Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching

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Teaching second language reading

comprehension: the effects of classroom materials
and reading strategy use

Fan-Wei Kung

To cite this article: Fan-Wei Kung (2019) Teaching second language reading comprehension:
the effects of classroom materials and reading strategy use, Innovation in Language Learning and
Teaching, 13:1, 93-104, DOI: 10.1080/17501229.2017.1364252

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2017.1364252

Published online: 06 Sep 2017.

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INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING
2019, VOL. 13, NO. 1, 93–104
https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2017.1364252

Teaching second language reading comprehension: the effects

of classroom materials and reading strategy use
Fan-Wei Kung
Department of English, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The past decade has witnessed a plethora of research in teaching second Received 18 April 2017
language reading, and how to teach with efficiency has gradually gained Accepted 18 July 2017
ground in the field of Second Language Acquisition. Even though
KEYWORDS
empirical studies have revealed that there is a positive correlation Reading strategy; cognitive
between students’ learning motivation and learning outcome for knowledge; metacognitive
effective reading comprehension, such a correlation has not been clearly knowledge; authentic
examined in Taiwan because the nature of its reading instruction has materials; second language
long been exam-oriented. The question as to how to stimulate students’ acquisition
reading motivation still remains unknown. This study aims to bridge this
gap by investigating the effects of using reading strategy instruction
(metacognitive and cognitive knowledge) based on authentic reading
materials for advanced EFL learners with the focus on their reading
improvement and learning experience. Qualitative and quantitative
analyses were conducted to explore students’ reading strategy use.
Results suggest that learners generally prefer metacognitive to cognitive
knowledge when it comes to reading English texts, and authentic
reading materials are found to heighten their learning motivation as
well as attitude positively due to several salient factors. The importance
of cultivating learners’ second language reading strategy awareness by
using appropriate reading materials in class is discussed with several
pedagogical and theoretical implications.

Introduction
L2 (second language) reading teaching and learning
How to teach second language (L2) reading effectively has been the goal of many teachers in the
language classroom around the world. A plethora of research has also been conducted exploring
the approaches to reading for L2 learners in the field of Language Teaching and Learning. Alder-
son (2000) defines reading as ‘an enjoyable, intense, and private activity from which much plea-
sure can be derived, and in which one can become totally absorbed’ (p. 28). The importance of
effective reading skills for L2 learners has been recognized to foster their second language acqui-
sition (SLA) by both academics and practitioners in the field for the past decade. Research on L2
reading also reveals that reading is a complex cognitive activity that is indispensable for adequate
functioning and attaining information in contemporary society (Yang 2004). Many researchers
such as Day and Bamford (1998) and Krashen (1999) all claim the importance of reading and
its direct association with students’ academic achievement. Learners’ strengthened reading
skills can thus allow them to make more progress and facilitate greater development in all aca-
demic domains (Anderson 1999). Based on this construct, high levels of reading proficiency

CONTACT Fan-Wei Kung fwkung@ntnu.edu.tw

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
94 F.-W. KUNG

guarantee a more effective process of cognition not only linguistically, but socially. Other factors
including emotion, culture, and motivation have also been indicated to be related to L2 reading
acquisition (Lu 1989; Xu 1997). For example, Cheung (2001) posits that L2 reading has been the
mainstay of L2 instruction in many countries such as Japan and China. Although much effort has
been made to locate the effective methods and resources to promote students’ reading skills for
their future academic and personal success, the effects of reading instruction on learners’ reading
ability are far from satisfactory in many Asian EFL contexts, especially in the context of Taiwan
(Chen 2006; Hwang 2005). The Confucian style of learning that is deeply embedded in
Taiwan’s educational system has made its English learning exam-driven (Fan and Fox 2012).
This has resulted in learners’ low learning affect that influences their language development
adversely (see below for more discussion).

