You are on page 1of 304

AUDIO VISUAL

Aids FILE

Submitted To: Submitted by:


Mrs. S. Anitha madam, Ms. R. Krishna veni

Associate Professor, M.sc [N] 1st Year,

Dept: Child Health Nursing, Yashoda college of Nursing.

Yashoda college of Nursing


S. NO CONTENT Page No.

1. UNIT Ⅰ
AUDIO VISUAL AIDS 1- 28
• Introduction
• Definition
• Meaning
• Characteristics
• Sources of AV aids
• Problems
• Draw backs

28-72
2 UNIT Ⅱ
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
• Introduction
• Definition
• Needs or purpose
• Types of communication
• Ways of communication
• Elements of communication
• Levels of learning

73-92
3. UNIT -Ⅲ
CONE OF EXPERIENCE
• Introduction
• Cone of learning
• Interpretation of cone
• Levels of cone experience
• Edgar Dale cone experience
4. UNIT - Ⅳ
LETTERING TECHNIQUES 93-106
• Techniques
• Principles
• Types
• Classification
• Types of Lettering

5. 107-120
UNIT - Ⅴ
COLOURING
• Introduction
• Uses
• Types
• Colour & Visibility
6.
UNIT- Ⅵ 121-169
CLASSIFICATION OF AV AIDS
• Introduction
• Principles
• Definition
• Classification of Av Aids
170-184
7. UNIT -Ⅶ
AUDIO AIDS
• Introduction
• Definition
• Types
185-197
UNIT - Ⅷ
8. VISUAL AIDS
• Introduction
• Purpose
• Types
9. UNIT -Ⅸ 198-209
AUDIO VISUAL AIDS
• Motion pictures
• Educational Television
• Computer
• Zoom app
• Google meet app
• Webinar
210-229
UNIT-Ⅹ
10. PROJECTED AIDS
• Definition
• Types
• Advantages
• Dis advantages
11. 230-249
UNIT -ⅺ
GRAPHIC AIDS
• Introduction
• Basic Concept
• Types
250-264
12. UNIT -ⅻ
PRINTED MATERIALS
• Introduction
• Types
• Advantages & dis advantages

UNIT-XIII 265-272
13. TRADITIONAL AIDS
• Introduction
• Types
• Advantages & dis Advantages
UNIT – XIV 273-287
14. ACTIVITY TEACHING AIDS
• Field trips
• Demonstration
• experiments
• dramatization
288-293
UNIT - XV
15. ADMINITRATION OF AV AIDS
• Approaches
• Staffing
• Functions of AV AIDS center
• Budget
• Professional staffing team
UNIT-Ⅰ
Introduction
to
AUDIO VISUAL AIDs
AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

INTRODUCTION:

Audio aids are the hearing aids, visual aids are also instructional devices in which
messages can be seen. By the use of audio visual aids the messages can be seeing
as well as hearing are the most important senses which contribute to maximum
hearing with regard to the retention of information learned through different
senses.

Audio visual material must be seen in their relationship to teaching as a whole and to
the learning process as a whole, until teacher understand the relationship between
audiovisual material and teaching learning process. Audio visual aids is on instructional
device in which the message can be heard as well as seen. Audiovisual aids are
multisensory material which motivate and stimulate the individual. Audiovisual aids
sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for learning more concrete socialistic
and clarity. Provide significant gain in thinking and reasoning. Audio visual aids are
sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for learning. These are planned
educational materials that appeal to the senses of the people and quicken learning
facilities for clear understanding.

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE USE OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS:

Keeping in view the dearth of trained teachers and considering the quality of text-
books, it seems all very necessary that we should resort to the modern method of
teaching history.

The term ‘visual education’ was used as early as 1926 by nelson I green. Eric Ashby
(1967) identified four revolutions in education: education from home to school,
1
written words as tool of education, invention of printing and use of books and lastly
the fourth revolution in the use of electronic media, i.e. Radio, television, tape
recorder and computer in education.

A Dutch humanist, Theologian and writer Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536)


discouraged memorization as techniques of learning and advocated that children
should learn through the aid of pictures or other visuals. John Amos Comenius
(1592-1670) prepared a book known as ‘orbissensualiumpictus’ (or The World of
things obvious to the senses drawn in pictures) which contained about 150 pictures
on aspects of everyday life. The book is considered to be the first illustrated
textbook for children education. This book gained wide publicity and was used in
childhood education centers all over the world. Jean jacks Rousseau (1712-1778)
and other educators stressed the need of pictures and other play materials.
Rousseau condemned the use of words by teacher and he stressed ‘things’. He
pleaded that the teaching process must be directed to the learner’s natural
curiosity. Pestalozzi (1756-1827) put Rousseau’s theory into action in his ‘object
method’. He based instruction on sense of perception.

DEFINITION:

• According to Mc known and Roberts:


Audio – visual are supplementary devices by which the teacher, throne’s the
utilization of more than one sensory channel is able to clarity, establish and
correlate concepts, interpretation and appreciation.

• According to Carter .V Good:


Audio visual aids are those aid which help in completing the triangle process of

learning that is motivating, classification and stimulation.

2
• According to Kinder:
Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning experience
more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic process.
• According to Burton:
Audio visual aids are those sensory objector imager which initiate or stimulate and
reinforce learning.

• According to good’s dictionary of education:

Audio – visual aids are anything by mean of which learning process and may be
encouraged or carried through the sense of hearing or sense of sight.

• According to K.P Neeraja:


Audio visual aids is an instructional device in which message can be heard as well as
seen.
• According to K.L Kumar:
Visuals with or without enroll components are called audio – visual resources, aids,
media or simply audio – visual aids
• According to Edger Dale: Audio – visual aids are those devices by the use of which
communication of ideas. Between persons and groups is various teaching and
training situation is helped. These are also termed as multi-sensory materials.

MEANING:

• Audio-visual is, of course, a combination of two words: audio referring to that which
we can hear, and visual referring to that which we can see. The basic frame of
reference here limits our application of the term to a speaker and his audience,

3
although they are not necessarily in the physical presence of one another, as in the
case of a motion picture or television presentation.

• The term "aids," used in reference to the speaker, rules out his physical presence
(visual) and unrecorded voice (audio). These are the essential elements which make
him a speaker, and therefore cannot aid him (his voice cannot aid his voice).

• Handouts, especially maps, charts or tables, make good visual aids. The audience,
particularly a large one, can get a finer appreciation of details which cannot be
enlarged in a suitable manner. However, the audience is left in a position to
continue studying such material, both before and after the speaker refers to it, and
thus he cannot "control" its use.

• CONCEPT OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

• Audio visual aids are planned teaching aids that appeal to the sense of people
and enhance clear understanding and improve quick learning among learners
• A Chinese proverb proves the importance of audiovisual aids in the teaching
learning process
• I hear I forget
• I see I remember
• I do I understand

• It is generally believed that the best learning can be achieved through doing things
but learning can also be achieved through the use of appropriate audio visual aids.

NEEDS AND IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION MEDIA OR AUDIO-


VISUAL AIDS:

• Improve and make teaching effective.


• Enable the audience to look, listen and learner.

4
• Make learning interesting and profitable.
• Quicker the phase or learning.
• Faster/ develop the knowledge.
• Add variety and newness to the lesson.
• Bring expected behavioral changes among the learners.
• Stimulate curiosity.
• Provide a basis for more effective perceptual and conceptual learning.
• Increase and sustain attention and concentration.
• Increase the meaning fullness of abstract concepts by stimulating correct
thinking.
• Facilitate freedom among learners.
• Provision of active participation of the students.
• Provide opportunity for situational type of learning.
• The student acquires clear, accurate and vivid imager during the process of
learning.
• Overcome possible hurdles during the act of teaching.
• Save time and energy.
• Stimulate thinking and motivate action.
• Change attitude or point of view of learners.
• Stimulate thinking and motivate action.
• Change attitude or point of view of learners.
• Stimulate self-activity on the part of the learner by which it offers reality of
experience.
• Develop continuing of thought.
• Provide higher facilitates among student and it promote memorization.

5
• Provide different class room technique to provides changes in the atmosphere
of the classroom.

PURPOSE OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

 To initiate and sustain attention, concentration and personal involvement in


student learning.
 To provide a basis for more effective perceptional and conceptual learning
 To bring remote events into the class room
 To increase the meaningfulness of abstract concepts
 To gain practical skills
 To save time and energy
 To provide clear, accurate, and vivid image during the process of learning
 To stimulate thinking and motivate action
ANTIDOTE TO THE DISEASE OF VERBAL INSTRUCTION:
They help to reduce verbalism. They help in giving clear concepts and thus help to
bring accuracy in learning. As observed by Raymond wyman (1957) “we (teacher) tell
students, and we provide them with written material so they are easily produced,
reproduced, stored and transported. But the overuse or excessive use of words can

6
result in serious problem, chiefly, the problem of verbalism (using or adopting words
or phrases without considering what they mean) and forgetting”.

2. BEST MOTIVATORS
These are the best motivators. The students work with more interest and zeal. They
are more attentive.
3. CLEAR IMAGES:
These images are formed when we see, hear, touch, taste, and smell as our
experiences are direct, concrete, and more or less permanent. Learning through the
senses becomes the most natural and consequently the easiest.
4. VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES:
It is beyond doubts that the first-hand experiences are the best type of educative
experience. But it is neither practicable nor desirable to provide such experience to
pupils. Substituted experiences may be provided under such conditions. There are
many inaccessible objects and phenomena. For example it is not possible for the
pupils living in India to see the Eskimo to climb the Mount Everest. There are
innumerable such things to which it is not all such cases, these aids help us.

5. VARIETY:
‘Mere chalk and talk do not ‘do not help. Audio-visual aids give variety and provide
different tools in the hands of the teacher like models, transparencies.

6. FREEDOM:
When audio-visual aids are employed, there is great scope for children to more
about, talk, laugh and comment upon. Under such an atmosphere the students work
and not because the teacher wants them to work.

7
7. OPPORTUNITIES TO HANDLE AND MANIPULATE:
Many visuals aids offer opportunities to students to handle and manipulate things.

8. RETENTIVITY:
Audio-visual aids contribute to increased retentively as they stimulate response of
the whole organism to the situation in which learning takes place.
9. BASED ON MAXIMS OF TEACHING:
The use of audio-visual aids enables the teacher to follow the maxims of teaching like
‘concrete to abstract’, ‘known to unknown’, and ‘learning by doing".

10. HELPFUL IN ATTRACTING ATTENTION:


Attention is the true factor in any process of teaching and learning. Audio-visual aids
help the teacher is providing proper environment for capturing as well as sustaining
the attention and interest f the students in the classroom work.

11. HELPFUL IN FIXING UP NEW LEARNING:


‘What is gained in terms of learning needs to be fixed up in the minds of students?’
Audio-visual aids help in achieving this objective by providing several activities,
experiences and stimuli to the learner.

12. REALISM:
The use of audio-visual aids o\provides a touch of reality to the learning situation. By
seeing a film show exhibiting the life of the people of the tundra region, students
learn it more effectively in about 2 hours than by spending weeks by reading.

8
ASPECTS OF THE USE OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

The teacher who is contemplating the use of audio visual aids should have in mind
certain questions. They are:

a) Does the attainment of the lesson objectives will really require the employment
of any audio visual aid?
b) What is the precise method to be learned and how may the probability of
learning may be heightened by the use of audio visual aids?
c) What are the properties of audio visual aids which will enable us to utilize them
so as to attain the required lesson objectives?
d) How is the class likely to respond to the audio visual aid?

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TEACHING AIDS

The teaching aid should be

• Meaningful
• Simple
• Purposeful
• Cheap
• Motivate the learning.
• Improvised
• Up to date
• Easily portable
• Accurate in every aspects
• Large size.

9
SOURCES OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

• Government
• Educational institution
• Professional organization
• Non government organization
• National and international voluntary organization
• Commercial procedures of educational material.

OTHER TYPES OF SOURCES ARE:

• Animation: Movement may be given to different types of visual aids. The materials
necessary to do so fall in this section, but since they are usually improvised they
cannot be specifically defined. Examples are given later in this report.

• Blackboard: Black, green or other colored slate or composition board, or a specially


painted surface which will "take" erasable white or colored chalk.

• Bulletin Board: Flat board of cork, composition or other wood or material to which
visual aids may be attached with pins, tacks or staples.

• Easel or A-frame: Any type of frame which will hold flat-surfaced visual aids of any
given size; characterized by the artist's easel, which is similar in structure to the
letter "A," with a third leg used as a brace.

• Felt board: Any stiff, flat board covered with wool, felt or flannel. A variety of visual
aids, usually cutouts of objects or strips of cardboard lettered with key words, with
sandpaper or other abrasive backing, will adhere to the board. The same effect can
10
be achieved by backing the visual aids with two-sided cellophane or masking tape,
and covering the board with a piece of acetate; or by using strips of Velcro.

• Flash Cards. A series of stiff cards, usually small enough to be held in the hands,
each of which is imprinted with one or more key words.

• Flip Charts. A series of visual aids on flexible paper, fastened together at the top and
mounted on a frame in such a manner that they can be flipped or folded back. The
frame usually resembles a football goal post, with the charts fastened to the
crosspiece.

• Model or Mock-up: A three-dimensional dummy, usually made to a small scale,


which may or may not have working parts. The finished model is a visual aid. We are
concerned here with construction materials.

• Pegboard: Composition or plywood board, or other similar material, which has


holes drilled through it at regular intervals, usually 3/4". Different types of metal
clips, fitting the holes, will hold visual aids such as small posters, books and models.

• Pointer: Any long, thin strip of material, such as a stick, ruler, etc., which may be
used to indicate parts of the visual aid being emphasized. One new model contains
a battery-powered flash light, with a beam shaped like a small arrow. The pointer
can be used to indicate a portion of a slide, projected in a darkened room, without
having the pointer's shadow fall on the screen.

Visual Projection Equipment

• All visual projection equipment, with the exception of mirrors, the earliest ''magic
lanterns" and viewing screens, requires electricity to power its lighting elements.
There are five basic types of modern equipment.

11
• Filmstrip Projector. Equipment which will advance and project a 35 mm. filmstrip,
one frame at a time.

• Motion Picture Projector. Equipment which will project a series of pictures on a


strip of film in such rapid succession as to give the appearance of movement to
objects.

