Disaster Profile

The Indian subcontinent is among the world’s most disaster prone areas. Almost 85% of India’s
area is vulnerable to one or multiple hazard. Of the 28 states and 7 union territories, 22 are
disaster-prone. It is vulnerable to wind storms spawned in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian
Sea, earthquakes caused by active crustal movement in the Himalayan mountains, floods brought
by monsoons, and droughts in the country’s arid and semi-arid areas. Almost 57% of the land is
vulnerable to earthquake (high seismic zones III–V), 68% to drought, 8% to cyclones and 12% to
floods. India has also become much more vulnerable to tsunamis since the 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami.

Study of seismic zones in india

Seismic Zones

Earthquake - prone areas of the country have been identified on the basis of scientific
inputs relating to seismicity, earthquakes occurred in the past and tectonic setup of the region.
Based on these inputs, Bureau of Indian Standards [IS 1893 (Part I):2002], has grouped the
country into four seismic zones, viz. Zone II, III, IV and V. Of these, Zone V is seismically the
most active region, while zone II is the least. Broadly, Zone - V comprises entire northeastern
India, parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Rann of Kutch in Gujarat,
part of North Bihar and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Zone - IV covers remaining parts of
Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, Sikkim,
Northern Parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal, parts of Gujarat and small portions of
Maharashtra near the west coast and Rajasthan. Zone – III comprises Kerala, Goa, Lakshadweep
islands, remaining parts of Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and West Bengal, Parts of Punjab, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamilnadu and Karnataka. Zone - II covers remaining parts of country.

Seismic Zones

Earthquake - prone areas of the country have been identified on the basis of scientific
inputs relating to seismicity, earthquakes occurred in the past and tectonic setup of the region.
Based on these inputs, Bureau of Indian Standards [IS 1893 (Part I):2002], has grouped the
country into four seismic zones, viz. Zone II, III, IV and V. Of these, Zone V is seismically the
most active region, while zone II is the least. Broadly, Zone - V comprises entire northeastern
India, parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Rann of Kutch in Gujarat,
part of North Bihar and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Zone - IV covers remaining parts of
Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, Sikkim,
Northern Parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal, parts of Gujarat and small portions of
Maharashtra near the west coast and Rajasthan. Zone – III comprises Kerala, Goa, Lakshadweep
islands, remaining parts of Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and West Bengal, Parts of Punjab, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamilnadu and Karnataka. Zone - II covers remaining parts of country.
 A list of important cities falling in various seismic zones, has also been prepared by BIS
and is given below:-

Town State/UT Zone Town State/UT Zone

Agra Utter Pradesh III Chitradurga Karnataka II
Ahmedabad Gujarat III Coimbatore Tamil nadu III
Ajmer Rajasthan II Cuddalore Tamil Nadu III
Allahabad Utter Pradesh II Cuttack Orissa III
Almora Uttrakhand IV Darbhanga Bihar V
Ambala Haryana IV Darjeeling West Bengal IV
Amritsar Punjab IV Dharwad Karnataka III
Asansol West Bengal III Dehradun Uttrakhand IV
Aurangabad Maharastha II Dharmpuri Tamil Nadu III
Baharich Utter Pradesh IV Delhi Delhi IV
Bangalore Karnataka II Durgapur West Bengal III
Barauni Bihar IV Gangtok Sikkim IV
Bareilly Utter Pradesh III Guwahati Assam V
Belgaum Karnataka III Goa Goa III
Bhatinda Punjab III Gulbarga Karnataka II
Bhilai Chattiagarh II Gaya Bihar III
Bhopal Madhya Pradesh II Gorakhpur Utter Pradesh IV
Bhubaneswar Orissa III Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh II
Bhuj Gujarat V Imphal Manipur V
Bijapur Karnataka III Jabalpur Madhya III
Pradesh
Bikaner Rajasthan III Jaipur Rajasthan II
Bokaro Jharkhand III Jamshedpur Jharkhand II
Bulandshahr Utter Pradesh IV Jhansi Utter Pradesh II
Burdwan West Bengal III Jodhpur Rajasthan II
Cailcut Kerala III Jorhat Assam V
Chandigarh Chandigarh IV Kakrapara Gujarat III
Chennai Tamil Nadu III Kalapakkam Tamil Nadu III
Kanchipuram Tamil Nadu III Pondicherry Pondicherry II
Kanpur Utter Pradesh III Pune Maharastha III
Karwar Karnataka III Raipur Chattisgarh II
Kohima Nagaland V Rajkot Gujarat III
Kolkata West Bengal III Ranchi Chattisgarh II
Kota Rajasthan II Roorkee Uttrakhand IV
Kurnool Andhra Pradesh II Rourkela Orissa II
Lucknow Utter Pradesh III Sadiya Assam V
Ludhiyana Punjab IV Salem Tamil Nadu III
Madurai Tamil Nadu II Simla Himanchal IV
Pradesh
Mandi Himanchal V Sironj Madhya II
 Pradesh Pradesh
Mangalore Karnataka III Solapur Maharastha III
Monghyr Bihar IV Srinagar Jammu & V
Kashmir
Moradabad Utter Pradesh IV Surat Gujarat III
Mumbai Maharastha III Tarapur Maharastha III
Mysore Karnataka II Tezpur Assam V
Nagpur Maharastha II Thane Maharastha III
Nagarjunasagar Andhra Pradesh II Thanjavur Tamil Nadu II
Nainital Uttrakhand IV Thiruvananthapuram Kerala III
Nasik Maharastha III Tiruchirappali Tamil Nadu II
Nellore Andhra Pradesh III Tiruvennamalai Tamil Nadu III
Osmanabad Maharastha III Udaipur Rajasthan II
Panjim Goa III Vadodara Gujarat III
Patiala Punjab III Varanasi Utter Pradesh III
Patna Bihar IV Vellore Andhra Pradesh III
Pilibhit Uttrakhand IV Vijayawada Andhra Pradesh III
Vishakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh II

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has published criterion for construction of earthquake resistant
structures. Buildings are now being made earthquake resistant.

BIS has prepared guidelines for retrofitting in existing structures. A list of code books on
construction practices of buildings and structures, to minimize the earthquake losses, is available.
In addition to this, Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) & Building
Materials & Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC) have also published guidelines and
brochures for construction and retrofitting of buildings. These guidelines are in wide circulation
amongst the public and the administrative authorities responsible for the design and construction
of earthquake resistant structures in earthquake prone areas.

Loss of life and damage of property due to earthquakes could be considerably reduced through
proper planning and implementation of pre- and post-disaster preparedness and management
strategies by respective State and Central Government agencies in a coordinated manner
following the above mentioned guidelines. These studies involving preparation of geological,
geomorphologic and land use maps followed by drilling, geological logging, standard
penetration test and geophysical studies to demarcate the zones of least to most damage prone
areas within the urban areas so as to helps the respective town and country planning agencies to
formulate perspective planning within the overall earthquake impact minimization efforts. Based
on the above steps it is mandatory for all infrastructure/building/ development agencies (Public
and Private) to design appropriate earthquake resistant building plans based on the relevant BIS
Codes and other guidelines of BMTPC, HUDCO and NDMA for across the country.

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), Ministry
of Earth Sciences and other state Disaster Management Authorities, have also taken up various
initiatives to educate and enhance awareness amongst general public and school children on the
general aspects of earthquakes, their impacts and measures to mitigate losses caused by them. A
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is also functional under the general superintendence,
direction and control of the NDMA for the purpose of specialized response to natural and man-
made disasters.
Flood Prone Zones in India: Mitigation and Control
Measures Warning
Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on coast that leads to inundation of land
which is normally submerged. River floodplains and coastal areas are the most hypersensitised to
flooding; however, it is possible for flooding to occur in areas with unusually long periods of heavy
rainfall. In this article, we are giving a brief summary on the Flood Prone Zones in India: Mitigation
and Control Measures Warning which is very useful for the competitive examinations like UPSC-
prelims, SSC, State Services, NDA, CDS, and Railways etc.
Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on coast that leads to inundation of
land which is normally submerged. River floodplains and coastal areas are the most
hypersensitised to flooding; however, it is possible for flooding to occur in areas with unusually
long periods of heavy rainfall. Bangladesh is the most flood prone area in the world. Bangladesh
is vulnerable due to the prevalence of a monsoon season, which causes heavy rainfall.