Reading strategy use

For effective reading comprehension, the role of strategy use has been acknowledged as an essential
element for learners’ SLA. Berardo (2006) points out that reading has several purposes such as survi-
val, learning, and pleasure. Reading for survival refers to our response to the environment; reading for
learning is considered to be the type of reading students do in a classroom setting with goal-oriented
purposes; while reading for pleasure refers to the reading that does not need to be done for any
requirements (Berardo 2006). In terms of reading for L2 learning, it is undeniable that effective
reading skills are one of the most important elements for effective language learning. Barnett
(1989) and Chen (2006) thus contend that successful reading comprehension requires the integration
and application of multiple strategies and skills. These strategies include memory, cognitive, compen-
sation, metacognitive, affective, social and test-taking strategies (Caverly 1997; Oxford 1990). For the
design and scope of this study, cognitive and metacognitive are discussed in detail in the following
paragraphs.
To begin with, cognitive strategies are methods in which learners work with and manipulate the
task themselves toward completion (Chamot and Kupper 1989). It is also referred to as the
learner-centered approach that takes into account the environment or situational context in which
learners learn based on their intrinsic motivation, which could also strengthen their ability to
obtain information through cognitive and metacognitive approaches (Winstead 2004). For instance,
the skills of predicting based on students’ prior knowledge, analyzing text organization by looking at
specific patterns, self-questioning, making a summary, taking notes by writing down the main ideas
or specific points, translating, inferencing, and transferring (Chamot and Kupper 1989; Numrich 1989;
Oxford 1990). These strategies could be used to help and promote learners’ understanding of a
reading text.
Next, learners’ metacognitive knowledge involves thinking about the learning process, planning
for learning, monitoring the learning task, and evaluating how much one has learned (Chamot
and Kupper 1989). Oxford (1990) further proposes that metacognitive strategies entail three strat-
egy types: centering, arranging, and planning. Similarly, a metacognitive framework was also con-
structed by Pintrich (1999) where he believes that there are three types of strategy: planning,
monitoring, and regulating. Planning refers to the process of setting goals for studying, skimming
a text before reading, and generating questions. Monitoring refers to the self-regulated learning,
which includes keeping track of attention while reading a text, self-testing through several ques-
tions about the text to ensure a better understanding (Weinstein and Mayer 1986). Finally, the last
type of metacognitive knowledge is the regulatory strategy which is closely related to the moni-
toring strategy (Pintrich 1999). For example, it includes asking questions to monitor students’
reading comprehension, slowing the pace of a more complicated reading text, reviewing
materials for assessment, and postponing questions. Based on this framework, Chen (2006) has
thus been advocating the use of metacognitive knowledge for effective L2 reading comprehen-
sion to develop learners’ SLA.
 INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING 95

Empirical studies have also indicated that utilizing reading strategies enhances L2 reading com-
prehension by changing learners’ reading behavior and repairing deficit in their understanding of
a reading text (Caverly 1997; Yang 2004). This involves the process of reading that pertains to the
recall of pre-knowledge such as personal experience, academic fact, and visualization that facilitate
the construction of successful reading comprehension (Barnett 1989). In other words, readers can
infer the meaning of a text from the topic-specific pre-knowledge that they have obtained both
implicitly and explicitly on the word, sentence, or discourse level (Anderson 1999). Such a process
is only possible when readers have activated their pre-knowledge to mediate their reading that
further assists their comprehension. As Birch (2014) has already indicated, learners’ language profi-
ciency is correlated with their pre-knowledge activation when it comes to repairing their deficit to
read in an L2. This shows that L2 proficiency plays an important role in learners’ reading strategy
use (behavior) that further influences their deep-level reading comprehension (deficit repair) (see
Birch, 2014, for a review).