• Opaque Projector. Equipment which will project the image of any opaque material,
either flat or three-dimensional, placed beneath its lens.

• Overhead Projector. Equipment which will project the image contained on trans-
parent slides up to 10" X 10". Each transparency must be positioned on the projector
by hand. The word "overhead" is taken from the design of the equipment, which
actually projects the image to a mirror held above the transparency, which in turn
reflects it over the head of the speaker to the viewing surface.

• Slide Projector. Equipment which will project the image contained on a small
transparent slide, usually 35 mm. (2" x 2" when framed). Many of these projectors
are equipped with magazines to hold a large number of slides, and operation can be
either manual or automatic.

• All visual reproduction equipment requires a viewing surface of some type.


Screens are discussed in a later chapter, in reference to the capabilities and
limitations of different pieces of equipment.

Audio Reproduction Equipment

• The types of sound reproduction equipment are fewer in number than those for
visual projection. They are:

12
• Phonograph: Equipment which will reproduce sounds recorded or transcribed in
grooves in the surface of a hard, round, flat record.

• Sound Motion Picture Projector: A film projector which also has equipment for
reproducing sounds recorded along the edge of the film itself.

• Tape Recorder: Equipment which will reproduce sounds recorded on a rolled tape.
Most tape recorders can be used to place the sound on the tape, as well as
reproduce it.

• Modern Tape Recorder

• In addition to being used as a separate piece of audio equipment, phonograph


records are also used in conjunction with filmstrips. The result is known as a sound
slide film, sound having been added to a group of slides put together to make a film.
A sound signal, either audible or inaudible, placed at intervals on the record,
advances the filmstrip. The synchronized equipment is known as a Sound Slide film
Projector.

Other Useful Terms

• In these few pages, we have already presumed an understanding of some terms


with which the average planner may not be familiar. These, and other terms which
are used later in the report, are defined briefly below.

• Film: (Used in the text as processed movie film.) A long, narrow strip of cellulose
nitrate, acetate or similar material containing a succession of small transparent
photographs. Common sizes are 8 and 16 millimeter, referring to the width of the
strip.

13
• Filmstrip: Same as Film, but usually in 35 mm. A filmstrip is usually compiled from a
number of individual pictures taken with a 35 mm. still camera.

• Graphics: Diagrammatic representation of numbers, taking several common forms


such as the bar chart, line graph, or pie diagram; or a charting, such as an
organization chart, flow chart, etc. Pictures are sometimes used, particularly in bar
and flow charts.

• Montage: A composite picture made by combining different elements. These may


include photographs, lettering, magazine covers, etc.

• Opaque: Possessing a thickness or density which prevents light from passing


through the object. Total opacity is not necessary for the use of the opaque
projector.

• Slide film: See Filmstrip. The term slide film is used only when sound is added.

• Tape: (Used in the text in reference to tape recordings.) A narrow strip of acetate or
other material, somewhat similar to film, on which sound may be electronically
recorded or transcribed.

• Transparent: Opposite of Opaque. That through which light can pass.

• Transparency: A picture viewed by having light shine through it.

PSYCHOLOGY OF USING TEACHING AIDS:

• Interest in the role of the senses in learning was already therein educational circles
when instructional media began their as cadency. It has long been recognized that

14
the various senses condition the reception of messages the communications arc.
Research done by co bun (1968) indicated that:

1) One % of what is learned is form the sense of taste.


2) 2. 1.5% of what is learned is form the sense of touch.
3) 3. 3.5% of what is learned from the sense of smell.
4) 4. 11 % of what is learned is from the sense of learning.
5) 83 % of what is learned is from the sense of sight.

Retention of what is learned is likewise related to sense experience.


Observation and research by co bun tended to show holding time as nearly
constant as possible that people generally remember.

§ Ten percent of what they read.


§ Twenty percent of they hear.
§ Thirty percent o what they see.
§ Fifty percent of what they hear and see.
§ Seventy percent of what they say.
§ Ninety percent what they say as they do a thing.

POPULAR SAYING ON AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS:

“I hear, I forget”
“I see, I remember”
“I do, I understand”

15
PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS:

• Psychological studies on learning and retention reveal that 80% of information and
its retention are through auditory and visual senses. Because of the sensory appeal
of audio-visual aids, the retention span of learning increases are attached to audio-
visual aids.
1. Motivation: the sensory appeal of audio-visual aids motivates and stimulates
students to learn easily in a related atmosphere.
2. Curiosity: the curiosity of students is aroused due to the novelty and variety in
teaching aids when used for classroom teaching.
3. Interest: many AV aids give students the opportunity of manipulative their
learning environment and their interest in learning sustained.
4. Real and contrived experiences: with the use of AV aids, students have the direct
experiences of real life situations or contrived situations a kin to real one. Such
direct experiences make learning meaningful to students.
5. Concretization: AV aids decreases abstractness of spoken and written words to
make learning concrete.
6. Attention: through the use of AV aids the attention of students can be secured,
as learning becomes a pleasant experience.

FACTORS INFLUENCING IN SELECTION OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

❖ Age
❖ Educational level
❖ Socio economic status
❖ Interest

16
❖ Experience
❖ Knowledge of the subject
❖ Intelligence level
❖ Relative cost
❖ The teachers familiarity with originality and skills in selection, preparation and
use of audio visual aids
❖ The availability, functioning or working condition of audio visual aids
❖ Knowledge of resources and availability of facilities.

DRAWBACK IN USING AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

• These are helpful for reaching but they will not substitute teachers and books.
• These are not essential for all instruction programs.
• It require more time for planning and preparing.
• Audio visual aids are not enclose, but means
• Tempts the teacher to narrow down the subject.
• Audio visual aids can be expensive.
• Possible risk of spectatorism instead of attitude of thoughtful enquiry.
PROBLEMS IN USING AUDIO VISUAL AIDS.

• Apathy of the teachers: teachers with words alone is very tedious, wasteful and
ineffective.
• Ineffectiveness of the aids:- preparation, presentations, application , and discussion
are necessary whenever teacher is using aids for teaching.
• Absence of proper planning.
• Lethargy of the teacher.
• No proper follow up work.
17
• Correct presentation and appropriate application and discussion.
• Without proper presentation.

PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED FOR THE EFFECTIVE USE OF AUDIOVISUAL AIDS:-

• Audio visual material should function as an integral part of the educational


programme.
• Audio- visual aids should be centralized, under specialized direction and leadership
in educational programme.
• An advisory committee should be appointed to assist in the selection and co-
ordination of audio- visual material.
• Audio visual educational programme should be flexible.
• Instructor have to help the students how to use audio – visual aids.
• Legal aspects should be considered in the production and the utilization of
educational communication media.
• Audio visual material should be carefully located to eliminate duplication ,easy
accessibility and convenient use .
• Budget appropriation should be made regularly for audio visual education program.
• Periodic evaluation should be done to assess the function of utilization and
expenditure of the program .
• Principle of selection
• The age level
• Other personality angles
• They should have specific educational values
• They should help in realization of learning desired objectives.
• Principle of preparation
• The teacher also must receive training in the preparation of aids.
18
• The teacher him/ herself can prepare some aids or can take help of students also.
• Principle of physical control
• Principle of response
• Principle of proper presentation
• Principle of evaluation.

• Illustrations are added to

• Support statements.

• Graphically depict key points.

• Enhance the appearance of the report (speech).

• Add a touch of humor.

• Add emotional impact.

• Condense and simplify statistical material.

• The steps outlined above, and the mention of pacing and timing, connote a principle
of illustration. which is inherent to the definition of a planner — preplanning. Pre-
planning begins with the statement of a goal or goals of a specific project, and takes
form through the preparation of an outline. Adequate pre-planning implies
continuity of thought, and a certain amount of simplicity of content, obtained via a
step-by-step analysis of several propositions leading the reader to a conclusion. If
the report has continuity, then illustrations, assuming they are used to illustrate the
consecutive key points of the report, will have continuity. Pre-planning ends with a
final review of the report prior to publication or, in our case, with rehearsal of a
presentation prior to its formal delivery.

19
Spacing

• Illustrations should be spaced throughout the speech. This may not always be
possible, but should be a goal. If it is necessary to bunch the illustrations at one
point, try to make it as near to the end as possible. No matter how good the speaker,
he cannot "follow" visual material and maintain the same degree of interest.
• Illustrations should always pertain to the immediate material being discussed. The
confusion and frustration caused by inappropriate timing is frequently displayed in
written material where the text refers to a table or other material on another page.
Obviously, the further the illustration is from the text reference, the greater the
degree of apathy or even hostility on the part of the reader. Just as the ideal
publication shows an illustration on the same page as and alongside the text
reference, the speaker should show his visual aids only at the time he refers to them.
Turning the page of a book removes the possibility of a previous illustration
becoming a distraction from the subsequent text. The same principle applies to
visual or audio aids for a speech. Repeat the use of an aid as needed, but do not
leave it in view at all times.
• but do not leave it in view at all times.

Technical Material and Maps

• Technical subject matter should be avoided or translated into simple or


understandable language or demonstration. Since most . . . [presentations] will be
for local consumption, one should not hesitate to refer specifically to local
situations, locations, or problems which are generally recognized

20
• People are bored by statistics. The planner knows this, and yet figures frequently
make up the bulk of his talk. The first step, then, is to eliminate all unnecessary
statistics, considering primarily the listeners and what they want and need to know.

• For example, a line chart may depict the capital improvements expenditures during
recent and future years, as scheduled by the planning department and approved by
the city council. A little research would permit the planner to add lines depicting the
increasing average personal income, average personal taxes (including real estate,
personal property, excise, and so forth) and the amount or percentage of those
taxes which will go toward the construction and maintenance of the capital
improvements. Now the members of audience can identify themselves with the
statistics: they know how much of their money is going into the planner's work. The
statistics shown in the example above will be particularly effective if the percentage
of personal income going to capital improvements does not increase, and perhaps
even decreases after completion of some major phases of the program.
• Maps and other complex illustrations must also be closely scrutinized.
• If the use of color is not practical, eliminate or combine as many of the use zones as
possible, especially in an over-all map of the area. For example, the average member
of a public audience will understand that an area of the map covered with vertical
lines represents residential areas, without going into details of apartment and
single-family areas.

• If at all possible, use color. Here again, simplify the map as much as possible. Solid
areas of color can be distinguished from the back row of the audience, but various
patterns using the same color become meaningless.

21
• To illustrate the fact that higher density housing has been planned near the
industrial areas, use another map depicting just those factors and areas.
The enlargement of a small area of the over-all map will permit some different
shading patterns or colors, since those used in other areas of the city will not appear
on the enlargement to confuse the issue.
• One last, but very important, factor in the simplification of maps is uniformity. Map
colors have been standardized. Use the recommended shades. Above all, do not
vary colors or symbols depicting the same thing from map to map. Nothing could be
more confusing.

Negative to Positive

• The urban renewal example used above illustrates another principle of visual
presentation.
• There is a great degree of overlap between the principles of anticipation-climax and
negative-positive, the negative approach simply being a valuable tool in the building
of anticipation, and the positive being the logical climax.

The Use of Humor

• Millions of words have been written about humor, and yet it is hard to define. It
takes many forms, and varies with the situation. In a planner's presentation, humor
has a definite place, but it is not so much to make people laugh as it is to maintain
interest. Doing this requires that the humor, in whatever form, be related in some
way to the subject matter. To be effective, it must amuse, relieve the tension on
serious consideration, and illustrate the point the planner is trying to make in a
manner much more effective than cold facts or figures could achieve.

22
• A satirical presentation, used perhaps to poke fun at the opposition's objections to
a plan by showing their absurdity, will often backfire. Extreme care must be taken
to avoid the impression of ridicule, particularly if the presentation will be given
before a variety of groups.
• A humorous simile, such as the one used above with Miss Cheesecake and the Three
Stooges, makes use of a completely fictitious situation illustrating a common
principle. Here we have, it is hoped, offended no one, amused a majority, and made
the principle of anticipation-climax much more clearly understood, and thus better
retained, than would the urban renewal example if left to carry the message by
itself. Shown here in words, it gave a visual image; a camera or artist could put it in
pictures to illustrate a presentation.

The Speaker and Assistants

• Although we have stated that the speaker is neither an audio nor a visual aid to
himself, his audible and visual impact upon an audience is more important than the
finest aids. Since the same things which apply to the speaker apply to any assistants
he may have, particularly in a panel presentation, we should devote at least a few
words to them.

• Appearance obviously makes an impression. If the discussion is of a serious nature,


a business suit is called for. Lar Daly, perennial candidate for president of the United
States, frequently appears at public functions dressed as Uncle Sam. His patriotic
intentions in so dressing have apparently not been obvious to his audiences, for few
people have taken his candidacy seriously enough to contribute their votes. By the
same token, a duck-tailed haircut and black leather jacket on some young planner

23
would immediately preclude serious consideration of his proposals on the part of
an audience.
• Voice qualities are also important. The man with a high-pitched voice may overcome
this drawback by displaying a likeable personality, competence and intense interest.
But it is generally agreed that the man with a pleasing voice has a head start on
success in public speaking. A planner studies English before he attempts to write.
He researches his subject before he draws conclusions. Let us assume then, for the
sake of brevity, that he has also studied speech and knows of the tricks and tools
necessary to overcome any vocal shortcomings.

• J. Marshall Miller, speaking some ten years ago on the use of people on TV, made
some remarks which may well be applied to a planner's presentation.

A Matter of Excellence

• see the need for very expert . . . handling of visual material, whether it be graphics,
or map and plan drawing, or whether it be typography, or layout, or design, or
symbols, or whether it be the preparation of a film, or what have you. These are
very expert jobs. . . . I think we are going to cook our goose very, very neatly if we
do not operate at the highest possible level. . . . It would be disastrous if we
addressed to an American audience, through whatever medium, bad things visually
speaking. This audience, I will remind you, is really spoiled, visually. It is constantly
picking up typography of the highest order. It is all . … reading Life, Look, Pic, Squeak,
etc., which are photographically of the highest levels. It is not a substitute, in spite
of the accident of accuracy, to present a bad photograph to an audience which is
used to looking only at good ones. This is terribly important. The same goes, of
course, for all the other aspects of this thing I am talking about. Typography must
be good, because our audience is spoiled — very spoiled. They really have become
24
very discriminating, . . . and their eyes are trained by certain rules of legibility and
visibility which are being developed all the time.
• Perhaps the planner, or a member of his staff, is a good photographer or artist, on
an amateur basis. Experience alone will determine whether he can produce visual
aids of respectable quality. For those who would like to try, a certain amount of
study and practice are required, just as in anything else.