Flood Prone Zones in India

The major flood prone regions in India are Punjab, Haryana, most of the Gangetic plains,
including Uttar Pradesh, North Bihar and West Bengal, the Brahmaputra valley, coastal
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa, and southern Gujarat. Now-a-days Kerala and Tamil Nadu also
feel the fury of the floods. In September 2014, the Kashmir region witnessed disastrous floods
across the majority of its districts caused by torrential rainfall across the Indian administrated
Jammu and Kashmir. In June 2013, a multi-day cloudburst centred on the North Indian state
Uttarakhand, caused devastating floods and landslides.

Floods and drought

Today, droughts and floods are a common feature and their co-existence poses a potent threat,
which cannot be eradicated but has to be managed. Transfer of the surplus monsoon water to
areas of water deficit is a potential possibility. This would also help create additional irrigational
potential, the generation of hydropower, as well as overcoming regional imbalances.
The recurrence of drought and famines during the second half of the 19th century necessitated
the development of irrigation to give protection against the failure of crops and to reduce large-
scale expenditure on famine relief.
Floods in India
Floods are recurrent phenomena in India. Due to different climatic and rainfall patterns in
different regions, it has been the experience that, while some parts are suffering devastating
floods, another part is suffering drought at the same time. With the increase in population and
development activity, there has been a tendency to occupy the floodplains, which has resulted in
damage of a more serious nature over the years. Often, because of the varying rainfall
distribution, areas which are not traditionally prone to floods also experience severe inundation.
Thus, floods are the single most frequent disaster faced by the country.
Flooding is caused by the inadequate capacity within the banks of the rivers to contain the high
flows brought down from the upper catchments due to heavy rainfall. Flooding is accentuated by
erosion and silting of the river beds, resulting in a reduction of the carrying capacity of river
channels; earthquakes and landslides leading to changes in river courses and obstructions to
flow; synchronization of floods in the main and tributary rivers; retardation due to tidal effects;
encroachment of floodplains; and haphazard and unplanned growth of urban areas. Some parts of
the country, mainly coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal,
experience cyclones, which are often accompanied by heavy rainfall leading to flooding.
Area prone to flood
In 1980, Rashtriya Barh Ayog (National Commission on Floods) assessed the total area liable to
flooding in the country as 40 million hectares (ha), which constitutes one-eighth of the country’s
total geographical area. The Working Group on Flood Control Programme set up by the Planning
Commission for the Tenth Five Year Plan put this figure at 45.64 million ha. About 80 per cent
of this area, i.e. 32 million ha, could be provided with a reasonable degree of protection.
Damage from floods
More significant than the loss of life and damage to property is the sense of insecurity and fear in
the minds of people living in the floodplains. The after-effects of flood, such as the suffering of
survivors, spread of disease, non-availability of essential commodities and medicines and loss of
dwellings, make floods the most feared of the natural disasters faced by humankind.
Flood damage

Maximum Average

Area 17.5 million ha 7.63

affected (1978) million ha

Crop area 10.15 million ha 3.56

affected (1988) million ha

Population 70.45 million 32.92

affected (1978) Million
Houses
3 507 542 (1978) 1 234 616
damaged

Heads of
618 248 (1979) 91 242
cattle lost

Human
1 1316 (1977) 1 560
lives lost

Damage
US$ 705 million US$ 126
to public
(1998) million
utilities

Total US$ 1 255 million US$ 307

damage (1998) million

Heavy flood damage was inflicted during the monsoon of 1955, 1971, 1973, 1977, 1978, 1980,
1984, 1988, 1989, 1998, 2001 and 2004. Highlights of the damage are given below:
Flood-prone areas are shown in the map.
Drought
Drought is a recurrent natural feature which results from the lack of precipitation over an
extended period of time (e.g. a season or several years). It is a temporary deviation of rainfall and
moisture conditions from the mean, thus differing from aridity and seasonal aridity. It is a
creeping phenomenon and, unlike other hazards, can last for months and, in severe cases, years.
Drought affects virtually all climatic regions and more than one-half of the Earth is susceptible to
droughts every year. Regions with higher variability of rainfall and runoff are more vulnerable.
Depending on the likely impact, the phenomenon of drought can be categorized in several ways,
such as meteorological, hydrological and agricultural. The spatial extent of drought is much
greater than for any other hazard and is not limited to basin or political boundaries. Long- lasting
droughts lead to degradation of soil, plant and animal habitats and social disruption.
During a severe drought in 1917/1918, the Jhelum River in Kashmir dried up completely. Out of
the 328 million ha geographical area of India, 107 million ha (nearly one-third), spread over
administrative districts in several states, is affected by drought. It includes about 39 per cent of
cultivable land and about 29 per cent of our population. India has experienced 22 major droughts
during the last 131 years. The 2002 drought, one of the severest in India, affected 56 per cent of
its geographical area, the livelihoods of 300 million people and 150 million cattle in 18 states.
The Government of India had to provide relief amounting to about US$ 4500 million.
Water-resources development in India
India’s population of about 1 billion (2001 census) is expected to stabilize at about 1.6 billion by
2050. This would require some 450 million tones of food grain annually. The basic needs for
water of rural and urban populations and cattle, as well as industry and environment and
ecological management, also have to be met, taking into account land-use policies, degradation
of water resources, depletion of aquifers, etc. To this end, long-term planning of the utilization of
the country’s water resources is required to meet the various competing demands on a
sustainable basis. The strategy for mitigating the effects of drought and floods is the optimal
development of scarce water resources.
After independence, planned development of water resources was taken up mainly through the
creation of storage projects, as well as extension, renovation and modernization of existing
projects. So far, storage capacity of some 213 billion m3 has been created in the country and
projects under construction will increase this to 289 billion m3. A further 108 billion m3 is
expected to be created through projects under consideration.
Institutional arrangements
At the central level, the Union Ministry of Water Resources is responsible for development,
conservation and management of water as a national resource, i.e. for general policy on water
resources development and for technical assistance to the states on irrigation, multipurpose
projects, groundwater exploration and exploitation, command area development, drainage, flood
control, water-logging, sea-erosion problems, dam safety and hydraulic structures for navigation
and hydropower. It also oversees the regulation and development of inter-state rivers. These
functions are carried out through various central organizations. Urban water supply and sewage
disposal is handled by the Ministry of Urban Development, while rural water supply comes
under the purview of the Department of Drinking Water under the Ministry of Rural
Development. The subject of hydro-electric and thermal power is the responsibility of the
Ministry of Power. Pollution and environment control comes under the purview of the Ministry
of Environment and Forests.
Water being a state subject, the state government has primary responsibility for use and control
of this resource. The administrative control and responsibility for development of water rest with
the various state departments and corporations.
National water policy
The National Water Policy adopted by the National Water Resources Council in April 2002
highlights the provisions for project planning, surface- and groundwater development, irrigation
and flood control.
Irrigation plays a major role in increasing the production of food grains. The policy provides
following directives for irrigation management:

• Irrigation planning either in an individual project or in a basin as a whole should take into account
the irrigability of land, cost-effective irrigation options possible from all available sources of water
and appropriate irrigation techniques for optimizing water- use efficiency. Irrigation intensity should
 be such as to extend the benefits of irrigation to as large a number of farming families as possible,
keeping in view the need to maximize production;
• There should be close integration of water- and land-use policies.
• Water allocation in an irrigation system should be done with due regard to social equity and justice.
Disparities in the availability of water between head-reach and tail-end farms and between large and
small farms should be obviated by adoption of a rotational water distribution system and supply of
water on a volumetric basis subject to certain ceilings and rational pricing;
• Concerted efforts should be made to ensure that the irrigation potential created is fully utilized. For
this purpose, the command area development approach should be adopted in all irrigation projects.

The following provisions exist in National Water Policy 2002 as regards flood control and
moderation:

• There should be a master plan for flood control and management for each flood prone basin;
• An adequate flood cushion should be provided in water-storage projects, wherever feasible, to
facilitate better flood management. In highly flood- prone areas, flood control should be given
overriding consideration in reservoir-regulation policy, even at the cost of sacrificing some irrigation
or power benefits;
• While physical flood-protection works like embankments and dykes will continue to be necessary,
increased emphasis should be laid on non-structural measures such as flood forecasting and warning,
floodplain zoning and flood-proofing in order to minimize losses and reduce recurring expenditure
on flood relief.