Using authentic materials for EFL reading instruction

Wallace (1992) asserts that authentic texts are considered ‘real-life texts which are not written for
pedagogical purposes’ (p. 145). Peacock (1997) suggests that authentic texts are produced to fulfill
some social purposes in a language community for language learners. Research has also indicated
that the traditional language teaching textbooks contain the artificial nature of the language and
structure used and taught, making it difficult to reflect the genuine language used in reality for L2
learners (Berardo 2006; Hwang 2005; Yang 2004). For instance, Hwang (2005) argues that many
ESL/EFL textbooks contain a preaching and patronizing tone, which influences students’ learning
interest and motivation negatively. Kennedy (1998), Krashen (1989), and Mindt (1996) all
contend that the grammatical structure and language use found in many textbooks are different
from the authentic English used nowadays; consequently, many learners might find it hard to
adapt to the English used in real life.
Regarding the advantages of teaching an L2 based on authentic texts, Breen (1985, 61) concludes
that authentic texts offer four types of authenticity including authenticity of the texts used as input
data for learners, authenticity of the learners’ own interpretations of such texts, authenticity of the
tasks conducive to language learning, and authenticity of the actual social situation of the language
classroom. Cheung (2001, 60) further links such an authenticity derived from authentic texts to
popular culture as ‘it bridges the gap between formal and informal English instruction and develops
learners’ daily experience, personal value, and attitude.’ In terms of students’ feedback, empirical
studies have also revealed that authentic texts are beneficial to the language learning process of
L2 learners due to their heightened learning interest and motivation (Berardo 2006). It is important
to note that when it comes to text authenticity, it is generally referred to the characteristic of a
relationship between the passage and the reader that requires an appropriate response in the learn-
ing process (Yang 2004).
The increasing use of authentic texts in language classrooms does not stop some scholars from
taking the cultural aspects into account from another dimension. Authenticity in SLA is construed
as the language used and mediated by native speakers in a specific community (Nunan 1989). It
can be shown by the discourse or text that they produced for the purpose of communication in
any environment. As Benson and Voller (1997) posit, authenticity concerns with the qualities that
are perceived by the receivers such as the readers and listeners in an L2. In a classroom setting,
authenticity could be conceptualized as the interaction between teacher and students (van Lier
1996), the tasks used to carry out any communicative act (Guariento and Morley 2001), the socio-
cultural background of the classroom (Nunan 1989), and the ability to think and react in an L2
manner for language learners (Benson and Voller 1997). Widdowson (1998) hence argues that
in order to reach the genuine authenticity, materials cannot be claimed authentic if they are
mass-produced around the world. From this standpoint, authenticity is later defined by
96 F.-W. KUNG

Byram (2008) as the congruence between the purpose of the text producers and the interpret-
ation of the target readers/listeners. As Feng and Byram (2002) contend, the authenticity of a
text cannot be achieved without a high degree of connecting with the text and the readers/
listeners.

Traditional EFL reading instruction in Taiwan

Similar to other Asian EFL learners, many English learners in Taiwan also find it hard to read English
effectively when they start their tertiary education in which a higher reading demand is expected aca-
demically (Ko 2002). Some of the reasons include the ineffective reading strategies with little or no
strategic intent, and low reading motivation arising from their previous reading experience. Instruc-
tional practices in many EFL classes in Taiwan are usually teacher-centered focusing on direct knowl-
edge transmission (Lau 2006). The main focus of traditional English language instruction in Taiwan is
based on the prescribed text teaching; therefore, EFL instructors rarely touch on strategy use directly
in class (Yang 2004). Further, many Chinese-speaking EFL reading teachers are found to pay consider-
able attention to the linguistic and cognitive factors inclusive of word-level issues, grammatical rules,
discourse organization, background knowledge, and reading models (Grabe and Stoller 2002). In
other words, teachers’ emphasis is often placed on the production of comprehension instead of
the processing skills such as students’ motivation and attitude before and after they read (Fan and
Fox 2012).
Based on this phenomenon, in order to prepare students to take the standardized tests for enter-
ing high school and college, many EFL instructors in Taiwan have long been teaching reading
through the Grammar Translation Method because of its less time-consuming nature. This teaching
practice has been described as rather mechanical and monotonous due to the fact that reading com-
prehension is taught based on test preparation only (Hwang 2005). Many students thus consider the
traditional passive learning mode the norm for acquiring a foreign language and refuse to step out of
their comfort zone. Similar to what Shrum and Glisan (1994) note, many EFL learners in Asia have long
been indoctrinated to the point where unless a certain grammatical point is clearly taught, they sub-
consciously reject to learn. Under these circumstances, students’ English language repertoire and
learning motivation are thin and low, causing fossilization in the form of grammar and test prep-
aration (Nunan 1999). As Fan and Fox (2012) have vividly illustrated, students in Taiwan generally
pay less attention to pleasure reading when in high school because the college entrance exam
focuses primarily on expository text rather than narrative text typically found in pleasure reading.