Design of the Illustrations

• It is difficult to put down in a few paragraphs those principles of design or layout


which can be applied to any type of illustration, be it a photograph, map, cartoon or
graphic of some type. The easiest method is to describe the basic principles of
advertising layout, for the planner's illustration is really an advertisement for the
accompanying text material. It must then be left to the planner, in taking his
photograph or drawing his map, to study his subject and apply the principles which
fit the given case.
• The primary purpose of the design is to attract the attention of the viewer to some
key point or fact. The layout determines the scope of the message through the
position, size and relation of the elements. It presents the approach, be it informal
or dignified, hard or soft, ugly or beautiful

• The elements of a design may be used singly or together, in whatever manner will
best achieve the desired results. The basic elements are:
• Copy: The written word is used to inform, appeal or convince. For an A-V
presentation, the speaker normally supplies the copy, although a few key words or
sentences may sometimes appear. Words, however, must be legible to be useful:
limitations are automatically imposed by the size of the audience.

25
• Headlines: A few words in large, bold type are used to attract attention and identify
the subject matter. They are also used to unify the other elements of the
advertisement.

• White space : Blank areas add beauty, contrast and emphasis. Prestige or quality
products or events are usually advertised with larger amounts of white space. For
example, compare the impact of a page in an automotive parts catalog with the
dignity of a wedding invitation, or the complexity of a large-scale street map with
the simplicity of a drawing of a single expressway intersection. The number of bold
lines per square inch in each element of a design have as much to do with the
"feeling" of white space as do the number of blank square inches between the
elements.
• Illustrations: Here is the meat of the matter for our purposes. Pictures or drawings,
be they abstract or real, are used to tell a story. They provide an image of action to
the accompanying text. They can be used to inform, explain the difficult, describe
details, or simply to please the eye. Some examples would be a bar chart showing
population increase (inform), a land use map (describe details), or a photograph of
a new building (please the eye).

• Type. Although used for the text or headline, typefaces have a beauty and force of
their own. Judicious selection can add to or injure the impact of the layout. For
example, a tall, thin type might be used effectively to identify a tall, thin building,
while squat, heavy type might be used to identify a slum photograph.
• Trade names and trade-marks. In commercial advertising, the name and trade-
mark are used as a signature. While the name of an agency can be used in the same
manner across the bottom of an illustration, a trade-mark can take other forms for
the planner.

26
• Color. Color compels attention, attracts the eye and suggests action. It can be used
for contrast or emphasis, or simply to indicate the natural shade of some material.
More is said about color in the next section.
• Borders. A border may assist in indicating the nature of the material, as in the case
of a heavy black line being associated with an obituary. The border may aid eye
movement toward key elements of the advertisement, or by its absence create an
altogether different effect. In preparing a layout or design, remember that the
purpose is to attract attention, and retain it as long as necessary for the viewer to
receive the message.
The Use of Color

• The use of color was briefly mentioned as one of the elements of design. It is true
that the size and weight of letters or figures give the illusion of varying color even
when only one is used, as can be seen by glancing at the headline above this
paragraph. But the planner shouldn't need to be sold on the use of color — his
problem is usually a matter of whether or not he can afford to add it.
• Colors are generally classified as cold (green-blue) or warm (red-yellow), the cold
having a tendency to recede from and the warm seeming to move toward the
viewer. Red-orange is the most eye-catching and attracting shade, but it is not
always psychologically correct. Being "warm", it would not be used, for example, to
illustrate a tray of ice cubes, just as a "cool" blue-green would not be a judicious
choice in a furnace advertisement.

• The use of a second color can make the result so much more effective that it is usually
a false economy to limit an illustration to one. When a budget does impose this
limitation, consider the greens, blues, reds and browns. Colored paper can also make
a one-color illustration much more attractive.

27
UNIT – II
COMMUNICATION
PROCESS

28
COMMUNICATION AND COMMUNICATION PROCESS

INTRODUCTION

Communication is the process of sharing our ideas, thoughts ,feelings with other
peoples and having those ideas ,thoughts and feelings understood by the people
we are taking with .when we communicate we speak, listen ,observe. The way we
communicate is a learned style . As the children we learn from watching our parents
and other adult communicate .As an adult we learn to improve the way
communicate by observing others who communicate effectively learning new skills
and participating those skills.

Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share") is the activity of


conveying meaning through a shared system of signs and semiotic rules.

Communication in biology often occurs through visual, auditory, or biochemical


means. Human communication is unique for its extensive use of language. Non-
human communication is studied in the field of biosemiotics.

Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only


exchange (encode-decode) information, news, ideas and feelings but also create
and share meaning. In general, communication is a means of connecting people or
places. In business, it is a key function of management--an organization cannot
operate without communication between levels, departments and employees.

29
DEFINITION:

1) Communication is defined as a “process of transmitting and receiving verbal


and non- verbal message that produce a response – MURPHY
& HILDEBRANDT.
2) Communication can be defined as the exchange opinion, ideas, information,
fact, feelings and values between two or more person, with the help of some
channels to accomplish the desired purpose. -
PATIDAR ANURAG BHAI

3) Communication is the process of sharing thoughts, ideas and emotions with


others and having those thoughts ideas and emotions understood.
-B.T. BASAVANTAPPA.
4) Communication is a process where by an individual through verbal as non-
verbal means transmit information to the second person who is turn receive
the information and he/she himself/herself goes through the process of being
transmitter.

K.P.NEERAJA

5) Communication is sending and receiving information between two or more


people. The person sending the message is referred to as the sender, while the
person receiving the information is called the receiver. The information
conveyed can include facts, ideas, concepts, opinions, beliefs, attitudes,
instructions and even emotions.

30
MEANING OF COMMUNICATION

Communication came from Latin word communicare, meaning “To share” is


the activity of conveying information through the exchange of ideas, feelings,
intentions, attitudes, expectation, perception or commands, as by speech ,
gestures, writing, behavior and possibly by other means such as
electromagnetic, chemical or physical phenomenon. It is the meaningful
exchange of information between two or more participants ( machines,
organisms or their parts)

GOAL OF COMMUNICATION

The goal of communication is to convey information and understanding of that


information from one person or group to another person or group.

31
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION:

Communication is the process of sharing our ideas, thoughts and feelings


with other people and having those ideas, thoughts and feelings understood by the
people we are taking with. We communicate we speak, listen and observe.
Communication is a cyclic process, that involves initiation, transmission and
reception of information. The reception of information followed by the feedback.

The way of communication is a learned style. As children we learn from


watching our parents and other adults communicate. As an adult we can learn to
improve the way we communicate by observing others who communicate
effectively learning new skills and practicing those skills.

Communication is about more than just exchanging information. It's about


understanding the emotion and intentions behind the information. Effective
communication is also a two-way street. It’s not only how you convey a message
so that it is received and understood by someone in exactly the way you intended,

32
it’s also how you listen to gain the full meaning of what’s being said and to make
the other person feel heard and understood.

More than just the words you use, effective communication combines a set of
skills including nonverbal communication, engaged listening, managing stress in
the moment, the ability to communicate assertively, and the capacity to recognize
and understand your own emotions and those of the person you’re
communicating with. Effective communication is the glue that helps you deepen
your connections to others and improve teamwork, decision making, and
problem solving. It enables you to communicate even negative or difficult
messages without creating conflict or destroying trust.

While effective communication is a learned skill, it is more effective when it’s


spontaneous rather than formulaic. A speech that is read, for example, rarely has
the same impact as a speech that’s delivered (or appears to be delivered)
spontaneously. Of course, it takes time and effort to develop these skills and
become an effective communicator. The more effort and practice you put in, the
more instinctive and spontaneous your communication skills will become.

Barriers to effective interpersonal communication

• Stress and out-of-control emotion. When you’re stressed or emotionally


overwhelmed, you’re more likely to misread other people, send confusing or
off-putting nonverbal signals, and lapse into unhealthy knee-jerk patterns of
behavior. Take a moment to calm down before continuing a conversation.
• Lack of focus. You can’t communicate effectively when you’re
multitasking. If you’re planning what you’re going to say next, daydreaming,
33
checking text messages, or thinking about something else, you’re almost
certain to miss nonverbal cues in the conversation. You need to stay focused
on the moment-to-moment experience.
• Inconsistent body language. Nonverbal communication should reinforce
what is being said, not contradict it. If you say one thing, but your body
language says something else, your listener will likely feel you’re being
dishonest. For example, you can’t say “yes” while shaking your head no.
• Negative body language. If you disagree with or dislike what’s being said,
you may use negative body language to rebuff the other person’s message,
such as crossing your arms, avoiding eye contact, or tapping your feet. You
don’t have to agree, or even like what’s being said, but to communicate
effectively without making the other person defensive it’s important to avoid
sending negative signals.

Here are 5 essential communication practices of effective leaders.

1. Mind the say-do gap. This is all about trust, which is the bedrock of effective
leadership. Your behavior is your single greatest mode of communication, and it
must be congruent with what you say. If your actions don’t align with your words,
there’s trouble. And it can turn into big trouble if not corrected swiftly and
genuinely. Since it’s often difficult to see the say-do gap in yourself, rely on a few
trusted colleagues to tell it to you straight and flag discrepancies. Rule of thumb:
it’s better to say nothing or delay your communication until you’re certain that
your actions will ring true.

34
2. Make the complex simple. Your employees and customers are being
bombarded 24/7 by information, making it hard for them to hear you. Simplicity
has never been more powerful or necessary. Effective leaders distill complex
thoughts and strategies into simple, memorable terms that colleagues and
customers can grasp and act upon. If you’re having trouble distilling something to
its essence, it may be that you don’t understand it. So get clear and look out for
technical jargon and business speak, which add complexity. Say what you mean in
as few words as possible.

3. Find your own voice. Use language that’s distinctly your own. Let your values
come through in your communication. Often, executives will opt for the sanitized
“corporate voice” instead of their own because they think the former is more
eloquent; more appropriate. This is not to say that correct grammar and use of
language aren’t important — strong leaders know how to string a sentence
together. But don’t fixate on eloquence; concentrate on being distinct and real.
People want real. People respect real. People follow real. Don’t disguise who you
are. Be genuine, and people will respect you for it.

4. Be visible. Visibility is about letting your key stakeholders get a feel for who
you are and what you care about. It’s easy to hide behind a computer and transmit
messages to others without seeing or interacting with them. Although e-
communication serves a valuable purpose, it is no substitute for face-to-face and
voice-to-voice communication. In today’s environment, people are often burned
out and need to feel a personal connection to you and the work that you believe
in. Do a “calendar test” to make sure you’re allocating time regularly to be out on

35
the floor, in the factory, in the call center, in the lab, in the store. Show your people
that you’re engaged and care about them and their work.

5. Listen with your eyes as well as your ears. Stop, look and listen. Remember
that effective communication is two-way. Good leaders know how to ask good
questions, and then listen with both their eyes and ears. It’s easy to be so focused
on getting your message out — or persuading others — that you don’t tune in to
what you see and hear. Because you’re in a position of authority, the stakes are
even higher because you won’t always get direct feedback. You need to read
between the lines. Listen and hear what is coming back at you. Look for the
nonverbal cues. Sometimes a person’s body language will tell you everything you
need to know.

36
III NEEDS OR PURPOSE

To be successful , a business needs to communicate effectively with a wide


range of people both internally and externally. Effective communication then, is
important for a number of reasons in an organizing including to:-

1) Issue instructions to its staff to tell them what to do thus enable the business
to operate. This is referred to as vertical communications.
37
2) Provide essential information to staff on pay pensions, holidays, others
benefits and general.
3) Keep staff informed of what is going on- so that they are able to perform
their work better and enjoy what they are doing. It must transmit information
about the firm’s organization products safety regulations and training.
4) Communication help to understood the clear ideas and condition about the
patient in medical field.
5) Communicate with its suppliers customers, bank and other contacts in
carrying out its business, it must send information about its products, receive
orders, supply goods, deal with documents and arrange payments.
a. Expression of needs and want – to regulate the behaviour of another person to
get something
b. Information transfer – to convey information from person A to person B
c. Social closeness – to establish and maintain relationships with others
d. Social etiquette – to conform to the social conventions of politeness

6) There are probably more than five purposes. Some are to inform, to educate
(or instruct), to persuade (or influence), to facilitate relationships, to transmit the
culture from one generation to another, to express emotions, to provide
expertise.

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNCATION

 communication is transactional because it involves an exchange


 Communication is complex for several reasons
 Communication is unavoidable because it is impossible to not
communicate
38
 Communication is continuous because it continuous to impact and
influence future interactions and shape our relationships
 Communication skill can be learned because they can always be improved.

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Different communication skills, which can be divided as follows

Knowledge of:-

 Interlocutor
 Purpose
 Topic

39
Abilities to:-

 Anticipate objections
 Achieve credibility
 Give full attention, give and get feedback
 Follow through what was said
 Communicate a little at a time
 Use multiple communication techniques
 Present information in several ways
 Detect emotional state
 Understand possible differences in perception
Abilities to avoid:-

 Muddled messages
 Stereotyping
 Wrong sub channel
 Wrong language
Other attitudes

 Making eye contact


 Giving prompts i.e., nodding, smiling etc.

IV TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

1. Verbal communication.
2. Non verbal communication.
3. Formal communication.
4. Informal communication

40
5. Visual communication
6. Telecommunication and internet
7. One way communication
8. Two way communication
9. Serial communication
10. Interpersonal communication

41
1 .VERBAL COMMUNICATION:-

It is the traditional way of communication has been by words of


mount. 1 Verbal communication Verbal communication (vocal included)
contributes to 45% of our communication. It involves the use of language and
meaning (either oral or written). Normally the words used in communication are
concrete or abstract. Concrete words represent an object (eg. Chair) and hence
convey ideas easily. Abstract words, on the other hand, has a built-inambiguity
because the ideas conveyed by such words are subjective and so effectiveness of
communication is in question (eg. beauty, intelligence etc.). Thus, while concrete
words can be compared to a sharp tool, abstract words are often compared to a
blunt instrument. Role of jargons is also crucial in determining the effectiveness
of communication. While jargons help to communicate easily in a homogeneous
group, excessive use of there can hinder communication. Use of jargons has to be
minimized while communicating to someone who is not familiar with the terms.
Verbal communication becomes effective through the choice of right words &
42
emphasis of the same. There should be an optimum use of pauses, non-words
and phrases because excessive use of these leads to distraction of the receiver.

