UB
painted, tramrail waxed etc.
15. Left and right bank looking downstream. U/S = upstream; D/S = downstream.
16. Where necessary, distinguish between L & R, U/S & D/S walls.
17. Descriptions to accord with Tables 3.1 and 3.2 of BA 16/97 i.e. as for MEXI
assessment.
18. Depths required from fixed points on structure to underside of foundation.
Foundation subsoil e.g. gravel, clay, bedrock etc.
Sketch and/or photograph
A3 SHEETS-cn.indd 11 1/12/06 16:39:13

Forestry Commission Inspection
8.5 Regime 8.5

1. This could refer to a forest block, river name, local area name etc..
2. This should refer to the current classification i.e.
A Arterial Route
B Spur Road
C Other Road
D Footpath
3. This refers to joint ownership or joint maintenance agreements or multiple users.
Entry to show FE’s percentage liability and names of partners.
4. The ‘Condition Report’ is the assessment of defects. The following system of
scaled descriptions must be used. Number ‘Overall’ box, and tick other boxes
as appropriate.
Extent
A Slight, up to about 10% of area/length affected
B Moderate, 10% to about 50% affected
C Extensive, over 50%
Overall & Severity
1 Very good, no defects
2 Good, minor defects of non-urgent nature.
3 Minor defects, requiring attention within 2-3 years.
4 Poor, defects of an unacceptable nature which should be included for
attention within the next annual maintenance programme.
5 Urgent, severe defects where action is needed within the present financial
year. (These should be reported immediately to the client.)
5. Left and right bank when looking down stream. U/S = upstream, and D/S =
downstream.
6. The requirement for the work should be obvious from the comments above. An
estimated cost should be provided for the ACE.
7. Unless another system is agreed, a copy of the form should be sent to the ACE
for authorisation. The following year’s report will show details of work carried
out.
8. ‘Details of Defects’: Provides for expansion of the description of the extent and
severity beyond ticks in the boxes. Photographs should be considered. The
defect number from the ‘Condition Report’ should always be used.
9. This refers to the current status of the bridge capacity.
10. ‘ACE’s Comments’: ACE to agree or disagree work recommended, and
estimated costs. There may be other, non engineering reasons, why repairs are
not to be carried out as recommended. If so, the ACE should report here.
11. ‘Maintenance Category’: Allows for ACE to comment on the urgency /
timescale of the proposed work
A Urgent – < 3 months
B Medium term – 3/6 months
C Long term - > 6 months
12. ACE to insert latest date for next inspection (maximum 3 years).
November 2006 Path Bridges - planning design construction and maintenance November 2006
A3 SHEETS-cn.indd 12 1/12/06 16:39:13

Path Bridges Guide

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Path Bridges Path Bridges

Section four I Design Considerations Section four I Design Considerations

Section six I Technical Sheets Section six I Technical Sheets

Section seven I Standard Designs Section seven I Standard Designs

Section eight I Case Studies Section eight I Case Studies

Section nine I Glossary Section nine I Glossary

Section ten I Further Information Section ten I Further Information

Path Bridges I Contents

Section one Section one

Section two Section two

Section three Section three

Section four Section four

Section five Section five

Path Bridges I Contents

Section seven Section seven

Section eight Section eight

Section nine Section nine

Section ten Section ten

Path Bridges I Introduction

Path Bridges I Introduction

Path Bridges I Introduction

Practical tips Practical tips

Key information Key information

Path Bridges I Introduction

Path Bridges I Introduction

Path Bridges I Introduction

Special thanks go to Special thanks go to

Section one I Planning Ahead I Consider the Options

Section one I Planning Ahead I Consider the Options

• Planning and permissions • Planning and permissions

Use contractors Use contractors

Section one I Planning Ahead I Consider the Options

Hand it over to consultants Hand it over to consultants

Section one I Planning Ahead I Consultation

Section one I Planning Ahead I Consultation

Land managers can provide Land managers can provide

Meeting needs Meeting needs

Section one I Planning Ahead I Permissions and Legalities

Highways, railways and waterways Highways, railways and waterways

Designated Areas Designated Areas

Environmental protection Environmental protection

Section one I Planning Ahead I Permissions and Legalities

Section one I Planning Ahead I Permissions and Legalities

Management Responsibility Management Responsibility

Section one I Planning Ahead I Permissions and Legalities

Completion Certificate Completion Certificate

Section one I Planning Ahead I Permissions and Legalities

Section one I Planning Ahead I Permissions and Legalities

Section one I Planning Ahead I Design Parameters

Path users and numbers Path users and numbers

• Pedestrians (tourists, experienced walkers, • Pedestrians (tourists, experienced walkers,

Section one I Planning Ahead I Design Parameters

Section one I Planning Ahead I Design Parameters

Access for All Access for All

In situations where it is not reasonable In situations where it is not reasonable

Section one I Planning Ahead I Design Parameters

Unauthorised users Unauthorised users

Landscape fit Landscape fit

Think about the following: Think about the following:

Section one I Planning Ahead I Design Parameters

Section one I Planning Ahead I Design Parameters

Section one I Planning Ahead I Design Parameters

Site access Site access

Anticipate future needs Anticipate future needs