The study
Although research has suggested that there is a correlation between students’ learning motivation
and learning outcome for effective reading comprehension (Anderson 1999; Krashen 2007), such a
correlation has not been clearly examined in Taiwan because the nature of its reading instruction
has long been exam-oriented. The question as to how to stimulate students’ reading motivation
still remains unclear at this juncture (Hsu, Hwang, and Chang 2013). This study thus aims to
bridge this gap by examining if incorporating authentic reading materials can improve advanced
EFL learners’ reading proficiency. Meanwhile, due to the scarcity of L2 reading research on the
effectiveness of strategy use in Taiwan given that the instruction is test-driven (Lo 2010), this
study is designed to assess the effects of reading strategy use (metacognitive and cognitive strat-
egies) based on strategy instruction for the development of advanced EFL learners’ reading per-
formance. The concept of authenticity is operationalized in accordance with the authentic
materials used to enhance learners’ reading comprehension in Taiwan’s sociocultural context in
which L2 reading is taught to pass the test (Fan and Fox 2012). Four research questions thus
guided this study:
 INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING 97

(1) Can authentic reading materials improve advanced EFL learners’ reading proficiency?
(2) Can authentic reading materials strengthen advanced EFL learners’ learning motivation, confi-
dence, and interest?
(3) What is the most frequently used reading strategy for advanced EFL learners?
(4) What is advanced EFL students’ attitude toward the effects of strategy instruction?

Methodology
Participants
Thirty-six freshmen majoring in English language and literature (20 males and 16 females) were
recruited from a Freshman English course at a top-rated university (the first-tier program with stu-
dents scoring less than 3% annually on the entrance exam) in Taipei, Taiwan. To acquire more
details about their background information, a demographic questionnaire was distributed before
this study commenced and the results indicated that most students (97%; 35 out of 36 in total)
have received at least 8 years of English instruction before they entered university. The age of the
participants ranged from 18 to 19, with a mean of 18.19 and a standard deviation of 0.62. Every
student in this class had also been assessed by the university before enrollment, and they were
placed into the advanced level, which equals TOEIC 880/990 or IELTS 7.0/9.0 (CEFR C1) as the univer-
sity specified. The length of the course was 18 weeks with 2 hours per week where the instructor
acted as the researcher. Instead of the regular EFL textbooks that many instructors use, the instructor
in this study utilized two popular authentic materials Reader’s Digest and The New York Times because
of two reasons: first, they are easily accessible in Taiwan; and second, they are relevant to students’
lives due to the nature of these two publications including the latest fashions, trends, and news.

Instruments and procedures

This study aims to examine advanced EFL learners’ performance and attitude based on authentic
reading materials and their reading strategy use. In this mixed-methods study, both qualitative and
quantitative approaches were conducted by the pre- and post-questionnaires eliciting their experi-
ence and feedback, pre- and post-tests assessing their reading skills before and after this study,
followed by a semi-structured interview with each participant at the end of the instruction.
Some items in the surveys such as their self-assessed reading improvement, interest in reading
English through authentic materials, and their confidence in reading after the course were all
included and adapted from the research questions. Six questions were included in both pre-
and post-questionnaires respectively (see Tables 2 and 4). All responses and feedback were
recorded verbatim and analyzed under every participant’s consent. In terms of assessing students’
reading skills, a pre-reading assessment adapted from the TOEFL iBT reading component was used
to assess students’ reading comprehension (Phillips 1996). Five reading passages were chosen fol-
lowed by 9–11 multiple choice questions in a given test. The test was about 55–60 minutes and
scored by the researcher for analysis. All participants were asked to take the same reading assess-
ment at the beginning (pre-test) and the end (post-test) of this semester. Due to the research
design, answers were not given to each participant after the pre-test to remain objective for
the post-test. During this study, a reading strategy questionnaire was designed and adapted
from Oxford’s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL, ESL/EFL version 7.0; both
metacognitive and cognitive strategies) and Carell’s (1989) Metacognitive Questionnaire to investi-
gate students’ reading strategy use before and after this study. The pre- and post-reading strategy
questionnaires contained 14 items consisting of 2 different reading strategies: metacognitive
(questions 1–7) and cognitive (questions 8–14; see Appendix). Participants were told to rate
each statement on a 5-point scale from (1) never true to me to (5) always true to me. To add exter-
nal and expert validity to the questionnaires, they were sent to two other scholars in the field,
98 F.-W. KUNG