2 .NON- VERBAL COMMUNICATION:


Communication can occur even without words. It includes ranger of
bodily movements, posture, gesturer, facial expression silence is a non verbal
communication. 2 Non-verbal Communication Non verbal communication is the
conscious and unconscious body movements in communication that couple with
physical and environmental surroundings. Non verbal communications are those
which are not expressed orally or in writing and includes human elements
associated with communication. These form an important and inevitable 3 aspect
of the total communication process because it compliments and substitutes
verbal communication. A good communicator should have the right posture,
facial expression and body language that are in tune with the words spoken. Lack
of co-ordination between verbal and nonverbal contents of communication
would only confuse the receiver. So while communicating, care should be taken
to ensure a proper blend between words and actions.

43
44
3. FORMAL COMMUNICATION: formal communication mean to follow lines of
authority. . Formal communication takes place through the system in organization.
4 In this, hierarchy has a very important role to play and the parties communicating
should adhere to the procedures in the system. In organizations, formal
communication is effected in upward (subordinate to superior), downward
(superior to subordinate) and horizontal (between same levels) directions.

45
4. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION:

It is not following line of authority. This channel is more active. .


Informal communication (grapevine) in an organization is very active and
powerful. Nature of communication through this medium is oral and the speed
with which the message is spread through this network is tremendous. As a result,
distortion at any stage cannot be identified. This is probably the reason why
grapevine is said to be the medium for spreading of rumors or false message
Eg: Gossip circle.

5.VISUAL COMMUNICATION:

The visual forms of communication compromise- charts, graphs, tables, maps,


posters etc
Visual communication is communication through a visual aid and is described as
the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon.

46
Visual communication in part or whole relies on vision, and is primarily presented
or expressed
with twodimensional images,itincludes: signs, typography, drawing,graphicdesign,
illustration, industrial Design. colour and electronic resources. It also explores the
idea that a visual message accompanying text has a greater power to inform,
educate, or persuade a person or audience

Visual communication is through visual aid The evaluation of a good visual


communication design is mainly based on measuring comprehension by the
audience,[3] not on personal aesthetic and/or artistic preference as there are no
universally agreed-upon principles of beauty and ugliness. Excluding two
dimensional images, there are other ways to express information visually
- gestures and body language, animation (digital or analogue), and film. Visual
communication by e-mail, a textual medium, is commonly expressed with ASCII
art, emoticons, and embedded digital images.

The Eye of Horus

The term 'visual presentation'[4] is used to refer to the actual presentation of


information through a visible medium such as text or images. Recent research in
the field has focused on web design and graphically-oriented usability. Graphic
47
designers also use methods of visual communication in their professional practice.
Visual communication on the World Wide Web is perhaps the most important form
of communication that takes place while users are surfing the Internet. When
experiencing the web, one uses the eyes as the primary sense, and therefore the
visual presentation of a website is very important for users to understand the
message or of the communication taking place.

The Eye of Horus is often referred to as the symbol of visual communication. It is


said to be a representation of an eclipse, as the corona around the pupil is like the
corona around the sun during a solar eclipse.

48
5 .TELE-COMMUNICATION AND INTERNET:
It is the process of communications over distance using electromagnetic
instruments designed for the purpose.
Tele-communication occurs when the exchange of information between two
entities (communication) includes the use of technology. Communication
technology uses channels to transmit information (as electrical signals), either
over a physical medium (such as signal cables), or in the form of electromagnetic

49
waves. The word is often used in its plural form, telecommunications, because it
involves many different technologies.

Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals, such


asbeacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, and
opticalheliographs.[7] Other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication
included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud
whistles. Modern technologies for long-distance communication usually involve
electrical and electromagnetic technologies, such as telegraph, telephone, and
teleprinter, networks, radio, microwave transmission, fiber optics, and
communications satellites.

A revolution in wireless communication began in the first decade of the 20th


century with the pioneering developments in radio communications by Guglielmo
Marconi, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909. Other highly notable
pioneering inventors and developers in the field of electrical and electronic
telecommunications include Charles Wheatstone and Samuel
Morse (telegraph), Alexander Graham Bell(telephone), Edwin Armstrong, and Lee
de Forest (radio), as well as John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth (television)

Eg: Radio, television, internet, with the launching of satellites a big explosion of
electronic communication taker place all over the world.

50
V. COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND ELEMENTS.

Communication process can be defined as transferring of meaning


from one person to another. Communication process, mainly involve seven
elements and one additional element.
The seven elements of communication are

1. Source of message or sender.


2. The message
3. Encoding.
4. The channel
5. Decoding
6. The receiver
7. The feed back
8. Noise
51
1. SOURCE OF MESSAGE OR SENDER:

The sender or source of a message initiate the communication. The


sender is the person who convey the message.

2. THE MESSAGE:

The message is the information of idea that the sender tries to pass on to the
communicates (receives). Since this message is likely to evoke a response it can be
considered as a stimulus. The stimulation can be effected through any of the special
sensory organs of the body. Eg:- if it is a spoken message the ears get stimulated.

52
3. ENCODING:

A sender initiating a message by encoding a thought. Encoding takes


place the sender translater the information to be transmitted into a series of
symbols, sounds, letters, numbers etc.

4 .THE CHANNEL
Channel is the means by which the message is transmitted.
It is the format medium between the sender and a receiver. The
common channels are memos, letter, reports, emails, etc,.

5. DECODING:
It is the process by which the receiver interprets the message and
translates it into meaningful information. This process is influenced by receivers
past experience.

6. THE RECEIVER:
The receiver is the individual to when the message is directed. In
boond sense receiver is the person whose sense perceive the sender’s message.
The response to the message begins with the receipt of the stimulus and the
perception. The brain analyses the message and makes sense out of it (perception).
It consists of decoding the stimulus and interpreting it. Decoding is an individual
perception. Deciding is the mertal process by which the stimuli that have been
received through the sensory organs are given proper meaning according to the
individuals own way of thinking.

53
7. THE FEEDBACK.

Feedback involves the reaction of the receiver. Feedback is the heart of


communication, and tells whether the communication has been understand
properly a not.It is the receiver response to the message from sender.

8 THE NOISE:
This is the disturbance that interfere with the transmission, feed back
of message.

VI .WAYS OF COMMUNICATION:
Two main type of communications are
1. One way communication
2. Two way communication.
1.ONE WAY COMMUNICATION:

When sender sends the messenger and the receiver receives. Here no any
feedback to the sender.
message
Sender Receiver

In one-way communication, information is transferred in one direction only, from


the sender to the receiver. There isn't any opportunity for the receiver to give
feedback to the sender.
54
Bob is going out of town on a weekend business trip this morning. He wants his
secretary to order lunch for the executive board meeting next week. As Bob is
headed out the door, he jots down a note for his secretary and leaves it on her
desk.

The model of one-way communication looks like this:

Sender (Bob)-----------> Message (Order lunch) ---------> Receiver (Secretary)

One-way communication is frequently used when the sender wants to give


factual information or when they want to persuade or manipulate their audience
and gain their cooperation.

55
2. TWO WAY COMMUNICATION:

The sender sends the message, receiver receives the messages and responds
to that message. Feed back is taken place.
Two-way communication is a form of transmission in which both parties involved
transmit information. Two-Way communication has also been referred to as
interpersonal communication. Common forms of two-way communication are:

• Amateur Radio, CB or FRS radio contacts.


• Chatrooms and Instant Messaging.
• Computer networks. See back-channel.
• In-person communication.
• Telephone conversations.

A cycle of communication and two-way communication are actually two different


things. If we examine closely the anatomy of communication – the actual
structure and parts – we will discover that a cycle of communication is not a two-
way communication in its entirety. Meaning, two way communication is not as
simple as one may infer. One can improve two-way or interpersonal
communication by focusing on the eyes of the person speaking, making eye
56
contact, watching body language, responding appropriately with comments,
questions, and paraphrasing, and summarizing to confirm main points and an
accurate understanding.[1]

Two-way communication involves feedback from the receiver to the sender. This
allows the sender to know the message was received accurately by the receiver.
This chart demonstrates two-way communication and feedback

57
VII .LEVELS OF LEARNING:

These are mainly 3 levels of learning taken place in communication. These levels
of learning are.
1. First level - incremental or single loop learning.
2. Second level - reframing or double loop learning.
3. Third level - transformational or triple loop learning.

1) THE FIRST LEVEL- INCREMENTAL OR SINGLE LOOP LEARNING:-


Once people have identified their personal style, they have immediate
access to a short list of specific suggestion that will empower them in the
workplace. They don’t necessarily have to be enthusiastic about the understand
the entire system

2) THE SECOND LEVEL: REFRAMING OR DOUBLE LOOP LEARNING:


Reframing is the process of understanding and beginning to shift, one’s habit of
attention and point of view. This is the point at which the knowledge of the
understand starts to become internalized here the people carry greater self
awareness and self observation.

3) THE THIRD LEVEL: TRANSFORMATIONAL OR TRIPLE LOOP LEARNING.


At this level people are engaged in a process of personal transformation. This
means that they are willing to examine and change their deepest assumption
and habits. They learn to see themselves in and light which is not based on a fixed
position or identify. They have committed themselves to continual learning and
growth.

58
Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains

Bloom's Taxonomy was created in 1956 under the leadership of


educational psychologist Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher
forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing and evaluating concepts,
processes, procedures, and principles, rather than just remembering facts
(rote learning). It is most often used when designing educational, training,
and learning processes.

The Three Domains of Learning

The committee identified three domains of educational activities


or learning (Bloom, et al. 1956):

o Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge)


o Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self)
o Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (skills)

59
Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a
little bigger than we normally use. Domains may be thought of as
categories. Instructional designers, trainers, and educators often refer to
these three categories as KSA
(Knowledge [cognitive], Skills [psychomotor], and Attitudes[affective]).
This taxonomy of learning behaviors may be thought of as “the goals of
the learning process.” That is, after a learning episode, the learner should
have acquired a new skill, knowledge, and/or attitude.

While the committee produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive


and affective domains, they omitted the psychomotor domain. Their
explanation for this oversight was that they have little experience in
teaching manual skills within the college level. However, there have been
at least three psychomotor models created by other researchers.

Their compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting


from the simplest cognitive process or behavior to the most complex. The
divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or
hierarchies that have been devised, such as the Structure of Observed
Learning Outcome (SOLO). However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily
understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.

60
Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain involves


knowledge and the development of
intellectual skills (Bloom, 1956). This
includes the recall or recognition of
specific facts, procedural patterns,
and concepts that serve in the
development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major
categories of cognitive a processes, starting from the simplest to the most
complex Knowledge.

o Comprehension
o Application
o Analysis
o Synthesis
o Evaluation

The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first
ones must normally be mastered before the next one can take place.

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, and David Krathwohl revisited


the cognitive domain in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with
perhaps the three most prominent ones being (Anderson, Krathwohl,
Airasian, Cruikshank, Mayer, Pintrich, Raths, Wittrock, 2000):

o changing the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms

61
o rearranging them as shown in the chart below
o creating a processes and levels of knowledge matrix

The chart shown below compares the original taxonomy with the revised one:

This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is perhaps
more accurate.

62
Table of the Revised Cognitive Domain

Examples, key words (verbs), and


Category
technologies for learning (activities)

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote


prices from memory to a customer.
Recite the safety rules.

Key Words: defines, describes,


Remembering: Recall identifies, knows, labels, lists,
or retrieve previous matches, names, outlines, recalls,
learned information. recognizes, reproduces, selects,
states

Technologies: book marking, flash


cards, rote learning based on
repetition, reading

Understanding: Examples: Rewrite the principles of


Comprehending the test writing. Explain in one's own
meaning, translation, words the steps for performing a
interpolation, and complex task. Translate an equation
interpretation of into a computer spreadsheet.
instructions and
problems. State a Key Words: comprehends, converts,

problem in one's own defends, distinguishes, estimates,

words. explains, extends, generalizes, gives

63
an example, infers, interprets,
paraphrases, predicts, rewrites,
summarizes, translates

Technologies: create an analogy,


participating in cooperative
learning, taking notes, storytelling,
Internet search

Examples: Use a manual to calculate


an employee's vacation time. Apply
laws of statistics to evaluate the
Applying: Use a
reliability of a written test.
concept in a new
situation or Key Words: applies, changes,
unprompted use of an computes, constructs,
abstraction. Applies demonstrates, discovers,
what was learned in manipulates, modifies, operates,
the classroom into predicts, prepares, produces,
novel situations in the relates, shows, solves, uses
work place.
Technologies: collaborative
learning, create a process, blog,
practice

Analyzing: Separates Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of


material or concepts equipment by using logical
into component parts deduction. Recognize logical

64
so that its fallacies in reasoning. Gathers
organizational information from a department and
structure may be selects the required tasks for
understood. training.
Distinguishes between
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down,
facts and inferences.
compares, contrasts, diagrams,
deconstructs, differentiates,
discriminates, distinguishes,
identifies, illustrates, infers,
outlines, relates, selects, separates

Technologies: Fishbowls, debating,


questioning what happened, run a
test

Examples: Select the most effective


solution. Hire the most qualified
candidate. Explain and justify a new
budget.
Evaluating: Make
judgments about the Key Words: appraises, compares,
value of ideas or concludes, contrasts, criticizes,
materials. critiques, defends, describes,
discriminates, evaluates, explains,
interprets, justifies, relates,
summarizes, supports

65
Technologies: survey, blogging

Examples: Write a company


operations or process manual.
Design a machine to perform a
specific task. Integrates training
from several sources to solve a
Creating: Builds a
problem. Revises and process to
structure or pattern
improve the outcome.
from diverse
elements. Put parts Key Words: categorizes, combines,
together to form a compiles, composes, creates,
whole, with emphasis devises, designs, explains,
on creating a new generates, modifies, organizes,
meaning or structure. plans, rearranges, reconstructs,
relates, reorganizes, revises,
rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes

Technologies: Create a new model,


write an essay, network with others

66
Cognitive Processes and Levels of Knowledge Matrix :
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy not only improved the usability of it by using
action words, but added a cognitive and knowledge matrix. While Bloom's
original cognitive taxonomy did mention three levels of knowledge or
products that could be processed, they were not discussed very much and
remained one-dimensional:

o Factual - The basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a


discipline or solve problems.
o Conceptual – The interrelationships among the basic elements within a
larger structure that enable them to function together.
o Procedural - How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using
skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods.