Irrigation developments and protection against droughts

River-valley projects serve a basic necessity of a country whose economy is based largely on
agriculture. Irrigation and power are crucial inputs for increased productivity. A high priority
has, therefore, been given in the national planning process to the creation of river-valley projects
ever since India gained independence. The prominence given to river-valley projects in India’s
successive five-year plans is consequent to the contribution to the prosperity of the country by
water-resources projects.
As stated earlier, of all natural disasters, drought affects the greatest number of people in the
world, especially in India. The occurrence of drought cannot be prevented but being well
prepared for its likely occurrence can lessen its impacts. Droughts have two basic components:
climatic (decrease in precipitation) and demand (use of water). In responding to droughts,
governments tend to concentrate most of their efforts on reducing the demand for water,
although there are limited options for controlling the climatic component. Thus, drought-
planning strategies should have a clear objective and purpose; involve stakeholder participation;
have a good inventory of resources; identify groups at risk; be able to integrate science and
technology with policy; publicize the proposed plan and invite public responses; and have an
appropriate education programme. The long-term measures for drought mitigation would
normally include creation of ground- and surface-water storages, integration of small reservoirs
with major reservoirs, integrated basin planning; inter-basin transfer of water, etc. Long-term
adaptation involves the development of community-based natural resources management plans,
developed and implemented through a participatory approach, and making full use of traditional
knowledge.
Thus, most measures focus on management, re-allocation and distribution of existing water
resources and on establishing priorities accordingly for different uses. Commonly known means
adopted for combating drought and promoting development are:

• Improving national capabilities, including training and human resource development, for assessing
water resources and determining water use on a continuing basis and for the planning and
management of these resources;
• Conserving water resources and optimizing their use;
• Augmenting the supply of water locally by exploiting surface- and groundwater, taking into account
long-terms trends, the future demands of local communities and other needs;
• Augmenting the supply of water by transfers from more permanent surface-water sources (lakes and
rivers) and from groundwater resources in arid and semi-arid areas and/or long-distance transfers
from humid areas if practically and economically possible—and environmentally acceptable.

Many major, medium and minor water-resources projects have been constructed over the past six
decades. As a result of this development, the irrigation potential of India increased from about
23 million ha in 1951 to about 102 million ha in 2006, resulting in increased production of food
grains from 51 million tonnes to about 212 million tonnes, making the country self-sufficient.
The cultivable area of the country is estimated to be about 186 million ha, of which about
142 million ha is under cultivation. With growing population and industrialization putting
pressure on land, it is expected that cultivated area will stabilize at about 140-145 million ha. As
irrigated agriculture is more productive than non-irrigated agriculture, it is imperative to irrigate
more land in order to meet the country’s future needs for food and fibre.
Sustained efforts so far have ensured considerable progress, but there is still a long way to go to
ensure water for all in adequate quantity and quality. The problems are further compounded by
fresh issues that have surfaced over the last few years.
Approach to drought management
The behaviour of the monsoon is usually erratic and uncertain in India. Kharif (summer crop)
production depends on the quantum and distribution of rainfall. The behaviour of monsoon is
broadly classified as:

• Normal season with normal onset, cessation and distribution of the monsoon;
• Delayed onset of the monsoon;
• Normal onset but early withdrawal of the monsoon;
• Normal onset and cessation but prolonged drought period in between (inter-spell dry period;
• Flood/excess rains;
• Uneven distribution of rain.

The preparations for dealing with such situation, which is necessary to maintain from year to
year, are:

• Early warning;
• Early response;
• An efficient intelligence system;
• Timely maintenance of the irrigation system and adoption of a crop stabilization strategy;
• An effective programme of relief works by advance shelf of projects of the works by different
departments
• Pre-positioning of adequate foodstuff and their delivery;
• Alternate arrangements for drinking-water supply;
• Construction of deep wells and bore wells and repair of those which are defunct and continuous
repair of hand pumps.

Initiative taken for drought management

From 1900 to 2002, droughts in India resulted in 2 750 430 deaths and affected some 900 million
people, apart from huge financial losses. It is the creeping effect of drought over long periods
and its severity that sensitized the Government of India to treat the problem from several
angles—scientific, technological, economic, social and environmental. Some of the initiatives
taken for drought management by the Government are:

• Enhancement of the capabilities of long-range forecasts to climate modelling and weather

forecasting;
• In 1989, the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting started to forecast weather on
a medium-term basis (3-10 days in advance);
• Monitoring of storage position of reservoirs: 76 important reservoirs of the country having a total
live storage capacity of 131.22 billion m3 are being monitored. A further 49 have also been
identified for inclusion in the monitoring system, which will increase storage capacity of the
monitored reservoirs to 156.69 billion m3, i.e. about 74 per cent of the total capacity of
213 billion m3 created so far;
• Efforts are under way to improve the efficiency of the irrigation system;
• The National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Monitoring System became operational in 1989;
• The National Centre for Disaster Management was set up in 1995 to undertake human-resource
development, research, building a database and providing information services and documentation
on disaster management;
• Many programmes to prevent/ mitigate drought in the long term;
• Supporting research to provide solutions to drought-related problems;
• Setting-up of a National Data Bank under the All India Co-ordinated Project on Agrometeorology at
the Crop Research Institute for Dry Land Agriculture, Hyderabad;
• Setting-up of a National Disaster Management Authority.

The new Drought Risk Management Programme under formulation aims to build on the previous
Programme’s experience to reduce the vulnerabilities of communities to drought through
community-based approaches and appropriate risk management and better decision-support
systems at state and district levels.

Approach to flood management

Approaches to dealing with floods may be any one or a combination of the following available
options:

• Attempts to modify the flood

• Attempts to modify the sus-ceptibility to flood damage
• Attempts to modify the loss burden
• Bearing the loss.
The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been an
attempt to modify the flood in the form of physical (structural) measures to prevent the
floodwaters from reaching potential damage centres and modify susceptibility to flood damage
through early warning systems.

Structural measures
The following structural measures are generally adopted for flood protection:

• Embankments, flood walls, sea walls

• Dams and reservoirs
• Natural detention basins
• Channel improvement
• Drainage improvement
• Diversion of flood waters.

Of these measures, embankments are the most commonly undertaken in order to provide quick
protection with locally available material and labour. The major embankment projects taken up
after independence are on the rivers Kosi and Gandak (Bihar), Brahmaputra (Assam), Godavari
and Krishna (Andhra Pradesh), Mahanadi, Brahmani, Baitarni and Subarnarekha (Orissa) and
Tapi (Gujarat). These embankments play an important role in providing reasonable protection to
vulnerable areas. Realizing the great potential of the reservoirs in impounding floods and
regulating the flows downstream for flood moderation, flood control has been sought to be
achieved as one of the objectives in multipurpose dams. Reservoirs with a specifically allocated
flood cushion have been constructed on the Damodar system in Jharkhand and the Hirakud and
Rengali dam in Orissa. However, many other large storage dams, e.g. Bhakra dam, without any
earmarked flood storage, have also helped in flood moderation.
During the post-independence period, multi-purpose projects such as the Damodar Valley
Corporation (DVC) reservoirs, the Bhakra-Nangal project, Hirakud dam, Nagarjuna Sagar
project etc., have been constructed to increase food production, energy generation, drinking-
water supply, fisheries development, employment generation, flood moderation, etc. These large
dams have played a significant role in reducing damage by way of flood moderation. One of the
important flood moderation examples achieved by dams is that of Damodar Valley, where four
reservoirs were constructed with flood management as one of the objectives. During the 2000
monsoon, DVC reservoirs saved the life and property of people from a possible disaster through
flood moderation.
Up to 2005, 34 398 km of new embankments and 51 318 km of drainage channels were
constructed. In addition, 2400 town protection works were completed and 4 721 villages were
raised above flood levels. Barring occasional breaches in embankments, these works gave
reasonable protection to an area of some 16.5 million ha.
Non-structural measures
Non-structural measures include:

• Flood forecasting and warning

• Floodplain zoning
• Flood fighting
• Flood proofing
• Flood insurance.