which led to a number of changes in terms of the format and items they contained. The scholars’
suggestions were taken into account for revision and the scale was highly consistent internally
(Cronbach’s alpha = .93). Five students of the same background who were not part of this study
were interviewed to ensure the validity of the questionnaires (Cronbach’s alpha = .84). A semi-
structured interview was conducted to every participant individually at the end in English with
the questions adapted from the research questions and Chamot and Kupper’s (1989) study
based on the aim and scope of this study.
As the focus of this course was on reading, students were expected and taught to utilize various
reading strategies involving metacognitive (reading the topic, first sentence and questions first for
each passage) and cognitive knowledge (memorizing key words to understand the passage better, under-
lining key words to help them remember information of the passage, and writing a brief summary of
each paragraph to help them get the main idea) based on the authentic reading materials used in class.
During this study, students were asked to choose one passage from Reader’s Digest and The
New York Times respectively based on their interest and later vote for the ones that most people
liked for each meeting. Two passages would therefore be taught and analyzed based on students’
mutual interest for the instruction. Owing to the fact that students had the chance to choose the pas-
sages they were interested in, the instructor thus required them to preview the articles that would be
discussed in the next meeting so they could be more prepared in class. Learners were also rec-
ommended to consult a dictionary for any vocabulary that they did not understand before each
meeting. During the instruction, the instructor would go through the passage word by word
before asking every student to come up with the main idea of each passage at the end, followed
by a group discussion marking the end of each meeting. Any related vocabulary, grammar, and sen-
tence structure would be taught when it was needed. The course lasted for 18 weeks with 2 hours
weekly, and the first 50 minutes (cognitive strategy) would be dedicated to passage instruction
along with the rest 50 minutes (metacognitive strategy) for group discussion and review for a
more balanced approach to strategy instruction.
The statistical significance of the descriptive statistical data was analyzed using the paired
samples t-test. All data were processed using the statistical software package, SPSS17 (Chicago,
IL, USA). The level of statistical significance was set to a p-value less than 0.05. The interview quali-
tative data were analyzed using content analysis based on various related categorizations for
different features to emerge. The data were read and reread by me for recurrent themes to
emerge before they were forwarded to two scholars for verification before they were coded for
analysis (Maxwell 2008). Member check was also used via e-mail from the participants for accuracy,
trustworthiness and objectivity (Seidman 2013).

Results and discussion

RQ 1: Can authentic reading materials improve advanced EFL learners’ reading proficiency?

From the results of the pre- and post-tests, it was found that students had improved their reading
performance with the mean score from 61.23 to 66.45. From the results of the pre- and post-tests, the
paired samples t-test also indicated that there was a significant difference at p < .0001 (p = .000).
Simply put, the results showed that the participants’ reading proficiency levels have increased
after learning through authentic reading materials. Based on their improvements shown from the
assessments, it is clear to note that authentic reading materials might influence students’ reading
proficiency levels positively. The statistical analysis is illustrated in Table 1.
RQ 2: Can authentic reading materials strengthen advanced EFL learners’ learning motivation, confidence, and interest?