In Krathwohl and Anderson's revised version, the authors combine the


cognitive processes with the above three levels of knowledge to f orm a
matrix. In addition, they added another level of knowledge -
metacognition:

o Metacognitive – Knowledge of cognition in general, as well as awareness


and knowledge of one’s own cognition.

When the cognitive and knowledge dimensions are arranged in a matrix,


as shown below, it makes a nice performance aid for creating performance
objectives: The Cognitive Dimension

67
The
Knowledge Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Dimension

Factual

Conceptual

Procedural

Metacognitive

However, others have identified five contents or artifacts (Clark, Chopeta,


2004; Clark, Mayer, 2007):

o Facts - Specific and unique data or instance.


o Concepts - A class of items, words, or ideas that are known by a common
name, includes multiple specific examples, shares common features. There are
two types of concepts: concrete and abstract.
o Processes - A flow of events or activities that describe how things work
rather than how to do things. There are normally two types: business processes
that describe work flows and technical processes that describe how things work
in equipment or nature. They may be thought of as the big picture, of how
something works.
o Procedures - A series of step-by-step actions and decisions that result in the
achievement of a task. There are two types of actions: linear and branched.
o Principles - Guidelines, rules, and parameters that govern. It includes not
only what should be done, but also what should not be done. Principles allow one
68
to make predictions and draw implications. Given an effect, one can infer the
cause of a phenomena. Principles are the basic building blocks of causal models
or theoretical models (theories).

Thus, the new matrix would look similar to this:

The Cognitive Dimension

The
Knowledge Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Dimension

Facts

Concepts

Processes

Procedures

69
Principles

Metacognitive

An example matrix that has been filled in might look something like this

The
Knowledge Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Dimension

Facts List Paraphrase classify Outline Rank categorize

Concepts Recall Explains demonstrate Contrast Criticize modify

Processes Outline Estimate produce Diagram Defend Design

Give an
Procedures Reproduce relate Identify Critique plan
example

Principles State Converts solve differentiates Conclude revise

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Barriers to effective communication can retard or distort the message and


intention of the message being conveyed which may result in failure of the
communication process or an effect that is undesirable. This include filtering,

70
selective perception, information overload, emotions, language, silence,
communication apprehension, gender differences and political correctness.
This also includes a lack of expressing “knowledge appropriate” communication,
which occurs when a person use ambiguous or complex legal words, medical
jargon, or description of a situation or environment that is not understood by the
recipient.

❖ Physical barriers
❖ System design
❖ Attitudinal barriers
❖ Ambiguity of words or phrases
❖ Individual linguistic ability
❖ Physiological barriers
❖ Gender barriers
❖ Social
❖ Cultural
❖ Perceptual

FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATORS ARE

❖ Responsible:-this means that they take responsibility for their own


communication choices and behavior
❖ They are informed and are able to support what they say with facts and
examples that are true
❖ They are logical with developed reasoning skills and ability to draw
conclusions and reach decisions.

71
❖ They are accountable taking responsibility for their information, decision
and actions.
❖ They are reliable which means they can be trusted to keep their word even
if a decision may not benefit them.
❖ Accessible:-they tend to value positive relationship with peers, supervisors
and clients. They are open and approachable. They are seen as caring,
likable, and pleasant to around.

72
UNIT – III

CONE OF
EXPERIENCE

73
CONE OF EXPERIENCE

INTRODUCTION:

Edgar Dale was an American educationist who developed the Cone of Experience.
He made several contributions to audio and visual instruction, including a
methodology for analyzing the content of motion pictures. Born and raised in North
Dakota he received a B.A. and M.A. from the University of North Dakota and a Ph.D
from the University of Chicago. His doctoral thesis was titled and is pre-cursor for
his later work with vocabulary and readability. He was a professor of education
at Ohio State University.

In 1933 Dale wrote a paper on how to effectively create a High School film
appreciation class. This paper has been noted for having a very different view of
adolescent interaction with films than that taken by the Film Control Boards of the
time.

74
The Cone of Experience (1946) was the most important contribution of Edgar Dale
in field of IT. In the cone, he explained inter-relations of the several audio-visual
materials and their positions in learning processes. He expressed the divisions
based on extreme two points between direct experience and pure abstraction. The
divisions proposed in the cone were not accepted as exact demarcations. One
audio-visual can be used with other audio- visual materials with respect to situation
or purposes.

The original labels for Dale’s ten categories are: Direct, Purposeful
Experiences; Contrived Experiences; Dramatic Participation; Demonstrations; Field
Trips; Exhibits; Motion Pictures; Radio – Recordings – Still Pictures; Visual Symbols;
and Verbal Symbols.

75
When Dale researched learning and teaching methods he found that much of what
we found to be true of direct and indirect (and of concrete and abstract) experience
could be summarized in a pyramid or 'pictorial device' Dales called 'the Cone of
Experience'. In his book 'Audio visual methods in teaching' - 1957, he stated that
the cone was not offered as a perfect or mechanically flawless picture to be taken
absolutely literally. It was merely designed as a visual aid to help explain the
interrelationships of the various types of audio-visual materials, as well as their
individual 'positions' in the learning process.

Dale points out that it would be a dangerous mistake to regard the bands on the
cone as rigid, inflexible divisions. He said "The cone device is a visual metaphor of
learning experiences, in which the various types of audio-visual materials are
arranged in the order of increasing abstractness as one proceeds from direct
experiences."
Dale made minor modifications of the visual in the second edition (1954),
changing Dramatic Participation to Dramatized Experiences and adding Television.
By the third edition of the textbook, Dale (1969) acknowledged the growing
popularity of Jerome Bruner’s (1966) cognitive psychology concepts by overlaying
Bruner’s classification system for modes of learning—enactive, iconic, and
symbolic—on top of his own categories. This adaptation of his own schema may
have been portentous, perhaps giving implied license to others to make
other creative adaptations and interpretations, not always to the credit of Dale’s
original notion.

Dale’s textbook in its three editions remained popular for over a quarter
century. Inasmuch as the Cone provided the organizing principle for the book, it
became ingrained in the thinking of generations of educational technology
students and professors who used the textbook. It stimulated many efforts to
76
extend the original idea by developing its implications for elementary education,
secondary education, adult education, corporate training, and even
counseling. Of Dale’s visual metaphor.
In summary, the Cone of Experience is essentially a visual metaphor for the idea
that learning activities can be placed in broad categories based on the extent to
which they convey the concrete referents of real-life experiences. Although it has
sometimes been interpreted as advocating the selection of certain media and
methods over others (favoring “realism”), such was not Dale’s stated intent. It has
also been interpreted by many as a prescriptive formula for selecting instructional
media. Dale’s own explanations are nebulous enough to enable a wide variety of
interpretations to find support. Finally, there is the contemporary problem of
the conflation of the Cone with the “Socony-Vacuum percentages.” The fact that
the Cone has been taken seriously enough to be used in so many ways testifies to
the robustness and attractiveness

Dale’s cone is one of the most important theoretical foundations of IT. Hence, the
cone makes connection between concrete and abstract ideas which is one of the
main principles of teaching and learning. It also helps the professionals to select
media on the basis of the experiences aimed to transfer students. It seems a job
aid. Moreover, it is an effective tool to support communication process because it
makes communication depending on not only just words but also visual and
experiential ways. He also emphasized the other components and diversity of
sensory experiences. Hence, our experiences are not completely relied on visual or
verbal symbols. Other concerns of our perception systems must be considered,
such as direct experience, touching, sensing. The cone also fosters diversity in
learning environment. As a result, the cone is a good combination of
psychological/instructional and communication theories.

77
The second critical contribution of Dale (1953) was social frame of communication
concept. He was one of the person believed the importance of mutual experience
sharing was the most important consequence of communication. In other words,
he emphasized the concept of feedback

There are some variations on the theme, quoted with the same level of authority
as.
This one is typical:

Lecture: 5%
Reading: 10%
Audio-Visual: 20%
78
Demonstration: 30%
Discussion group: 50%
Practice by doing: 75%
teaching others or immediate application of learning: 90%

PRINCIPLES OF THE CONE OF EXPERIENCE

❖ The cone is based on relationship of various educational experiences to


reality (real life), and the bottom level of the cone,“direct purposeful
experiences”, represents reality or the closest things to real, everyday life.
79
❖ The opportunity for a learner to use a variety or several senses (sight, smell,
hearing, touching, movement) is considered in the cone.
❖ Direct experience allows us to use all senses
❖ Verbal symbols involve only hearing.
❖ The more sensory channels possible in interacting with a resource, the better
the chance that many students can learn from it.
❖ Each level of the cone above its base moves a learner a step further away
from real-life experiences, so experiences focusing only on the use of verbal
symbols are the furthest removed from real life.

Every single percentage associated with the various levels is wrong.

When Dale first published his cone, there were no numbers associated with the
model at all. There was no research used to generate it and Dale even warned his
readers not to take the model too literally.In 2006 Michael Molenda, a professor at
Indiana University, tried to track down the origination of the bogus numbers. His
efforts have uncovered some evidence that the numbers may have been developed
as early as the 1940′s by Paul John Phillips who worked at University of Texas at
Austin and who developed training classes for the petroleum industry. During
World War Two Phillips taught Visual Aids at the U. S. Army’s Ordnance School at
the Aberdeen (Maryland) Proving Grounds, where the numbers have also appeared
and where they may have been developed.

80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
UNIT-IV

LETTERING TECHNIQUES

93
LETTERING TECHNIQUE

INTRODUCTON:

Lettering, not printing, is the correct term for producing letters by


handwriting .printing involves the use of a printing press. Lettering is not new.
Before the invention of the printing press, all documents were produced by
lettering. Lettering is an art form. Across the ages, letters were modified to suit the
talent and taste of the artist. Today it is a nice art with a small but devoted number
of practitioners. Many people may be aware f the existence of gold leaf windows
signs or seen some antiques using glass gilding, but the knowledge of verreéglomisé
as an art form is still relatively low, even among design professionals

LETTER CLASSIFICATION

LETTERING:-

As a graphics documentation specialist, you are required to demonstrate


proficiency by lettering diverse projects that vary from simple name plates to
complex presentation materials

FACTORS INFLUENCING LETTERING:-

Lettering technique is influenced by various factors which includes:

a) Style of letter
b) Size of letter
c) Space between letters

94
d) Space between words
e) Space between lines
LETTERING TECHNIQUE

There are over hundred lettering techniques and aids in the market today. Each is
designed to assist the producer to make chart, graphs, maps, and posters,
transparencies etc. But only few of them are more effective. One can do with little
practice to produce professional lettering. While lettering, the following points are
to be observed.

 Legible-so that the letter can be read easily


 Visible-so that the letter can be seen and perceived easily
 Simple-should be plain, straight forward and ordinary.
 Spacing-To be appropriate
SPACING: It should appear to have equal or uniform distance letters. Spacing
should be eye measurement, not mechanical? Badly spaced letters make words
difficult to read. Good spacing is the result of diligent practice.

LAYOUT: The arrangement and form given to letters, contribute a great deal to
preparation of visual materials.

❖ Timing
❖ Running commentary
❖ Emphasizing main points
❖ Directions
❖ Discussions
❖ Prompt practice
DESIGN: It should be brief, simple, and meaningful and attract the minds of readers.

95
COLOUR: Limit the number of colors and make sure that you’re lettering standout
well from the back ground. Black and yellow are the combination with most
contracts.

TECHNIQUE OF LETTERING

1. Rule of 8’ for formulating principle of legibility

Distance size

64’ 2’
32’ 1’
16’ 1/2’
8 1/4’
2. CONTRAST

High contrast-Black and white

Medium contrast-Blue and red

3. SPACING

Mechanical spacing

Optical spacing

4. STYLE

Formal style

Informal style

Decorative style

96
PRINCIPLES

1. Follow the rule of 8’ lettering


2. Letter end in order
3. Too much order gives monotony
4. Headings are better with bold letters
5. Space letters evenly
6. Colour should be pleasing for contrast and determination.

SPACING

RULES HAVE 8’ IN LETTERING

View distance size of the letter


8 feet ¼ inch
16 feet ½ inch
32 feet 1 inch
64 feet 2 inch

97
Classification : In general, all letters are classified as one of the six designs
mentioned below

1) ROMAN:-
Roman letters are commonly used for the text of the magazines, news papers
and books These are easier to read, particularly in smaller size and lengthy
articles. Some qualities of roman letters are dignity and refinement

98
2) GOTHIC:-
These are simple and commonly referred refers to the gothic letter as block
letters
Gothic letters are applied in:
 Letter heads
 Envelope cards
 Announcements
 Body of news papers
 Titles
 Headings

99
3) SCRIPT AND CURSIVE:-
 Script and cursive type are classified together
 Script letters have small connecting links called kerns that link the letters
together giving the lettering an appearance of hand writing
 Cursive letters do not have these kerns, cursive type is patterned after old-
fashioned hand, lettering, while script imitates the old slanting writing

4) ITALICS:-
It is not a style in and of itself, but a variation with other lettering styles.
These are slanting versions of lettering styles.

100
5) SWASH LETTERING:-
They are similar to italics but they are embellished with swirls and curves
called swashes. They provide an alternative to or may be combined with
italics.

101
6) CONTEMPORARY:-
As with many other art forms, fads creep into lettering. New styles catch on
and endure while others experience a relatively, short usual life

ESSENTIALS OF LETTERING

Overall effectiveness of work depends strongly on its overall composition.


Lettering either by itself, or as part of a presentation, involves properly arranging
letters, words and lines of letters

SPACING LETTERS:-

For any lettering project to appear balanced, the white space must appear equal.
This is not an easy task and requires detailed work. In general leave the same
amount of space between letters

102
WORD SPACING:-

Another issue that impacts on legibility is spacing between words. Generally


speaking, there must be enough space to separate words from one another, but
not so much as to cause us to read one word at a time

103
LINE SPACING:-

Line spacing is an important to the legibility and overall quality of a project as a


letter and word spacing. Again there are no hard and fast rules.