A brief description of the most important measure, i.e. flood forecasting, and the progress made
so far is given below.
Flood forecasting and warning network in India
Of all the non-structural measures for flood management which rely on the modification of
susceptibility to flood damage, the one which is gaining increased/ sustained attention of
planners and acceptance by the public is flood forecasting and warning, which enable
forewarning as to when the river is going to use its floodplain, to what extent and for how long.
As for the strategy of laying more emphasis on non-structural measures, a nationwide flood
forecasting and warning system has been established by the Central Water Commission.
Flood forecasting and flood warning in India commenced in a small way in the year 1958 with
the establishment of a unit in the Central Water Commission, New Delhi, for flood forecasting
for the river Yamuna at Delhi. This has now grown to cover most of the flood-prone interstate
river basins. The Central Water Commission is currently responsible for issuing flood forecasts
at 173 stations, of which 145 are for river stage forecast and 28 for inflow forecast. On average,
about 6 000 flood forecasts are issued every year with a maximum of 7 943 forecasts in 1998.
The forecasts issued by the Central Water Commission have been consistent with about 96 per
cent accuracy as per the present norms of the Central Water Commission. A forecast is
considered to be reasonably accurate if the difference between forecast and corresponding
observed level of the river lies within ±15 cm. In the case of inflow forecasts, variations within
±20 per cent are considered acceptable, as a result of which the flood-forecasting and warning
services have rendered immense benefit to those in flood-prone areas.
Modernization of flood forecasting services
The Central Water Commission is making a constant endeavour to update and modernize
forecasting services on a continuous basis to make flood forecasts more accurate, effective and
timely. Initiatives being taken for modernizing flood forecasting services are:

• The establishment and modernization of the flood forecasting network, including inflow forecast
through automated data collection and transmission; use of satellite-based communication systems
through very small aperture terminals; and improvement of forecast formulation techniques using
computer-based catchment models;
• Development of a decision-support system for flood forecasting and inundation forecast model for
the Mahanadi basin and flash flood forecasting for Sutlej basin;
• Development of a real-time flood-forecasting system for the Brahmaputra and Barak basin,
envisaging data collection through automatic sensors and transmission through satellite and forecast
formulation using a computer-based mathematical model.
Disaster management in India
India has traditionally been vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique geoclimatic
conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been recurrent
phenomena. About 60 per cent of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities;
over 45 million ha are prone to floods; about 8 per cent of the total area is prone to cyclones and
68 per cent of the area is susceptible to drought. In the decade 1990-2000, an average of about
4 344 people lost their lives and 30 million were affected by disasters every year. The loss in
terms of private, community and public assets was astronomical.
Over the past couple of years, the Government of India has effected a paradigm shift in its
approach to disaster management. The new approach derives from the conviction that
development cannot be sustainable unless disaster mitigation is built into the development
process. Another cornerstone of the approach is that mitigation has to be multi-disciplinary,
spanning all sectors of development. The new policy also emanates from the belief that
investments in mitigation are much more cost-effective than expenditure on relief and
rehabilitation.
Disaster management occupies an important place in this country’s policy framework, as it is the
poor and the underprivileged who are worst affected by calamities/disasters.
The steps being taken by the Government emanate from the approach outlined above. This has
been translated into a National Disaster Framework (roadmap) covering institutional
mechanisms, a disaster prevention strategy, early warning systems, disaster mitigation,
preparedness and response and human resource development. The expected inputs, areas of
intervention and agencies to be involved at the national, state and district levels have been
identified and listed. There is now, therefore, a common strategy underpinning the action being
taken by all the participating organizations/stakeholders.
Institutional and policy framework
The institutional and policy mechanism for carrying out response, relief and rehabilitation has
been well-established since independence. These mechanisms have proved to be robust and
effective.
At the national level, the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal ministry for all matters
concerning disaster management. The Central Relief Commissioner in the Ministry of Home
Affairs is the nodal officer to coordinate relief operations for natural disasters. The Central Relief
Commissioner receives information relating to forecasting/warning of a natural calamity from
the India Meteorological Department or the Central Water Commission of the Ministry of Water
Resources on a continuous basis.
National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)
The Cabinet Secretary, who is the highest executive officer, heads the NCMC. Secretaries of all
the ministries/departments concerned, as well as organizations, are members of the Committee.
The NCMC gives direction to the Crisis Management Group as deemed necessary. The
Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs, is responsible for ensuring that all developments are
brought promptly to the notice of the NCMC. The NCMC can give directions to any
ministry/department/organization for specific action needed for meeting the crisis situation.
Crisis Management Group (CMG)
The Central Relief Commissioner in the Ministry of Home Affairs is the Chairman of the CMG,
comprising senior officers (called nodal officers) from various concerned Ministries. The CMG’s
functions are to review every year contingency plans formulated by various
ministries/departments/organizations in their respective sectors and measures required for
dealing with a natural disaster, coordinate the activities of the central ministries and state
governments in relation to disaster preparedness and relief and to obtain information from the
nodal officers on measures relating to above. In the event of a natural disaster, the CMG meets
frequently to review relief operations and extend all possible assistance required by the affected
states to overcome the situation effectively. The Resident Commissioner of the affected state is
also associated with such meetings.
Control Room (Emergency Operations Centre)
An Emergency Operations Centre (Control Room) exists in the nodal Ministry of Home Affairs,
which functions round the clock, to assist the Central Relief Commissioner in the discharge of
his duties. The activities of the Control Room include collection and transmission of information
concerning natural calamity and relief, keeping close contact with governments of the affected
states, interaction with other central ministries/departments/organizations in connection with
relief, maintaining records containing all relevant information relating to action points and
contact points in central ministries etc., and keeping up-to-date details of all concerned officers at
the central and state levels.
Contingency Action Plan
A national Contingency Action Plan (CAP) for dealing with contingencies arising in the wake of
natural disasters has been formulated by the Government of India and is periodically updated. It
facilitates the launching of relief operations without delay. The CAP identifies the initiatives
required to be taken by various central ministries/departments in the wake of natural calamities,
sets down the procedure and determines the focal points in the administrative machinery.
State relief manuals
Each state government has relief manuals/codes which identify the role of each officer in the
state for managing natural disasters. These are reviewed and updated periodically, based on the
experience of managing the disasters and the needs of the state.
Funding mechanisms
The policy and funding mechanisms for providing relief assistance to those affected by natural
calamities are clearly laid down. They are reviewed by the Finance Commission appointed by
the Government of India every five years. The Finance Commission makes recommendations
regarding the division of tax and non-tax revenues between the central and state governments
and also regarding policy for provision of relief assistance and their share of expenditure thereon.
A Calamity Relief Fund has been set up in each state as per the recommendations of the 11th
Finance Commission. The size of the Calamity Relief Fund was fixed by the Finance
Commission after taking into account the expenditure on relief and rehabilitation over the past 10
years.
Cyclone forecasting
Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure systems which develop over warm sea. They are
capable of causing immense damage due to strong winds, heavy rains and storm surges. The
frequency of a tropical cyclone in the Bay of Bengal is four to five times more than in the
Arabian Sea. About 35 per cent of initial disturbances in the northern Indian ocean reach tropical
cyclone stage, of which 45 per cent become severe.
The India Meteorological Department is mandated to monitor and give warnings of tropical
cyclones. The monitoring process has been revolutionized by the advent of remote-sensing
techniques. A tropical cyclone intensity analysis and forecast scheme has been worked out, using
satellite image interpretation techniques which facilitate storm surge forecasting. The
meteorological satellite has made a tremendous impact on the analysis of cyclones.