From the pre- and post-questionnaires (a 5-point Likert scale asking students to respond to the state-
ments with agreement or disagreement) eliciting students’ self-assessed reading improvement,
learning motivation, confidence, and interest over the course of 18 weeks, it was evidenced that
 INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING 99

Table 1. Comparison of participants’ reading proficiency before and after learning through authentic reading materials.
Institutional Reading Assessment Number Mean SD t p
Pre-test 36 61.23 4.925 5.748 .000*
Post-test 36 66.45 5.080
*p < .0001.

more than 83% of participants thought they had become more effective readers and their use of
reading strategy had increased (14 females and 16 males agreed). With regard to students’ learning
motivation and interest in reading through authentic reading materials, the questionnaires revealed
that approximately 81% (12 females and 17 males agreed) of them thought they were more inter-
ested (p < .0001) in learning English through authentic reading materials. When students’ confidence
was examined, it was also found that close to 86% of participants (15 females and 16 males agreed)
believed that they were more confident to read in English (p < .0001). The results once again indi-
cated that using authentic reading materials in class might strengthen students’ confidence in
reading English. The statistical data are presented in Table 2.
Similar results were also found in the semi-structured interview in which more than 70% of the
participants (16 males and 10 females; 26 out of 36 in total) agreed that they became more indepen-
dent and interested in reading longer text through authentic materials because they are used to
doing so through the practice done in class and they are also more relevant to their everyday
lives. Some related qualitative descriptions during the interview are illustrated as follows:
It was (a) really good experience for me to read something that I am truly interested (in), not something that I don’t
think is going to be helpful for me in the future.

(Participant 7)

Now I can sort of understand why reading something I like really makes me like to read more because I get to read and
learn something that I am interested in.

(Participant 11)

I think I am better at reading English now because I am used to reading English every day, and I like to read something
I like in class as opposed (to) something I don’t.

(Participant 19)

I am glad I am more willing to read English now because I am not afraid of reading just for the tests … it’s just part of
my daily life you know?

(Participant 22)

The answer is yes, and I am more confident to read English because reading has become part of my routine. Learning
how to read English newspapers also give(s) me more confidence because it’s written for native speakers, and I can
also be part of it.

(Participant 35)

Table 2. Comparison of the participants’ learning motivation, confidence, and interest of reading English before and after learning
through authentic reading materials.
Question Number Mean SD t p
1. I am effective and skilled in reading English
Pre-questionnaire 36 3.16 0.865 −6.248 .000*
Post-questionnaire 36 4.18 0.790
2. I am motivated and interested in reading English through authentic reading materials
Pre-questionnaire 36 3.12 1.120 −6.119 .000*
Post-questionnaire 36 3.56 0.412
3. I am confident in speaking English
Pre-questionnaire 36 3.44 1.093 −6.523 .000*
Post-questionnaire 36 4.27 0.634
*p < .0001.
100 F.-W. KUNG

The finding is similar to what Ko (2002), Shang (2007), and Yang (2004) have found in their studies
that being an autonomous L2 reader implies more freedom and capacity to read in an engaging
and relaxing context, whereas the traditional EFL reading class cannot offer by teaching based
on test-oriented preparation materials or outdated textbooks that have little to do with students’
daily lives. As Chen (2006) and Lo (2010) have clearly indicated, EFL learners prefer the more auth-
entic reading materials due to their engaging and interacting nature. The results of this study indi-
cate students’ preference for authentic materials that can facilitate their L2 reading comprehension.
This study builds on what previous research has found by showing that authentic materials might
have a positive influence on advanced EFL learners’ affect that has not been clearly evidenced so far
in Taiwan. One of the reasons might be the fact that students in Taiwan need to spend a lot of time
preparing for the tests (TOEFL, TOEIC, or IELTS) to meet the graduation criteria based on the English
Graduation Benchmark imposed by many universities. Students hence seem to be more interested
in learning L2 reading through authentic materials that are usually not used in the L2 classroom.
RQ3: What is the most frequently used reading strategy for advanced EFL learners?

For the purpose of comparing students’ reading strategy use, a series of paired samples t-tests were
conducted to measure their reading strategy before and after this study. The final results from the
pre- and post-questionnaires for students’ strategy use indicated that they employed the metacog-
nitive strategy more frequently, followed by the cognitive strategy after this study. As can be seen
from the pre- and post-questionnaires for their strategy use as well as the pre- and post-tests, stu-
dents generally increased their use of reading strategy (cognitive; p < .0001) with their enhanced
reading skills (metacognitive; p < .0001). It is thus worth noting that reading strategy instruction is
essential for L2 learners’ reading development. The statistical data are illustrated in Table 3.
RQ4: What is advanced EFL students’ attitude toward the effects of strategy instruction?