104
PRINCIPLES OF LETTERING:-

 Follow the rule of 8 for lettering


 Letter end in order
 Too much order give monotony
 Headings are better with bold letters
 Space letters evenly
 Color should be pleasing for contrast and determinatiom

TYPES OF LETTERING:-
Lettering can be mainly explained in terms of:
1) Expressive letters
2) Creative letters

1) EXPRESSIVE LETTERS:-
In this type of letters the feelings, opinions and thoughts of an individuals can be
explained in terms of pictures so that a clear idea can be given to all viewers who
105
are seeing it. These are very easy to understand and even the subconscious
thoughts of the artist can also be identifiedby
this kind of letters

2) CREATIVE LETTERS:-
In this type of letters the letters are expresses in a novel form ie,, creatively based
on the thoughts, ideas and opinions of the individuals who are expressing such
type of letters and this type of letters mainly include variety in presenting the
letters

106
UNIT – V

107
COLOURS
INTRODUCTION:

Colour is the visual perceptual property corresponding in humans to the


categories called red, green, blue and others. The colour derives from the spectrum
of light interacting in the eye with the spectral sensitivities of the light receptors.
Colour categories and physical specifications of colour are also associated with
objects, materials, light sources etc. Based on their physical properties such as light
absorption, reflection or emission spectrum. By defining a colour space, colours can
be identified numerically by their co-ordinates.

Colour is an important element in preparing the instructional materials.


Synonymous of colour are chroma, hue, lint and tinge. It has universal appeal
irascible charm.

USE OF COLOURS:

• To contrast parts, differentiate, discriminate

• To Emphasize points

• To show relationships

• To get a realistic effect

• To attract attention

• To create interest

• To achieve harmony

• To increase carrying power of message.


108
• TO Identify the mistakes

Colour is an important element in preparing the instructional material

TYPES OF COLOURS :

Warm colours : Stand out, attract, attention and to advance.

Eg: Red, orange, yellow

Cool colours : Appear to recede and make better background.

Eg: pale blue, green and violet.

COLOUR AND MOODS :

Colour can produce certain feelings and moods.


109
The following chart shows the association usually credited to certain colours,
thought this may vary according to cultural factors.

RED exciting, arousing, stimulating

ORANGE Healing, adds warmth, lively


YELLOW joy, gaiety, bright and cheerful.
GREEN Restful, neutral, relaxing, soothing
PURPLE Richness, Royalty, and elegance
BLUE cooling, serene, refreshing
WHITE purity, spirituality, immaculateness
BLACK Darkness, gloom, death

RED:

The most emotionally intense color, red stimulates a faster heartbeat and
breathing. It is also the color of love. Red clothing gets noticed and makes the
wearer appear heavier. Since it is an extreme color, red clothing might not help
people in negotiations or confrontations. Red cars are popular targets for thieves.
In decorating, red is usually used as an accent. Decorators say that red furniture
should be perfect since it will attract attention.

110
ORANGE:

Orange is a joyful color. It evokes fun, cheeriness and warm exuberance. It helps to
release emotions and relieves feelings of self-pity and lack of self-worth. It
stimulates the mind to find interest in life and simply lifts the spirits. It is also
believed to increase craving for food. People who like orange are adventures,hard
working and enthusiastic

111
YELLOW:
Yellow is also a cheerful and uplifting color. It symbloizes wisdom and means joy
and happiness. Pure, bright and sunny yellow is the easiest color to see. People
who are blind to other colors can usually still see yellow. Yellow is full of creative
and intellectual energy, therefore it helps to memorize and recall, think clearly,
make decisions and come up with new ideas - that is why you should always use
yellow notepads. It also encourages optimistic attitude and helps to build self-
confidence.

GREEN:

Itis a restful color.Its the color of nature, fertility, life and balance. It symbolizes
self-respect and well being. Its a safe color. If you have trouble deciding which color
to use, use green. It also means learning, harmony and growth. It helps to feel
comfortable, relaxed and calm.

112
BLUE :

Itis the calming color. It represents the night and makes us feel calm and relaxed.
Lighter and softer blues, make us feel quiet and protected. Blue inspires creativity,
clarity and mental control. Dark blue has a strong sedative effect on the mind, it
allows us to connect to our intuitive and feminine side. However, too much dark
blue can be depressing. Light and dark blue combined, help to convey trust and
trustfulness. Blue is also believed to help memorizing information - use blue paper
for writing down speeches or other information you need to know by heart.

113
PURPLE:

violet help to balance the mind and transform obsessions and irrational fears. They
have a deep affect on the psyche and have been therefore used in psychiatric care
to help calm and pacify patients with many different mental and nervous disorders.

114
WHITE :

It brings peace and comfort, alleviates emotional shock and despair. In many
cultures white represents openness and truth. White evokes purity and
truthfulness.

BLACK

It is a color that is both comforting and protective. It is associated with silence,


the infinite, mystery and the feminine life force. Black can prevent us from growing
and changing. In some cultures black symbolizes death. Native American however
thought that black was good because it was the color of soil and soil gives life. Black
evokes seriousness, distinctiveness and boldness.

115
COLOUR &VISIBILITY :

Colour contrast will have an effect on visibility using black as background.

Visibility is reported as follows :

Purple is least visible

Yellow has 12 items visibility of purple

Orange 9 times visibility of purple

Green 7 times visibility of purple

Red 5 times visibility of purple

Blue 3 times visibility of purple

116
COLOUR &HARMONY:

MONOCHROMATIC HARMONY: - Monochromatic means single colour, so any and


all colours are a single colour, potentially. The complication is that many can also
be made by mixing two or more colours.

Eg:- Deep blue, Light blue & various shades of blue.

COMPLEMENTARY HARMONY: -Involves use of combination of contrast colors like


red and green. This provides a visual shock. Combined effect may be harsh but
could be made effective is used sparingly. The concept of complementary colours
refers to three pairs of colours that artists agree look good together and
complement each other. They are based on the colour wheel that arranges colours
in such a way that the colours opposite each other represent the three pairs.

117
ANALOGOUS HARMONY: Involves use of neighboring colours on the spectrum.
Analogous colour schemes are often found in nature and are harmonious and
pleasing to the eye.

Eg.Red, orange, yellow or green, blue, indigo, violet.

118
TRIAD HARMONY:

Triadic colour harmonies tend to be quite vibrant, even if you use pale or
unsaturated versions of your hues.

119
COLOUR HARMONY

HINTS ON USING COLOURS :

• Keep colour scheme simple.


• Achieve harmony in colour scheme.
• Use minimum number of colours
• Use colour to emphasize the instructional message.
• Consider colour and background together to increase the carrying power of
message.
• Use colour for grouping or categorizing information visually.
• Use colour for enhance the quality as material used for teaching.

120
UNIT- VI
CLASSIFICATION OF AV
AIDS

121
AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

‘Architecture is a visual art, and the buildings speak for themselves’

INTRODUCTION

Audio visual aids are the different types of tools that appeal to the sense of hearing
and vision and are used in classrooms for presentations of a variety of
information.Audio visual material must be seen in their relationship to teaching as
a whole and to the learning process as a whole, until teacher understand the
relationship between audiovisual material and teaching learning process. Audio
visual aids is on instructional device in which the message can be heard as well as
seen. Audiovisual aids are multisensory material which motivate and stimulate the
individual. Audiovisual aids sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for
learning more concrete socialistic and clarity. Provide significant gain in thinking
and reasoning. Audio visual aids are sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues
for learning. These are planned educational materials that appeal to the senses of
the people and quicken learning facilities for clear understanding.

PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED FOR THE EFFECTIVE USE OF AUDIOVISUAL AIDS:-

• Audio visual material should function as an integral part of the educational


programme.
• Audio- visual aids should be centralized, under specialized direction and leadership
in educational programme.

122
• An advisory committee should be appointed to assist in the selection and co-
ordination of audio- visual material.
• Audio visual educational programme should be flexible.
• Instructor have to help the students how to use audio – visual aids.
• Legal aspects should be considered in the production and the utilization of
educational communication media.
• Audio visual material should be carefully located to eliminate duplication ,easy
accessibility and convenient use .
• Budget appropriation should be made regularly for audio visual education program
• Periodic evaluation should be done to assess the function of utilization and
expenditure of the program

MEANING

Audio-visual aids are multisensory materials which motivates, classifies and


stimulates the individuals. It makes dynamic learning experience more concrete,
realistic and clarity, establish, co-relate and coordinate accurate concepts,
interpretations and appreciation and enables him to make learning effective,
interesting, inspirational, meaningful and vivid. It provides significant gains in
informational learning, retention, recall, thinking and reasoning, activity interest,
imagination, better assimilation and personal growth and development. Audio-
visual aids are added devices that help the teacher to clarify, establish, correlate,
and co-ordinate accurate concept, interpretations, and appreciations and enable
him to make learning more concrete, effective, interesting, inspirational,
meaningful and vivid.

DEFINITION

123
According to KP. Neeraja‘an audio-visual aids is an instructional device in which
the message can be heard as well seen’.

According to Kinder, ‘audio-visual aids are any device which can be used to make
the learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.

CLASSIFICATION OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS:

Various classifications are given for audio visual aids according to the projection
by various authors

1) Classification of A. V Aids
• Audio aids
• Visual aids
• Audio visual aids
2) Classification of a-A-V aids
• Auditory aids
• Visual aids
 Non-projected/un-projected
 Projected aids
• Audio-visual aids
• Aids through activity
• Traditional media
3) Classification of A-V aids
• Visual aids
 Projected aids
 Non-projected aids
❖ Graphic aids

124
❖ Display aids
❖ 3D aids
 Audio aids
 Activity aids
❖ Big media
❖ Little media

1) Classification of A-V Aids

Audio aids: Audio materials are those which can be heard.

Ex: Radio, mike, Gramophone ,IPODS, tape recorder, Walkman, headphones.

125
126
Visual aids: These are helpful to visualize the things.

Ex: graphic aids, 3d-aids, display boards, and print material.

Audio visual aids

These aids can be heard and seen simultaneously.

Ex: projected aids, TV, films, zoom app , Google meet app & webinar

127
128
4). Classification of A-V aids

▪ Simple A.V aids: It includes graphic aids, display boards, 3d-aids, print
material…etc.
▪ Sophisticated A.V Aids: Includes audio- visual aids.

A) Auditory aids

Eg: radio, recordings, phonograms, megaphone, microphone, gramophone.

129
B) Visual aids
1) Non- projected/un-projected

Eg: models, 3D materials, pictures, charts, flannel graphs, boards, cartoons, maps,
flashcards, illustrations, posters.

130
2) Projected aids:

Eg: epidioscope, slide projector, OHP, film projector, opaque projector.

131
C) Audio-visual aids

Eg: T.V, Video, sound motion pictures.

132
D) Aids through activity:

Eg: field trips, models, collection of material and exhibition.

133
E) Traditional media:

Eg: puppets, dramas, folk soups and folk dance.

134
1. Visual aids

Projected visual aids:

Opaque Projector: It is very useful means for using reflected light to pick up the
image or for projection of flat pictures, diagrams, maps to a screen in enlarged form
so that the entire group can see them.

135
Film Strip:
The film strip is a continuous strip of film consisting of individual frames or pictures
arranged in sequence, usually with explanatory titles. Each strip contains from 12-
18 or more pictures. It is a fixed sequence of related stills on a roll of 35mm film or
8mm film.

The Slide Projection: A slide is a small piece of transparent material on which a


simple pictorial image or scene or graphic image has been photographed or
reproduced otherwise. Molded slides range in size from 2*2 or 4.5*4 inches.

136
Over-Head Projector: It projects transparencies with brilliant screen in eyes suitable
for use in a lighted room. The teacher faces the class as he uses OHP, and the class
views the projections.

137
Stereograph

The still picture gives an illusion of space, the observer receives the impression
of reality, hence it is known as 3D photograph. The stereo film is a double
photograph made by the stereoscopic cameras, the 2 photographs being taken
from a slightly different angle. The 2 pictures are enlarged and merged into one
view when seen through the lenses of the stereoscope.

138
Epidioscope:

It can project images or printed matter or small opaque subjects on a screen or it


can project images of a 4”*4” slide. Through epidioscope, we can project slides or
objects. It works on the principle of horizontal straight line projection with a lamp,
plane mirror placed at 45 degree angle over the projects or reflects the light so that
it passes through the projection lens forming a magnified image on the screen.

a) Non projected aids

Graphic aids: Graphic Aids emphasize the use of concrete or non-verbal


experience in the learning process. The produced in the form of some instruction
materials, visualize simple ideas and facts. Graphics are material, which indicate
and illustrate ideas, objects, concepts and process boldly, clearly and vigorously,
effectively, eliminating non-essentials through a synthesis of drawings, pictures
and words. It is a forceful shorthand language.

139
Eg: cartoons, charts, comic, diagrams, flash cards, graphs, maps, photograps,
pictures, posters, flip books, simple drawings

140
Photographs

Exact visual recordings of things which will occur in real life situations.

141
Illustrations: Non photographic reconstructions of reality e.g. drawing, painting,
sketching etc.

Blackboard: It is helpful in meeting and group discussions. It is one of the most


valuable device for making instruction concrete and understandable when it is used
properly.

142
Black board can be prepared with a piece of plywood about 30”*40” paint the
plywood with blackboard paint.

Bulletin Board

It will be for both informational and educational purposes. It is a simple device


placed either indoor or outdoor, kept in a suitable place. It can provide a suitable
for the display of all kinds of creative work of the students.

143
144
Flannel Board

145
FOLDED TYPE

MAGNETIC BOARD

146
FIXED BOARD

MOVABLE BOARD

147
THREE DIMENSIONAL MATERIALS:

Three dimensional representations of real things, they reduce large object to a


size convenient for observation and produce interior view of objects which are
normally covered or are otherwise invisible.

Model:

It is a life size miniature or over size or original size whether workable or not,
whether it differs from or not from original size of an object to be studied, which
is very useful in teaching models are substitute for real things.

148
SIMPLE MODEL

WORKING MODEL

149
Exhibits:

It is an arrangement of communication media designed to inform the


observer about a subject, educational exhibit offers in an interesting and unique
manner of combining multiple media into a small area. It provides an opportunity
for learner for own creative participation and developmental thinking.