Case studies—impact of water development on flood and drought management

Dams and reservoirs have played a major role in moderating flood-peaks and providing
safeguards for drought mitigation. Case-studies of two such projects are presented below:
Hirakud Reservoir
The Hirakud Dam Project is built across the River Mahanadi about 15 km upstream of the town
of Sambalpur in the state of Orissa. It is the first post-independence major multipurpose river
valley project in India.
The project provides 155 635 ha of kharif (summer crop) and 108385 ha of rabi (winter crop)
irrigation. The water released through the powerstation irrigates a further 436 000 ha of
Culturable Command Area in the Mahanadi delta. Installed capacity for power generation is
307.5 MW. Besides, the project provides flood protection to 9 500 km2 of delta area. The gross
capacity of Hirakud dam is about 8 105 million km3 and the spillway capacity is 4 595 m3/s.
Hirakud reservoir has no earmarked flood storage. The entire available storage during monsoon
is utilized for flood moderation and subsequently used for irrigation purposes and hydropower
generation. Hirakud dam was to provide adequate flood protection to the delta from all but
extraordinary floods. Mahanadi delta has witnessed many high floods which caused extensive
damage, as in 1834, 1855, 1866, 1872, 1933 and 1937. With the construction of Hirakud dam,
the swollen waters of Mahanadi in the monsoon period have been tamed to a great extent. In the
90 years before the construction period during (1868-1957), 27 years witnessed high floods in
the delta whereas, in the post-construction period during the last 41 years (1959-1998), floods in
the delta were reported in only 7 years.
Out of 24 events, in the absence of Hirakud dam, a peak flood at the head of the delta would
have exceeded the catastrophic value of 33 980 m3/s on 19 occasions against the five times it
actually exceeded due to flood moderation provided by Hirakud dam.
From the above, it can be seen that about 10-30 per cent flood moderation has been achieved by
Hirakud dam.
Bhakra dam
The Bhakra project consists of a 225.55 m high dam on the Sutlej River, with a reservoir area of
168.35 km2 at full storage level, as well as thousands of kilometres of canals and several inter-
basin diversions. The gross capacity of Bhakra is 9 621 million m3 and spillway capacity is
8 512 m3/s. The installed generation capacity is 1354 MW. The dam, built between 1947 and
1963, brought irrigation to some 2.8 million ha to the states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.
The dam also envisages catering to irrigation and hydropower needs and has dramatically
improved the economy of the area. The deserts of Rajasthan have been converted into a food
bowl with the availability of water through the Rajasthan Canal whose source is the Bhakra dam.
The explosive growth in agricultural production in the late 1960s and 1970s in Punjab and
Haryana is attributed to the Bhakra project. Prior to its construction, the irrigation area was less
than 0.8 million ha, which, after the project, increased to about 5.5 million ha. The project was
credited with single-handedly relieving India of dependency on foreign food aid and creating
food self-sufficiency. In the process, the project has almost become a legend in India and is
regularly cited to justify large dam-based irrigation projects. It generates 7 000 million units of
electricity every day and has made electricity available at affordable rates.
Bhakra and Beas dams, though not specifically planned for flood moderation, absorb peak flood
and help in moderating floods to a considerable extent. The inflow and outflow values shown in
the graph below indicate that considerable flood mitigation has been achieved.
The above figures show that Bhakra and Pong dams have played a substantial role in flood
moderation, even though Bhakra dam was not specifically planned for flood moderation.

Conclusions
India is a developing country which needs to take a balanced view of development. India has a
long history of irrigation development. It continued at a slow pace until partition. Since
independence, the Government has given highest priority to irrigation to offset severe food
deficit and consequent import of food grains. Countrywide programmes were taken up for
surface- and groundwater resources development through large and medium river valley projects.
National water policy has been a good step in evolving national consensus on the planning,
development and management of water resources in a comprehensive way.
There is an imperative need for harnessing and utilizing riverwater for irrigation supplies,
generation of power and flood control on a sustained basis through these development projects.
Reasonable protection has been provided to about one-third of the flood-prone areas of the
country. Despite significant outlay on flood control, flood protection and catchment protection
works, it has been found that there is no complete solution to providing total protection. Flood
cushions in the reservoirs and flood embankments have provided good solutions for recurring
floods and have provided relief to large-scale flood damage. Flood forecasting provided by the
Central Water Commission has played a significant role in minimizing flood damage and saving
human lives.
For addressing natural calamities such as floods and drought, there is a need to make full use of
existing schemes and priority needs to be given to the implementation of schemes that will help
overcome the conditions created by the calamity. A major scheme, namely Bharat Nirman, to
bring 10millionha under assured irrigation over a period of four years (2005-2009) through
completion of ongoing major, medium and extension renovation and modernization projects, the
repair, renovation and restoration of water bodies and groundwater development for irrigation
has been taken up by the Government of India.

Vulnerable Areas, Frequency and Intensity

Landslides: Landslides are a frequent and recurring phenomenon in the
various hill ranges of India from Kerala to the Himalayas. Areas prone ID
landslides include the Eastern and Western Ghats, the Nilgiris, the
Vindhyachals, the mountains in the northeastern States and the great
Himalayan range. The incidence of landslides in these regions is a recurring
feature especially daring and after spells of heavy rains.

Landslide Zonation Mapping is a modem method to identify landslides prone

areas and it has been in use in India since the 1980s. In this method, the
vulnerability of different parts of a landslide-prone region is assessed in terms
of past occurrences, steepness of slopes, conditions of rocks, and rainfall
rates and the different areas are given “ratings” like Very High, High.
Moderate, Low, Very Low, which indicate the likelihood of occurrence of
landslides in those areas. Some of the regions for which such zonation
mapping has already be-en completed or is nearing completion are :

North Sikkim

Kathgodam-Nainital
Garhwal Himalayas including Yamuna Valley

Satluj Valley in Himachal Pradesh

The roads in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and uttarancnaiar’
particularly prone to landslides. The phenomenon assumes alarming
proportions in the hill districts of north Bengal, Sikkim and the northeastern
States.

The Himalayas are well known for the occurrence of snow avalanches
articularly the Western Himalayas i.e., the snowy regions of Jammu &
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal. Broadly speaking, an area of
about 200,000 square kilometres in these three States is vulnerable to snow
avalanche disasters. Snow avalanches also occur in the eastern parts of the
Himalayas but tlje denser forest and vegetation cover on the eastern and the
northeastern Himalayas (due to heavy rains in these mountains) act as
binding force and inhibit excessive accumulation and slippage of snow mass.
The western Himalayas have many vulnerable sites prone to snow avalanches
where hundreds of lives are lost and the social and economic life is disrupted
every year. The formation zones in this region are located between 3000 and
5000 metres height.

In Jammu & Kashmir, the most affected areas are in the higher reaches of
Kashmir and Gurez Valleys, Kargil and Ladakh and some of the major roads
there. In Himachal Pradesh, the vulnerable areas are : Chamba, Kullu,
Lahoul-Spiti and Kinnaur. Specific villages highly prone to snow avalanches
have been identified in these districts of Himachal Pradesh. In the Garhwal
Himalayas in Uttaranchal. parts of Tehri-Garhwal and Chamoli districts
suffer from snow avalanche problem. Just as zonation mapping is done for
areas vulnerable to landslides, Zone Planning is done for snow avalanche
sites and three types of zones are identified pertaining to the frequency and
intensity of snow avalanches around an avalanche site. In other words, Zone
Planning provides a means to assess the anticipated danger due to snow
avalanches at the vulnerable site. The three types of snow avalanche zones
are :

1. Red-Zone: The most dangerous zone where snow avalanches are most
frequent and have an impact pressure of more than 3 tonnes per square metre.

2. Blue Zone: Where the avalanche force is less than 3 tonnes per square
metre and where living and other activities may be permitted with
construction of – safe designs but such areas may have to be vacated on
warning.

Avalanche Prone Areas in India:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The higher reaches of the Himalayan region are prone to attack by

avalanches. The snowy region of the Western Himalayas is particularly prone
to avalanches. It includes higher areas in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and Uttaranchal. The details are as under:

1. Jammu and Kashmir – Higher reaches of Kashmir and Gurez valleys,

Kargil and Ladakh and some of the major roads.

2. Himachal Pradesh – Chamba, Kullu-Spiti and Kinnaur are vulnerable

areas.

3. Uttaranchal – Parts of Tehri Garhwal and Chamoli districts are vulnerable

areas.
Snow Avalanche Zones:
There are three types of snow avalanche zones:

1. Red Zone:
The most dangerous zone where snow avalanches are most frequent and have
an impact pressure of more than 3 tonnes per square metre.

2. Blue Zone:
Where the avalanche force is less than 3 tonnes per square metre and where
living and other activities may be permitted with connection of safe designs
but such areas may have to be vacated on warning.

3. Yellow Zone:
Where snow avalanches occur only occasionally.

Cyclone Hazard Prone Districts of India

Cyclones are one of the natural hazards that affect India almost every year causing large loss of lives
and properties. Tropical Cyclone (TC), also known as ‘Cyclone’, is the term used globally to cover
tropical weather systems in which winds equal or exceed the minimum of 34 knot (62 kmph). These
are intense low pressure areas of the earth atmosphere coupled system and are extreme weather
events of the tropics. Hazards associated with tropical cyclones are long duration rotatory high
velocity winds, very heavy rain and storm tide (the combined effect of storm-surge and astronomical
tide). Out of these, the storm surge is the greatest killer hazard associated with cyclone.

Thirteen coastal states and Union Territories (UTs) in the country are affected by tropical cyclones.
Four states (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal) and one UT (Puducherry) on the
east coast and one state (Gujarat) on the west coast are more vulnerable to cyclone hazards.