In order to examine students’ attitude toward the effects of strategy instruction, items 4, 5, and 6 from
the pre- and post-questionnaires were designed. According to the surveys, a significant difference could
be found from question 4 (p = .005), question 5 (p = .000), and question 6 (p = .005). All the p-value was
less than 0.05(p < .005). The mean scores from questions 4, 5, and 6 in the pre-questionnaire were 3.04,
2.02, and 2.88, which were lower than the scores in the post-questionnaire at 3.67, 2.56, and 3.12,
respectively. It is thus possible to interpret that students generally held a positive attitude toward the
strategy instruction. Their reflection and feedback also showed their enhanced learning motivation
based on the instruction and authentic reading materials. The statistical illustrations are in Table 4.
Similar qualitative data showing students’ improved confidence and positive feedback were
obtained from the interview illustrated as follows:
It’s really important for me to know how to read through learning these reading strategies because they save me a lot
of time and help me to be more autonomous.

(Participant 1)

I hope I can keep learning English by reading something I like and use the strategies taught in class so I can be more
independent.

Table 3. Comparison of participants’ reading strategy use before and after learning through authentic reading materials.
M SD df t p
Metacognitive strategy
Pre-questionnaire 3.26 .23 36 −6.314 .000*
Post-questionnaire 4.10 .57
Cognitive strategy
Pre-questionnaire 3.01 .45 36 −7.211 .000*
Post-questionnaire 3.53 .81
*p < .0001.
 INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING 101

Table 4. Comparison of the participants’ attitude, experience, and reflection before and after learning through strategy instruction
and authentic reading materials.
Question Number Mean SD t p
4. I like to learn how to read through strategic instruction and authentic reading materials
Pre-questionnaire 36 3.04 1.133 −5.845 .002*
Post-questionnaire 36 3.67 0.502
5. I enjoy reading English text through strategic instruction and authentic reading materials
Pre-questionnaire 36 2.02 1.104 −4.787 .000*
Post-questionnaire 36 2.56 0.474
6. I think I could learn a lot through strategic instruction and authentic reading materials
Pre-questionnaire 36 2.88 1.018 −5.125 .004*
Post-questionnaire 36 3.12 0.534
*p < .005.

(Participant 22)

I am more interested in reading English for sure because I can deal with longer passages with ease through the prac-
tice we had in class.

(Participant 30)

I think these reading strategies are very helpful for me to be an independent reader in the future, and I’d love to learn
more in the future.

(Participant 33)

The results found in this study show that authentic reading materials not only stimulated students’
learning motivation but also strengthened their confidence to read independently. This result corro-
borates Ko (2002), Lau (2006), and Salili and Lai’s (2003) studies that effective reading strategy instruc-
tion is highly correlated with Chinese EFL learners’ improved reading comprehension, heightened
learning motivation and enhanced autonomy. As Winstead (2004) has vividly demonstrated, both cog-
nitive and metacognitive strategies are salient for effective L2 reading comprehension to further soli-
dify learners’ SLA. This study evidences the importance of incorporating authentic reading materials
and strategy instruction into the L2 reading classroom for advanced learners’ enhanced affect, which
previous studies have not indicated so far in Taiwan given that the reading instruction focuses more
on test preparation. This also concurs with other studies conducted in many Asian EFL contexts such
as China, Korea, and Japan where students generally prefer more authentic materials to reify their
language development (Fan and Fox 2012; Gilmore 2007; Hsu, Hwang, and Chang 2013).