Mock-ups:

It emphasizes the functional relationship between the device reality and its
workability. Eg: an artificial kidney to demonstrate dialysis.

150
Specimen:

Part of real objects taken from the natural setting. It is a sample that shows
quality or structure. Eg: section of lung.

151
Moulage:

Mould can be made up of plastic material to stimulate some life object. Eg body
which shows evidence of trauma.

152
Leaflet:

Simple sheet of paper folded to make a full page of printed matter on simple side.

Pamphlets: Paper can be folded into two or three or five, the matter will be
printed either on single side or both the sides.

153
Handouts:

The briefing of a session in a single sheet, use simple, clear language with
short sentences. If needed sketches, graphs should be drawn and labeled.

Flash Cards:

Small impact cards which flashed before the class to bring any idea.

10”*12” or 22”*28” in size.


Used for small group not over 30 people.
Provides variety and activity in the class.
The message can be brief, it may be simple line drawing or photographs or
cartoons.
10-12 cards can be used for one talk.

154
POSTERS

It is good substitute for first hand experience. It varies from a simple printed card to
a complicated and artistic design. It should be always a part of campaign, it will serve
first to inspire people and lastly it will serve as a reminder to the group.

155
Diagram: It is a simplified drawing designed to show inter relationship primarily by
means of lines and symbols. Eg stick figures, science figure, geometry, facial
expression drawing can be drawn by hand to convey a variety of ideas, concepts and
situations.

156
Charts:

These visual symbols used for summarizing, comparing, contrasting or


performing other services in explaining subject matter. Diagnostic representation
of the facts and ideas, a chart is a combination of pictorial graphic, numerical which
presents a clear visual summary.

TYPES OF CHARTS: FLOWCHART

157
NARRATIVE CHART

158
CAUSES AND EFFECT CHART

TABULATION CHART

159
PIE CHART

TREE CHART

160
MAPS

Graphic representation of the earth’s surface or portions of it are termed as maps.


These are flat representations of the earth’s surface, which convey the
information by means of lines, symbols, words and colours.

161
Globe: Three dimensional representation of the earth in a spherical manner. We can
see the physical unity of the world, the relation of one part to all rest and the direction
of one part of the world relative to another.

Graphic Materials:

It is a combination of graphic and pictorial material designed for the orderly


and logical visualizing of relationships between key facts and ideas. It includes
graphs, charts, maps and diagrams.

162
PIEGRAPH

BAR GRAPH

163
PICTORIAL GRAPH

LINE GRAPH

164
CARTOON

It is a metaphysical presentation of reality. It makes learning more interesting


and effective as it creates a strong appeal to the emotions. The cartoon is an
interpretive illustration, which uses symbols to portray an opinion, a scene or
situation.

PUPPETS

Puppets can serve as an effective aid to learning. They can be made to


illustrate lessons, events of tales in an interesting and vivid manner if they are
accompanied by effective narratives. It is necessary to have a great deal of action
in puppetry as well as plenty of music dancing

165
Hand Puppets

String Puppets

166
ROD PUPPET

Publications:

To communicate information and findings of research study in an accurate, brevity


and clarity from the articles can be published.

167
Museum: It is made up of materials used in classroom teaching which in many cases
are collected, classified and exhibited by students with or without the help of a
teacher.

168
Picture:

It provides an environment of reality learner’s point of view is the main criterion


in the selection of pictures.

169
UNIT – VII

170
AUDIO DEVICES

INTRODUCTION

The educational media are the objects that help in teaching and learning activities
and enhance the delivery of knowledge to the learners. In other words, educational
media are learning devices that help the teacher clarify, establish, correlate and co-
ordinate accurate concepts and interpretations to make learning more concrete,
effective, interesting, meaningful and vivid.

MEANING OF AUDITORY AIDS

Audio educational aids are popularly known as auditory aids and are considered
significantly important educational aids because of their access, cost effectiveness
and easy operability. Audio educational aids are very popular in language learning
strategies.

DEFINITION

Audio aids is an instructional device in which message can be heard

TYPES
• Radio
• Tape recorder
• Disc recorder
• Phonogram
• Gramophone
• Megaphone
• Language laboratories

171
RADIO:
INTRODUCTION
Radio is a wireless transmission of signals through free space by electromagnetic
radiation of a frequency. Process of radio-electromagnetic waves that have the
capacity to transmit music, speech, pictures and other data invisibly through the
air, many devices work by using electromagnetic waves including radio
CHARACTERISTICS OF AUDIO EXPERIENCES THROUGH RADIO AND RECORDINGS:
• Immediacy
• Emotional impact
• Authenticity
• Conquest of time and space
• One way communication
• Audition

172
Uses:

1.To develop increased skills in listening, participation and evaluating what is


heard.

2.To set the stage for students discussions by presenting options of outside experts
from remote sources.

3.To provide interest and varied sources of new knowledge and to the
development of appreciation and attitudes.

4.Radio can help the nurse with background and understanding for listening
attentively.

173
TAPE RECORDER:

INTRODUCTION

A tape recorder is a portable electronic gadget used to record, reproduce and re


record sound on a magnetic tape. This device can be used without any problem by
anybody by operating the press buttons attached to the recorder, viz stop , play,
wind, rewind, record pause and eject.

HISTORY

• An audio tape recorder, tape deck, reel-to-reel tape deck, cassette deck or
tape machine is an audio storage device that records and plays back sounds,
including articulated voices, usually using magnetic tape, either wound on a
reel or in a cassette, for storage. In its present day form, it records a
fluctuating signal by moving the tape across a tape head that polarizes the
magnetic domains in the tape in proportion to the audio signal.
• The use of magnetic tape for sound recording originated around 1930.

• Magnetizable tape revolutionized both the radio broadcast and music


recording industries.
• However, as of the first decade of the 21st century, analog magnetic tape is
largely being replaced by digital recording technologies for most sound
recording purposes.
• Prior to the development of magnetic tape, magnetic wire recorders had
successfully demonstrated the concept of magnetic recording, but they
never offered audio quality comparable to the other recording and
174
USES OF TAPE RECORDER

 supplementing a lesson with tape recorder to provide additional information


or content.
 Can be used as an appreciation lesson in music or literature class
 Can be used for students to acquire singing ability, deliver a speech properly
and recite a poem in a right way.
 Can be used for reviewing a lesson already presented
 The teacher must maintain a tape recorder cassette library on particular
subject which could be used later by the teacher or other faculty members.

ADVANTAGES OF A TAPE RECORDER

 Tape recorders are commonly available educational aids that are economical
as recording tapes can be used multiple times and erasing and re recording
are also possible.
 In language learning, a tape recorder is very useful because spoken
conversation can be recorded and replayed for correcting

175
 A tape recorder can be used for physical exercises, yoga or meditation
accompanied with relevant music.
 It could be used for recording interview talk, discussions of various experts,
which could be later used for teaching purposes.

GUIDELINES FOR USING A TAPE RECORDER IN TEACHING

➢ The teacher must be familiar or practiced the basic function of the tape
recorder before using it in classroom setting.
➢ Proper function of the tape and recorder cassette must be ensured by the
teacher before final use in the classroom
➢ The teacher must prepare, customize and practice the tape recorded lesson
before use in the actual class.
➢ The teacher must prepare tape recorded material and catalogue it properly.
➢ Recorded cassettes of interviews or discussion can become as evidence of
facts having high legal value and may be used in case of disputes.

DISC RECORDER:

INTRODUCTION

Most sound recordings for records prior to the 1950s were made by cutting directly
to a master disc.

Recording via magnetic tape became the industry standard around the time of the creation of the
LP format in 1948, and these two technological advances are often seen as being joined, although
78 rpm records cut from tape masters continued to be manufactured for another decade.

In the late 1970s, a small number of albums recorded direct-to-disc began to


appear again on the market and were marketed as "audiophile" editions, promising
176
superior sound quality compared with recordings made using the more common
multi – track tape recording methods

Advantages

• Technically, direct-to-disc recording is believed to result in a more accurate,


less noisy recording through the elimination of up to 4 generations of master
tapes, overdubs, and mix downs from multi-tracked masters.
• Losses resulting from conversion of the signal into digital form and its
reconversion into analog may also be avoided, although some modern disc
cutting equipment makes this step mandatory.

177
Disadvantages

• Although the spontaneity of performance is preserved, no overdubbing or


editing is possible.
• It becomes more challenging for the musicians, engineers and producers,
whose performances will be captured "warts and all".
• Some artists also maintain that musical instruments may drift out of tune: it
is not possible to keep musical instruments in tune for the length of the LP
side

PHONOGRAM:

• Phonogram Inc. was started in 1962 as a unit of the Gramm-phone-Philips


Group (GPG) A joint Venture of Philips N.V. of the Netherlands and Siemens
A.G. of Germany.
• Phonogram was the name of a parent company that owned and or
distributed many different record companies. In 1972, Phonogram was
merged with Polydor Records into PolyGram.
• Following PolyGram's acquisition of Mercury in the U.S., they changed the
corporate name of Mercury Record Productions, Inc. to Phonogram, Inc.

A phonogram is a letter or combination of letters that represent a sound. For

example:

• ck is a phonogram that says /k/ as in clock.


• s is a phonogram that says /s/ as in sat or /z/ as in has.
• oy is a phonogram that says /oi/ as in boy.

178
List of the Phonograms

Here are the basic phonograms, listed in alphabetical order:

A B C D E
F g H I J
K L M N O
P Qu R S T
U V W X Y
Z Ai Ar Au Aw
Ay Ch Ci Ck Dge
Ea ear Ed Ee Ei
Eigh Er Ew Ey Gn
Ie igh Ir Kn Ng
Nk Oa Oe Oi Oo
Or Ou ough Our Ow
Oy Ph Sh Si Tch
Th Ti Ui Ur Wh
Wr

Phonograms Work

In spelling, each sound in a word is represented by a phonogram. Let's take the


word past. If you pronounce the word slowly to hear the individual sounds, you will
hear four different sounds: /p/–/ă/–/s/–/t/. For each sound, we write down a
phonogram:PAST
That was an easy example. Here are some more examples:

179
• The word big has three sounds (/b/–/ĭ/–/g/) and three phonograms (b, i, g).
• The word bridge has four sounds (/b/–/r/–/ĭ/–/j/) and, therefore, four
phonograms (b, r, i, dge).
• The word high has two sounds (/h/–/ī/) and, therefore, two phonograms (h,
igh).

180
GRAMAPHONE:

Gramophone might refer to:

• A phonograph, the first device for recording and replaying sound. The two
names were originally those used by rival manufacturers.
• Gramophone record, a disc shaped analogue sound recording medium
• Gramophone (magazine), a British publication devoted to classical music
• Gramophone Company of India, the former name of Sa Re Ga Ma, an Indian
record company
• Berliner Gramophone, incorporated by Emile Berliner in 1892 in Washington,
D.C. as the United States Gramophone Company
• Gramophone Award, an award given to the best in the classical music
recording industry and film
• Gramaphone Records, a music store in Chicago, known as the hub of House
Music in that city
• Gramophone (film), a 2003 Indian film

181
MEGA PHONE:

• A megaphone, speaking-trumpet, bullhorn, blow horn, or loud hailer is a


portable, usually hand-held, cone-shaped acoustic horn used to amplify a
person’s voice or other sounds and direct it in a given direction.
• The megaphone increases the volume of sound by increasing the acoustic
impedance seen by the vocal cords, matching the impedance of the vocal
cords to the air, so that more sound power is radiated. It also serves to direct
the sound waves in the direction the horn is pointing.

182
ELECTRIC MEGAPHONES

Woman using a handheld electric megaphone at a demonstration in Portugal.

183
• Electric megaphones use a type of horn loudspeaker called a reflex or
reentrant horn. The sound waves travel in a zigzag path through concentric
widening ducts (b, c, and d).
LANGUAGE LABORATORIES

The language laboratories are an audio or audio-visual installation used as an aid in


modern language teaching. They can be found amongst other places, in schools,
universities and academics. Perhaps the first lab was at the University of Grenoble
in 1908.In the 1950s until the 1990s, there was tape based system using reel to reel
or cassette. The original language labs are now very outdated. They allowed a
teacher to listen and manage student’s audio via a hard-wired analogue tape deck
based system with sound booths in fixed locations.

PURPOSE

Language laboratories allowed a teacher to listen and manage student’s audio via
a hard-wired analogue tape deck based system with sound booths in fixed
locations.

184
UNIT-VIII

VISUAL AIDS

185
VISUAL AIDS

INTRODUCTION:

Visual aids are an important tool because different people respond to


different learning modalities. Visual aids also add interest to a discussion. In order
to effectively use visual aids, one must learn from experience what will and won't
work for an audience or group of students. Visual aids can take many forms and be
presented in many formats. They may be used in different settings, from
classrooms to board rooms, and anywhere that information is relayed to audiences
on a regular basis.

OBJECTIVES

➢ The use of objects as visual aids involves bringing the actual object to
demonstrate on during the speech. For example, a speech about tying knots
would be more effective by bringing in a rope.
➢ Pro: the use of actual object is often necessary when demonstrating how to
do something so that the audience can fully understand procedure.
➢ Con: some objects are too large or unavailable for a speaker to bring with
them.

PURPOSE:

• Display the title of the presentation


• Define particular technical terms or units
• Indicate a structure to your presentation by listing your main points
• Display an image which encapsulates your theme(s)
186
• Highlight new points with an appropriate image or phrase
• Indicate sequence by linking points together
• Offer evidence from your research to support your argument.

Visual aids are of two types which includes non-projected or unprojected aids and
projected aids.

➢ Non-projected aids are those which require no projection material or any


electric power.eg; models,3D materials, pictures, charts, boards, cartoons,
maps, flash cards, illustrations and postures.
➢ Projected aids are those which require projection material or any electric
material.
eg; epidiascope, slide projector, over head projector, film projector, opaque
projector.

1.MODELS:

It is a life size miniature or cover or original size. They are substitutes for real things.
Models are concrete objects made up of clay, pulp, cotton, cardboard, thermocoal,
cloth, wood etc.