Tsunami in india

When Mother Nature gets ferocious, she makes different plans to sweep away the sign of human beings from
earth. People have been familiar with many natural calamities such as famine, draught, flood and earthquake,
but one of the most disastrous calamities that has severely affected many areas in the country is Tsunami.
Tsunami is the continuous water wave series which is caused by a shift in a large volume of water, mostly in
an ocean or big lake.

Other devastating disturbances like earthquakes, land and underwater volcanic eruptions, underwater nuclear
explosions, glacier calving, landslides and meteorite impacts helps in generating tsunami. The word tsunami is
derived from the Japanese composition - 'tsu' means 'harbor' and 'name' means 'wave'. Tidal waves are also
sometimes referred to tsunami.

Although tsunami's impact is only limited to the coastal areas, it can be enormously destructive. It can It can
also affect the entire ocean's basins. In 2004, the Indian Ocean tsunami was marked as the deadliest natural
calamities in the history of human. During this disaster, 14 countries having Indian Ocean as their border
witnessed more than 2, 30,000 people killed. The first tsunami to struck India was back in December 31, 1881.
However, the government of India indicated that around 11,000 people died and more than 5,000 were missing
and were assumed dead by the Home Affairs Ministry. An estimation points out that about 380,000 Indians
displaced by this tsunami. It is expected that reconstruction of these affected places would cost over 1.2 billion
dollars from the World Bank.

On December 26, 2004, most of the countries located around the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal were struck
by tsunami. During this time, the Richter scale measured the earthquake at 8.9 with an epicentre near Sumatra's
west coast in Indonesia. The Andaman Island was said to be extensively damaged due to this tsunami. The
regions affected the most by tsunami were the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and south-eastern coast.

Due to this earthquake resulting tsunami, many countries affected Southeast Asia and area beyond. Countries
such as Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, the Maldives, Somalia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Seychelles and
many others had to go through the devastating calamities. Several people from countries like Australia and
Europe, who had travelled to these tsunami affected areas, lost their lives in this disaster.

India is the third country to be severely affected with tsunami after Sri lanka and Indonesia. Indian states
affected by tsunami were Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Andaman and Nicobar Island.

Tsunami Damage in India

Factor Andhra Pradesh Kerala Tamil Nadu Pondcherry Total

Population affected 211000 2470000 691000 43000 3415000

Area affected (Ha) 790 Unknown 2487 790 4067

Length of coast affected (Km) 985 250 1000 25 2260

Extent of penetration (Km) 0.5 - 2.0 01/02/12 01/01/05 0.30 - 3.0

Reported height of tsunami (m) 5 03/05/12 07/10/12 10

Villages affected 301 187 362 26 876

Dwelling units 1557 11832 91037 6403 110829

Cattle lost 195 Unknown 5476 3445 9116

(Source: DiMaRF, India-2005)

 Last Updated on 4/5/2012

Affected Areas

Andhra Pradesh
• Ramanathapuram Map

• Sivaganga Map
• East Godavari Map
• Sri Kakulam Map
• Guntur Map
• Thanjavur Map
• Krishna Map
• Thiruvarur Map
• Nellore Map
• Tiunelveli Map
• Prakasam Map
• Tiruvallur Map
• Vishakhapatnam Map
• Tuticorin Map
• West Godavari Map
• Vilupuram Map
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Keralas
Tamil Nadu
• Alappuzha Map

• Chennai Map • Ernakulam Map

• Cuddalore Map • Kollam Map

• Kanchipuram Map • Kozikode Map

• Kanniyakumari Map • Thiruvananthapuram Map

• Nagapattnam Map

Epidemics after Natural Disasters

The relationship between natural disasters and communicable diseases is frequently

misconstrued. The risk for outbreaks is often presumed to be very high in the chaos that
follows natural disasters, a fear likely derived from a perceived association between dead
bodies and epidemics. However, the risk factors for outbreaks after disasters are
associated primarily with population displacement. The availability of safe water and
sanitation facilities, the degree of crowding, the underlying health status of the
population, and the availability of healthcare services all interact within the context of the
local disease ecology to influence the risk for communicable diseases and death in the
affected population. We outline the risk factors for outbreaks after a disaster, review the
communicable diseases likely to be important, and establish priorities to address
communicable diseases in disaster settings.

Natural disasters are catastrophic events with atmospheric, geologic, and hydrologic
origins. Disasters include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, tsunamis, floods,
and drought. Natural disasters can have rapid or slow onset, with serious health, social,
and economic consequences. During the past 2 decades, natural disasters have killed
millions of people, adversely affected the lives of at least 1 billion more people, and
resulted in substantial economic damages (1). Developing countries are
disproportionately affected because they lack resources, infrastructure, and disaster-
preparedness systems.

Deaths associated with natural disasters, particularly rapid-onset disasters, are

overwhelmingly due to blunt trauma, crush-related injuries, or drowning. Deaths from
communicable diseases after natural disasters are less common.

Dead Bodies and Disease

The sudden presence of large numbers of dead bodies in the disaster-affected area may
heighten concerns of disease outbreaks (2), despite the absence of evidence that dead
bodies pose a risk for epidemics after natural disasters (3). When death is directly due to
the natural disaster, human remains do not pose a risk for outbreaks (4). Dead bodies only
pose health risks in a few situations that require specific precautions, such as deaths from
cholera (5) or hemorrhagic fevers (6). Recommendations for management of dead bodies
are summarized in the Table.

Despite these facts, the risk for outbreaks after disasters is frequently exaggerated by both
health officials and the media. Imminent threats of epidemics remain a recurring theme of
media reports from areas recently affected by disasters, regardless of attempts to dispel
these myths (2,3,7).

Displacement: Primary Concern

The risk for communicable disease transmission after disasters is associated primarily
with the size and characteristics of the population displaced, specifically the proximity of
safe water and functioning latrines, the nutritional status of the displaced population, the
level of immunity to vaccine-preventable diseases such as measles, and the access to
healthcare services (8). Outbreaks are less frequently reported in disaster-affected
populations than in conflict-affected populations, where two thirds of deaths may be from
communicable diseases (9). Malnutrition increases the risk for death from communicable
diseases and is more common in conflict-affected populations, particularly if their
displacement is related to long-term conflict (10).
Although outbreaks after flooding (11) have been better documented than those after
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or tsunamis (12), natural disasters (regardless of type)
that do not result in population displacement are rarely associated with outbreaks (8).
Historically, the large-scale displacement of populations as a result of natural disasters is
not common (8), which likely contributes to the low risk for outbreaks overall and to the
variability in risk among disasters of different types.

Risk Factors for Communicable Disease Transmission

Responding effectively to the needs of the disaster-affected population requires an
accurate communicable disease risk assessment. The efficient use of humanitarian funds
depends on implementing priority interventions on the basis of this risk assessment.

A systematic and comprehensive evaluation should identify 1) endemic and epidemic

diseases that are common in the affected area; 2) living conditions of the affected
population, including number, size, location, and density of settlements; 3) availability of
safe water and adequate sanitation facilities; 4) underlying nutritional status and
immunization coverage among the population; and 5) degree of access to healthcare and
to effective case management.

Communicable Diseases Associated with Natural Disasters

The following types of communicable diseases have been associated with populations
displaced by natural disasters. These diseases should be considered when postdisaster risk
assessments are performed.

Water-related Communicable Diseases

Access to safe water can be jeopardized by a natural disaster. Diarrheal disease outbreaks
can occur after drinking water has been contaminated and have been reported after
flooding and related displacement. An outbreak of diarrheal disease after flooding in
Bangladesh in 2004 involved >17,000 cases; Vibrio cholerae (O1 Ogawa and O1 Inaba)
and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli were isolated (13). A large (>16,000 cases) cholera
epidemic (O1 Ogawa) in West Bengal in 1998 was attributed to preceding floods (14),
and floods in Mozambique in January–March 2000 led to an increase in the incidence of
diarrhea (15).

In a large study undertaken in Indonesia in 1992–1993, flooding was identified as a

significant risk factor for diarrheal illnesses caused by Salmonella enterica serotype
Paratyphi A (paratyphoid fever) (16). In a separate evaluation of risk factors for infection
with Cryptosporidium parvum in Indonesia in 2001–2003, case-patients were >4× more
likely than controls to have been exposed to flooding (17).