Conclusion
This study explored the connection between advanced EFL learners’ reading comprehension and
classroom materials based on reading strategy instruction. Several results emerge showing that auth-
entic reading materials are effective for EFL reading comprehension because they are more closely
related to students’ daily lives. Participants’ enhanced reading proficiency after the instruction also
raises their reading strategy awareness by utilizing more metacognitive knowledge for managing
learning and overcoming their deficiency in reading English texts (Shang 2007). Such outcomes
also correspond to research where obtaining a high level of metacognitive knowledge increases
L2 learners’ reading process and development (Baker and Brown 1984; Chang and Huang 2001).
Several implications can thus be gleaned here to inform practice: L2 teachers are advised to
raise students’ reading strategy awareness by encouraging them to utilize effective reading strat-
egies. It is also recommended that teachers give students ample time to discuss after each reading
instruction. That is, students’ reading strategy use can thus be examined by themselves during
group discussion when their ideas are exchanged and shared. By so doing, students’ mutual
understanding can be formed during discussion time along with their enhanced reading and learn-
ing motivation.
102 F.-W. KUNG

In addition, it is recommended that language teachers transform the traditional EFL reading teach-
ing methods by encouraging students to develop their own independent and appropriate reading
strategies. It should also be noted that reading comprehension proficiency should not only be
taught based on test preparation, instead, students need to make reading a habit that they enjoy
on a regular basis. A positive relationship can, therefore, be noted when students are given the auton-
omy to choose the authentic materials they prefer as part of the curriculum. This learning trajectory
will not merely be more engaging, but also useful and relevant for them to become effective L2
readers. Further, students’ preference for authentic materials for learning L2 reading should be
noted not just by practitioners, publishers and policy makers should also be aware of students’ learn-
ing trajectory for more effective curriculum planning and design in the future. Though authenticity
seems to be something of a novelty for Taiwan’s EFL reading teachers based on its current sociocul-
tural context, more refined teaching approaches and materials can be produced and further used to
enhance students’ language development through an acute awareness that takes learners’ language
learning and affect into account.
While this study has primarily examined students’ reading comprehension proficiency and feed-
back before and after the instruction, some limitations should also be noted. First, only 36 college
advanced EFL students were recruited for a close examination from the same cohort denotes that
the findings should not be generalized. Participants’ background information should be examined
in depth so a closer correlation can be found (attending regular or vocational high school before
they entered university). Second, the TOEFL reading component was the only assessment available
to compare students’ reading proficiency levels before and after this study. More types of reading
passage should be included to assess students’ reading comprehension more precisely. Third, due
to time and practical constraints, it was not possible to form a control group in the context inves-
tigated. It is thus suggested that both control and experimental groups be designed in the future.
One reviewer indicated that it is paradoxical to argue for authentic materials for L2 instruction
because they should undergo the process of authentication, whereas Widdowson (1998) argues
that the process of authentication is truly accessible to native speakers. While we understand
this contention, the aim and scope of this study do not allow us to make any assertion from
the data collected. This project is hence served as the first step toward understanding how auth-
entic materials and reading strategy use can have any impact on advanced EFL learners that has
little discussion so far in Taiwan.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes on contributor
Fan-Wei Kung is an assistant professor of TESOL at National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan. He researches, publishes,
and presents internationally about bilingualism, multilingualism, world Englishes, language and cultural identities,
applied linguistics, and second language acquisition.

ORCID
Fan-Wei Kung http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7051-7860

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Appendix. Reading strategy use questionnaire

Please choose one number below to represent your reading preference.

(1) This statement is never true of me

(2) This statement is usually not true of me
(3) This statement is sometimes true of me
(4) This statement is usually true of me
(5) This statement is always or almost always true of me

Metacognitive knowledge

1. I look at the pictures of the passage

2. I read the topic of the passage
3. I read the first sentence of each paragraph
4. I read the questions before I read the passage
5. I try to keep up with my weekly readings and assignments of the course
6. I hope I can improve my English reading comprehension skills
7. I try to read as much as I can to improve my English reading comprehension

Cognitive knowledge

8. I try to memorize key words to understand the passage better

9. I underline key words to help me remember information of the passage
10. I try to write a brief summary of each paragraph to help me get the main ideas
11. I try to read the details twice to understand what the passage means
12. I try to skim and scan the important part of the passage for better understanding
13. I try not to translate word for word when I read
14. I try to outline the reading text to help me locate important information