The risk for diarrheal disease outbreaks following natural disasters is higher in
developing countries than in industrialized countries (8,11). In Aceh Province, Indonesia,
a rapid health assessment in the town of Calang 2 weeks after the December 2004
tsunami found that 100% of the survivors drank from unprotected wells and that 85% of
residents reported diarrhea in the previous 2 weeks (18). In Muzaffarabad, Pakistan, an
outbreak of acute watery diarrhea occurred in an unplanned, poorly equipped camp of
1,800 persons after the 2005 earthquake. The outbreak involved >750 cases, mostly in
adults, and was controlled after adequate water and sanitation facilities were provided
(19). In the United States, diarrheal illness was noted after Hurricanes Allison (20) and
Katrina (21–23), and norovirus, Salmonella, and toxigenic and nontoxigenic V.
cholerae were confirmed among Katrina evacuees.

Hepatitis A and E are also transmitted by the fecal-oral route, in association with lack of
access to safe water and sanitation. Hepatitis A is endemic in most developing countries,
and most children are exposed and develop immunity at an early age. As a result, the risk
for large outbreaks is usually low in these settings. In hepatitis E–endemic areas,
outbreaks frequently follow heavy rains and floods; the illness is generally mild and self-
limited, but in pregnant women case-fatality rates can reach 25% (24). After the 2005
earthquake in Pakistan, sporadic hepatitis E cases and clusters were common in areas
with poor access to safe water. Over 1,200 cases of acute jaundice, many confirmed as
hepatitis E, occurred among the displaced (25). Clusters of both hepatitis A and hepatitis
E were noted in Aceh after the December 2004 tsunami (26).

Leptospirosis is an epidemic-prone zoonotic bacterial disease that can be transmitted by

direct contact with contaminated water. Rodents shed large amounts of leptospires in
their urine, and transmission occurs through contact of the skin and mucous membranes
with water, damp soil or vegetation (such as sugar cane), or mud contaminated with
rodent urine. Flooding facilitates spread of the organism because of the proliferation of
rodents and the proximity of rodents to humans on shared high ground. Outbreaks of
leptospirosis occurred in Taiwan, Republic of China, associated with Typhoon Nali in
2001 (27); in Mumbai, India, after flooding in 2000 (28); in Argentina after flooding in
1998 (29); and in the Krasnodar region of the Russian Federation in 1997 (30). After a
flooding-related outbreak of leptospirosis in Brazil in 1996, spatial analysis indicated that
incidence rates of leptospirosis doubled inside the flood-prone areas of Rio de Janeiro
(31).

Diseases Associated with Crowding

Crowding is common in populations displaced by natural disasters and can facilitate the
transmission of communicable diseases. Measles and the risk for transmission after a
natural disaster are dependent on baseline immunization coverage among the affected
population, and in particular among children <15 years of age. Crowded living conditions
facilitate measles transmission and necessitate even higher immunization coverage levels
to prevent outbreaks (32). A measles outbreak in the Philippines in 1991 among persons
displaced by the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo involved >18,000 cases (33). After the tsunami
in Aceh, a cluster of measles involving 35 cases occurred in Aceh Utara district, and
continuing sporadic cases and clusters were common despite mass vaccination campaigns
(26). In Pakistan, after the 2005 South Asia earthquake, sporadic cases and clusters of
measles (>400 clinical cases in the 6 months after the earthquake) also occurred (25).

Neisseria meningitidis meningitis is transmitted from person to person, particularly in

situations of crowding. Cases and deaths from meningitis among those displaced in Aceh
and Pakistan have been documented (25,26). Prompt response with antimicrobial
prophylaxis, as occurred in Aceh and Pakistan, can interrupt transmission. Large
outbreaks have not been recently reported in disaster-affected populations but are well-
documented in populations displaced by conflict (34).

Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are a major cause of illness and death among
displaced populations, particularly in children <5 years of age. Lack of access to health
services and to antimicrobial agents for treatment further increases the risk for death from
ARI. Risk factors among displaced persons include crowding, exposure to indoor
cooking using open flame, and poor nutrition. The reported incidence of ARI increased 4-
fold in Nicaragua in the 30 days after Hurricane Mitch in 1998 (35), and ARI accounted
for the highest number of cases and deaths among those displaced by the tsunami in Aceh
in 2004 (26) and by the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan (25).

Vectorborne Diseases
Natural disasters, particularly meteorologic events such as cyclones, hurricanes, and
flooding, can affect vector-breeding sites and vectorborne disease transmission. While
initial flooding may wash away existing mosquito-breeding sites, standing water caused
by heavy rainfall or overflow of rivers can create new breeding sites. This situation can
result (with typically some weeks’ delay) in an increase of the vector population and
potential for disease transmission, depending on the local mosquito vector species and its
preferred habitat. The crowding of infected and susceptible hosts, a weakened public
health infrastructure, and interruptions of ongoing control programs are all risk factors for
vectorborne disease transmission (36).

Malaria outbreaks in the wake of flooding are a well-known phenomenon. An earthquake

in Costa Rica’s Atlantic Region in 1991 was associated with changes in habitat that were
beneficial for breeding and preceded an extreme rise in malaria cases (37). Additionally,
periodic flooding linked to El Niño–Southern Oscillation has been associated with
malaria epidemics in the dry coastal region of northern Peru (38).

Dengue transmission is influenced by meteorologic conditions, including rainfall and

humidity, and often exhibits strong seasonality. However, transmission is not directly
associated with flooding. Such events may coincide with periods of high risk for
transmission and may be exacerbated by increased availability of the vector’s breeding
sites (mostly artificial containers) caused by disruption of basic water supply and solid
waste disposal services. The risk for outbreaks can be influenced by other complicating
factors, such as changes in human behavior (increased exposure to mosquitoes while
sleeping outside, movement from dengue-nonendemic to -endemic areas, a pause in
disease control activities, overcrowding) or changes in the habitat that promote mosquito
breeding (landslide, deforestation, river damming, and rerouting of water).

Other Diseases Associated with Natural Disasters

Tetanus is not transmitted person to person but is caused by a toxin released by the
anaerobic tetanus bacillus Clostridium tetani. Contaminated wounds, particularly in
populations where vaccination coverage levels are low, are associated with illness and
death from tetanus. A cluster of 106 cases of tetanus, including 20 deaths, occurred in
Aceh and peaked 2-1/2 weeks after the tsunami (26). Cases were also reported in
Pakistan following the 2005 earthquake (25).

An unusual outbreak of coccidiomycosis occurred after the January 1994 Southern

California earthquake. The infection is not transmitted person to person and is caused by
the fungus Coccidioides immitis, which is found in soil in certain semiarid areas of North
and South America. This outbreak was associated with exposure to increased levels of
airborne dust subsequent to landslides in the aftermath of the earthquake (39).

Disaster-Related Interruption of Services

Power cuts related to disasters may disrupt water treatment and supply plants, thereby
increasing the risk for waterborne diseases. Lack of power may also affect proper
functioning of health facilities, including preservation of the vaccine cold chain. An
increase in diarrheal illness in New York City followed a massive power outage in 2003.
The blackout left 9 million people in the area without power for several hours to 2 days.
Diarrhea cases were widely dispersed and detected by using nontraditional surveillance
techniques. A case-control study performed as part of the outbreak investigation linked
diarrheal illness with the consumption of meat and seafood after the onset of the power
outage, when refrigeration facilities were widely interrupted (40).

Discussion
Historically, fears of major disease outbreaks in the aftermath of natural disasters have
shaped the perceptions of the public and policymakers. These expectations, misinformed
by associations of disease with dead bodies, can create fear and panic in the affected
population and lead to confusion in the media and elsewhere.

The risk for outbreaks after natural disasters is low, particularly when the disaster does
not result in substantial population displacement. Communicable diseases are common in
displaced populations that have poor access to basic needs such as safe water and
sanitation, adequate shelter, and primary healthcare services. These conditions, many
favorable for disease transmission, must be addressed immediately with the rapid
reinstatement of basic services. Assuring access to safe water and primary healthcare
services is crucial, as are surveillance and early warning to detect epidemic-prone
diseases known to occur in the disaster-affected area. A comprehensive communicable
disease risk assessment can determine priority diseases for inclusion in the surveillance
system and prioritize the need for immunization and vector-control campaigns. Five basic
steps that can reduce the risk for communicable disease transmission in populations
affected by natural disasters are summarized in an (Appendix Table).

Disaster-related deaths are overwhelmingly caused by the initial traumatic impact of the
event. Disaster-preparedness plans, appropriately focused on trauma and mass casualty
management, should also take into account the health needs of the surviving disaster-
affected populations. The health effects associated with the sudden crowding of large
numbers of survivors, often with inadequate access to safe water and sanitation facilities,
will require planning for both therapeutic and preventive interventions, such as the rapid
delivery of safe water and the provision of rehydration materials, antimicrobial agents,
and measles vaccination materials.

Surveillance in areas affected by disasters is fundamental to understanding the impact of

natural disasters on communicable disease illness and death. Obtaining relevant
surveillance information in these contexts, however, is frequently challenging. The
destruction of the preexisting public health infrastructure can aggravate (or eliminate)
what may have been weak predisaster systems of surveillance and response. Surveillance
officers and public health workers may be killed or missing, as in Aceh in 2004.
Population displacement can distort census information, which makes the calculation of
rates for comparison difficult. Healthcare during the emergency phase is often delivered
by a wide range of national and international actors, which creates coordination
challenges. Also, a lack of predisaster baseline surveillance information can lead to
difficulties in accurately differentiating epidemic from background endemic disease
transmission.

Although postdisaster surveillance systems are designed to rapidly detect cases of

epidemic-prone diseases, interpreting this information can be hampered by the absence of
baseline surveillance data and accurate denominator values. Detecting cases of diseases
that occur endemically may be interpreted (because of absence of background data) as an
early epidemic. The priority in these settings, however, is rapid implementation of control
measures when cases of epidemic-prone diseases are detected. Despite these challenges,
continued detection of and response to communicable diseases are essential to monitor
the incidence of diseases, to document their effect, to respond with control measures
when needed, and to better quantify the risk for outbreaks after disasters.

Dr Watson is a medical epidemiologist with the Disease Control in Emergencies Program

at the World Health Organization in Geneva. The program provides technical and
operational support for control of communicable diseases in humanitarian emergencies.

Waterborne diseases
 Diarrhoeal disease outbreaks can occur following contamination of drinking-water, and have been
reported following flooding and related displacement. An outbreak of diarrhoeal disease post flooding in
Bangladesh in 2004 involved more than 17 000 cases, with the isolation of Vibrio cholerae (O1 Ogawa
and O1 Inaba) and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (5). A large (>16 000 cases) cholera epidemic (O1
Ogawa) in West Bengal in 1998 was attributed to preceding floods (6), and floods in Mozambique in
January–March 2000 led to an increase in the incidence of diarrhoea (7). The risk of diarrhoeal disease
outbreaks following natural disasters is higher in developing than in developed countries (8). In Aceh
Province, Indonesia, a rapid health assessment performed in the town of Calang two weeks after the
December 2004 tsunami found that 100% of the survivors drank from unprotected wells, and that 85% of
residents reported diarrhoea in the previous two weeks (9). In Muzaffarabad, Pakistan, following the 2005
earthquake, an outbreak of acute watery diarrhoea occurred in an unplanned, poorly-equipped camp of
1800 persons. The outbreak involved over 750 cases, mostly adults, and was controlled following the
provision of adequate water and sanitation facilities (10). In the United States, diarrhoeal illness was
noted following hurricanes Allison (11) and Katrina (12–14), and norovirus, Salmonella, and toxigenic
and nontoxigenic V. cholerae were confirmed among Katrina evacuees.

Hepatitis A and E are also transmitted by the faecal–oral route, in association with lack of access to safe
water and sanitation. Hepatitis A is endemic in most developing countries, and children are exposed and
develop immunity at an early age. As a result, the risk of large outbreaks is usually low in these settings.
In endemic areas, hepatitis E outbreaks frequently follow heavy rains and floods; it is generally a mild,
self-limited illness, but in pregnant women case-fatality rates can be up to 25% (15). Clusters of both
Communicable diseases following natural disasters: risk assessment and priority interventions hepatitis A
and hepatitis E were noted in Aceh following the December 2004 tsunami (16).

Leptospirosis is a zoonotic bacterial disease that is transmitted through contact of the skin and mucous
membranes with water, damp vegetation, or mud contaminated with rodent urine. Infected rodents shed
large amounts of leptospires in their urine. Flooding facilitates the spread of the organism due to the
proliferation of rodents and the proximity of rodents to humans on shared high ground. Outbreaks of
leptospirosis occurred in Taiwan, China, associated with Typhoon Nali in 2001 (17), and following
flooding in Mumbai, India, in 2000 (18).

1.3 Diseases associated with crowding

Measles and the risk of transmission in the disaster-affected population is dependent on the baseline
vaccination coverage rates among the affected population, and in particular among children aged 400
clinical cases in the six months following the earthquake) also occurred in Pakistan following the 2005
South Asia earthquake (21).

Meningitis caused by Neisseria meningitidis is transmitted from person to person, particularly in

situations of crowding. Cases and deaths from meningitis among those displaced in Aceh and Pakistan
have been documented (16, 21). Prompt response with antibiotic prophylaxis, as occurred in Aceh and
Pakistan, can interrupt transmission.

Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are a major cause of morbidity and mortality among displaced
populations, particularly in children aged <5 years. Lack of access to health services and to antibiotics for
treatment further increases the risk of death from ARI. Risk factors among displaced persons include
crowding, exposure to indoor cooking and poor nutrition. The reported incidence of ARI increased four-
fold in Nicaragua in the 30 days following Hurricane Mitch in 1998 (22), and ARI accounted for the
highest number of cases and deaths among those displaced by the tsunami in Aceh in 2004 (16) and by
the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan (21)

Vector-borne diseases Natural disasters, particularly meteorological events such as cyclones, hurricanes
and flooding, can affect vector breeding sites and vector-borne disease transmission. While initial
flooding may wash away existing mosquito breeding sites, standing-water caused Communicable diseases
following natural disasters: risk assessment and priority interventions by heavy rainfall or overflow of
rivers can create new breeding sites. This can result (with typically some weeks delay) in an increase of
the vector population and potential for disease transmission, depending on the local mosquito vector
species and its preferred habitat. The crowding of infected and susceptible hosts, a weakened public
health infrastructure and interruptions of ongoing control programmes are all risk factors for vector-borne
disease transmission (23).

Malaria outbreaks in the wake of flooding are a well-known phenomena. An earthquake in Costa Rica’s
Atlantic Region in 1991 was associated with changes in habitat that were beneficial for breeding and
preceded an extreme rise in malaria cases (24). Additionally, periodic flooding linked to El Nino-
Southern Oscillation has been associated with malaria epidemics in the dry coastal region of northern
Peru (25).

Dengue transmission is influenced by meteorological conditions including rainfall and humidity and
often exhibits strong seasonality. However, transmission is not directly associated with flooding. Such
events may coincide with periods of high transmission risk and be exacerbated by increased availability
of vector breeding sites – mostly artificial containers – caused by disruption of basic water supply and
solid waste disposal services. The risk of vector-borne disease outbreaks can be influenced by other
complicating factors, such as changes in human behaviour (increased exposure to mosquitoes while
sleeping outside, movement from non-endemic to endemic areas, a pause in disease control activities,
overcrowding), or changes in the habitat which promote mosquito breeding (landslide deforestation, river
damming and re-routing).

1.5 Other diseases associated with natural disasters

Tetanus is not transmitted from person to person, but is caused by a toxin released by the anaerobic
tetanus bacillus Clostridium tetani. Contaminated wounds, particularly in populations where routine
vaccination coverage levels are low, are associated with morbidity and mortality from tetanus. A cluster
of 106 cases of tetanus, including 20 deaths, occurred in Aceh and peaked 2½ weeks following the
tsunami (26). Cases were also reported in Pakistan following the 2005 earthquake (21). An unusual
outbreak of coccidiomycosis occurred following the January 1994 southern California earthquake. The
infection is not transmitted from person to person, but is caused by the fungus Coccidioides immitis,
which is found in soil in certain semi-arid areas of North and South America. This outbreak was
associated with exposure to increased levels of airborne dust subsequent to landslides in the aftermath of
the earthquake (27).

1.6 Disaster-related disruptions

Communicable diseases following natural disasters: risk assessment and priority interventions Power
cuts related to disasters may disrupt water treatment and supply plants, thereby increasing the risk of
water-borne diseases. Lack of power may also affect proper functioning of health facilities, including
preservation of the cold chain. An increase in diarrhoeal incidence in New York City followed a massive
power outage in the United States in 2003. Investigation of the outbreak revealed an association with the
consumption of meat and seafood after the onset of the power outage, when refrigeration facilities were
widely interrupted (28).