FUNCTIONS OF MODEL:

-It simplifies reality and direct meaningful learning

-Enables us to reduce/enlarge objects to an observable size

-It provides the correct concept of all real object like dam, bridge etc

-A working model explains the various processes of objects and machines

-It promotes creative interest among pupils.

187
TYPES OF MODELS:

A. Scale model- A scale model is a smaller replica of a larger object. These


representations are often used for visual aid or testing the design of an object, such
as a vehicle or building, in an early stage of development.

B. Simplified model- To make simple or simpler, as:

a. To reduce in complexity or extent.


b. To reduce to fundamental parts.
c. To make easier to understand.

188
C. Working models-

A model of an actual or proposed machine that can do on a small scale work which
the machine itself does or is expected to do.

D. Cross-section model-
A section formed by a plane cutting through an object, usually at right angles to an
axis.

189
2. EXHIBITS:

It is an arrangement of communication media designed to inform the observer


about a subject. Educational exhibit offers an interesting and unique manner of
combining multiple media into a small area. It provides an opportunity for learner
for own creative participation and developmental thinking.

FUNCTIONS OF EXHIBITIONS

 Peaking opportunities alongside expert panelists

190
 Prominent branding and the chance to distribute marketing material
 Running a seminar on a specifically tailored subject area
 Written or broadcast interviews and features, allowing credible product
promotion
 Opportunity to poll summit website visitors on matters of commercial
interest.

3. MOCK-UPS:

Mock-up, is a scale or full-size model of a design or device, used for teaching,


demonstration, design evaluation, promotion, and other purposes. These are the
devices which are imitations of real things. It emphasizes the functional
relationship between the device reality and its workability.

191
4.SPECIMEN:

A biological specimen (also called as biospecimen) is a biological laboratory


specimen held by a biorepository for research. Such a specimen would be taken by
sampling so as to be representative of any other specimen taken from the source
of the specimen. It is a sample that shows quality of structure.

5.MOULAGE:

Mould can be made up of plastic material to stimulate some life object.eg;


body which show evidence of trauma, infection, disease and surgical intervention.

192
6.OBJECTS:
Objects are brought into natural setting in the class room to supply the type
of sensory experience that will make instruction more meaningful, vivid and
impressive.

7. DIORAMA:
It is a three dimensional scene in depth incorporating a group of modeled
objects and figures in a natural setting to illustrate central theme on concept. The
193
diorama scene is setup on a small stage with a group of modeled objects kept on the
forehead which is blended into a painted realistic background .

8. FLASH CARDS:

Flash cards are used for the presentation of an idea in the form of posters,
pictures, words and sentences. Flash cards are small cards of generally 25 x 30 cm
size which are shown for a few moments before the class to send across a message
or impart an idea. They aim to develop the power of observation, identification,
quick comprehension and retention.
USES:

▪ Flash cards exercise the mental process of active recall.


▪ Used for the drill in various subjects.
▪ Used for reviewing a lesson with students.
▪ Used for small groups not over 30 people.
▪ Easy to carry.

194
PREPARATION OF FLASH CARDS:

▪ Made out of cardboard or any other thick material.


▪ Write the content on it (either in free hand or using stencils and sketch pen).
▪ The height of writing is approx. 5 cm so that the whole class can see the flash
card properly.
▪ It is advisable to make a rough card on an ordinary paper first and then
transfer it on the chart paper or cardboard flash cards.
▪ 10-12 cards can be used for one talk.

9.POSTERS:

“A poster is a pictorial device designed to attract attention and


communicate a story, a fact, an idea, or an image rapidly and clearly.” A poster is
a “placard, usually pictorial or decorative, utilizing an emotional appeal to convey
a message aimed at reinforcing an attitude or urging a course of action”.

195
USES OF POSTERS:

▪ Presents a single idea or a subject forcefully.


▪ Publicizes important school and community events and projects.
▪ Adds atmosphere to the class-room.
▪ Captures attention by some attractive feature and thus convey the message
attractively and quickly.
▪ Motivates the class.
▪ Strong lasting impression.
▪ Satisfies the viewer emotionally and aesthetically.
▪ Poster is a simple and dynamic medium at a glance of presenting a message
in a compact form.

PREPARATION OF POSTERS:

1. Decide the theme.


2. Decide the most suitable words to provide a title or a slogan.
3. Sketch some layouts and decide o n the best.
4. Gather all needed material to prepare the poster.
5. Prepare the lettering.
6. Add desired objectives.
7. Give the finishing touches and erase the smudge marks.

196
197
UNIT-IX
AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

198
AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

MOTION PICTURES

The Motion pictures on illusions of reality that makes it one of the most powerful
pictorial tool for education. The motion picture film carriers both visual and auditory
information. The motion picture is considered also to be one of the most important
sources of social influence today. The motion picture is a powerful tool because of it’s:

 Unique versatility.
 The viewer sees motion that can be recreated.
 Time factor can be controlled in any series of went.
 Objects can be enlarged or reduced.

Educational value of Motion Picture


1. It enriches the learning process and leads to greater all round achievement.
2. It directly modifies beliefs in desirable directions and causes students seek
additional information about subject studied.
3. It helps in the improvement of educational achievement by different subjects.
4. It compels attention.
5. It makes the experience almost first hand.
6. It is an edited version of reality.
7. Motion picture can control the time factor in any operation or series of events.
8. Motion picture can make distant past and the present relieve in the classroom.

199
Uses of Motion Picture
 Films can teach factual materials effectively over a wide range of subject
matter, ages, abilities, and conditions of use.
 Films can be effective in teaching perceptual motor skills.
 Films can be made more effective as learning tools through the use of various
teaching techniques.

Purposes for which Films may be Used


 To provide a background of sensory experience.
 To provide concrete experiences which serve as a basis for thinking, reasoning
and problem-solving.
 To provide an easily accessible fund of knowledge which stimulates interest and
motivates the students to further study and learning activities.

200
EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION

Television is the electronic means by which sound and light energy are
transmitted from one place to another. Television is a multidimensional and general
medium of communication. It is an instruction of encoding, transforming,
transmitting, projecting or re-transforming and then presenting the encoded
patterns of meaningful information.

Two kinds of licensed television stations:

A. Commercial
B. Educational

Educational television:

1) Instructional television
2) Enrichment television

201
 Instructional television-boardcasts designed to aid instruction i.e. it is
planned in relation to educational objectives and is presented in an orderly and
sequential arrangement of learning experience.
 Enrichment television- designed towards enriching learning, but is not
directed towards any particular course of study nor is it presented in any particular
learning sequence e.g. demonstration of nursing procedures.

INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION

1. Total Television
* Only direction that he receives is through instructions given in the telecast,
the syllabi, the books, etc.
* The student must be highly motivated and sufficiently mature to direct his
own study efforts.
2. Major resource teaching
Teaching takes over the main burden of the formal course presentation, but the
student’s learning is directed and facilitated by a classroom teacher.
This may be done through:
 Class assignments.
 Small group discussions.
 Use of audio-visual materials, e.g. filmstrip recordings demonstrations.

3. Observational television

Broadcasts over a closed-circuit system. It provides a closer view of important


phenomena, e.g. a telecast of a nursing class a front row seat from which she can
see clearly every step of the procedure.

202
Functional Characteristics of Television

* Image magnification.
* Image association.
* Image transportation.

Educational Value of Instructional TV

✓ Educational TV combines sight and sound together and thus makes the
experience real, concrete and immediate.
✓ TV offers uniformity of communication even the back bench feels the
pleasure of front row seat.
✓ TV is a versatile educational vehicle. Any telecast may use a battery of
audio-visual aid materials like models, charts, exhibits, blackboards, etc.

Limitations of television:-

 One way communication is the major limitation.


 Listening and viewing a particular T.V. programme in school hours would
very often require the teacher to rearrange the school schedule.
 Financial problems, not all schools can afford a TV set.

203
204
VIDEOTAPES PLAYED THROUGH TV
Pre-recorded videotapes can be played through TV in the classroom.
Video films on educational topics shown through TV in the classroom. The
arrangement is compact and requires little space and time for manipulation.

VIDEO CASSETTES

Control of the equipment and the learning process is placed in the hands
of the learner through control over the mechanics of the machine i.e. stopping,
starting, timing, reviewing and previewing and consequently the capacity to order
the sequence of events, controls the rate of learning and facilitates practices
sequences.

205
COMPUTER
Introduction

The Advent of Computers in Educational Technology

•Greatly revolutionized teaching methodologies and strategies

•There is a chain of changes: in the role of teachers; in the modes of learning


among students; in the curricular offerings; and in the content in all the three
levels of education.

Thus it is imperative that computer applications be a part of the


preparation of the students in teacher education.

Definition

“A Computer is an electronic machine that can solve different problems, process data,
store & retrieve data and perform calculations faster and efficiently than humans”.

206
Advantages of the Computer in Teaching and Learning

Lucido and Borabo (1997) gave the following advantages of using the computer:

1. It allows students to learn at their own pace by having control over the rate and
sequence of learning.

2. Learning is reinforced by way of high speed personalized response.

3. Color, music, and animated graphics add realism and appeal to drill exercises,
laboratory activities, simulations and others.

Disadvantages of the Computer in Teaching and Learning

1. Computerized instruction is relatively expensive. The cost and benefits must be


assessed to ensure optimal gains.

2. Creativity may be stifled if creative original responses are ignored by the linear, lock-
step control learning process in the case of run-of-the mill computer instruction materials.

207
Zoom app:

Zoom is a web - based video conferencing tool with a local, desktop client and a
mobile app that allows users to meet online, with or without video. Zoom users can
choose to record sessions collaborate on projects and share or annotate on one
anothers’s screens all with one easy to use platforms. Its shows number of
paricipants.

208
GOOGLE MEEET APP:

Google meet also known as Google hangouts Meet, is a built to let dozens of
people join the same virtual meeting, and speak or share video with each other

from anywhere with internet access.

WEBINAR APP :

A webinar is an engaging online event where a speaker or small group of speakers,


deliver a presentation to a large audience who participate by submitting questions,
responding to polls and using other available interactive tools.

209
UNIT -X
PROJECTED AIDS

210
PROJECTED AIDS

Projected aids are those aids where a bright light is passed through a
transparent picture, and by means of a lens, an enlarged picture is thrown or
projected on the screen.eg;epidiascope, stereographic projector, LCD, film
projector, opaque projector, slide projector, microfilm, motion pictures.

DEFINITION

It can project images or printed matter or small opaque objects on a screen or


it can project images of a 4*4 inches slide.

It is very useful means for using reflected light to pick up the image or for projection
of flat pictures, diagrams, maps to a screen in enlarged form so that the entire
group can see them. The opaque projectors will project and simultaneously enlarge
directly from the original, printed matter, all kinds of written or pictorial matter in
any sequence derived by the teacher. It requires a dark room, as projector is large
and not readily movable therefore their usefulness is limited.

VALUES OF PROJECTED VISUALS

a) Provides greater enjoyment in learning


b) Stimulates more rapid learning
c) Increases retention, larger percentages and longer retention
d) Makes teaching situation adaptable to wider range
e) Compels attention
f) Enlarges or reduce actual size of objects
g) Brings distant past and the present into the classroom
211
h) Provides an easily reproduced record of an event
i) Influences and change attitudes

ADVANTAGES

➢ stimulate attention
➢ arouse interest
➢ clarify information
➢ help student to retain knowledge for a longer period of time
➢ to introduce subject or topics
➢ present specific information
➢ test knowledge and ability
➢ review instructional problems
➢ facilitate cooperative student-teacher participation in problem solving

1.EPIDIASCOPE:

The epidiascope is a type of opaque projector developed in the early years


of the 20th century which can project images or printed matter on a screen. Unlike
the episcope or epidiascope, which have the ability to project opaque images only,
epidiascopes can project images of both transparent and opaque images. This
quality made the device especially useful in educational circles for most of the
century.
The basic functionality of the epidiascope involved harnessing the power of
light to create the images. In the earliest models of the epidiascope and other
similar projectors, limelight was used as the medium. The light would be directed
downward onto an object, creating the image. To focus the light and create a viable
image, a series of lenses or mirrors would be used to direct the image onto a screen.

212
While somewhat costly to produce at first, the epidiascope became more
affordable as the device was refined. Along with commercial models, low powered
versions were produced and marketed as toys for school age children.
By the middle of the 20th century, the typical epidiascope was produced using
incandescent light as the source for creating the image. Desktop models of the device were in
common use in schools and colleges across the globe. Within a few years, halogen lamps began to
replace the incandescent bulbs, providing an even sharper projected image.

Applicability of epidiascope:
Epidiascope is an instrument which can project images or printed matter or
small opaque on a screen. With the help of epidiascope any chart, diagram, map,
photograph and picture can be projected on the screen without tearing it from the
book. It works on the principle of horizontal straight line projection with a lamp,
plane mirror and projection lens. A straight light from the lamp falls on the opaque
object. A plane mirror placed at an angle of 45 inches over the project reflects the
light so that it passes through the projection lens forming a magnified image on the
screen.

213
2. SLIDE PROJECTOR:

A slide projector is an opto-mechanical device to view photographic slides.


Slide projectors became common since the 1950s as a form of entertainment;
family members and friends would gather to view slide shows. In-home
photographic slides and slide projectors have largely been replaced by low cost
paper prints, digital cameras, DVD media, video display monitors, and video
projectors.

A projector has four main elements:

• electric incandescent light bulb or other light source (usually fan-cooled)


• reflector and "condensing" lens to direct the light to the slide
• slide holder
• focusing lens

A flat piece of heat-absorbing glass is often placed in the light path between
the condensing lens and the slide, to avoid damaging the latter. This glass transmits
visible wavelengths but absorbs infrared. Light passes through
the transparent slide and lens, and the resulting image is enlarged and projected
214
onto a perpendicular flat screen so the audience can view its reflection.
Alternatively, the image may be projected onto a translucent "rear projection"
screen, often used for continuous automatic display for close viewing. This form of
projection also avoids the audience interrupting the light stream by casting their
shadows on the projection or by bumping into the projector.

3. LCD:

It is a variant of slide projector that is used to display images to audience. It


provides face to face teaching situation.

Advantages:

▪ audience reach
▪ user friendly
▪ sequence of materials
▪ image is clear because it is directed and reflected
▪ easy to show step by step
▪ material can be prepared easily
▪ can get all advantages of black board with chalk dust
215
▪ can be used for developing a theme at a time
▪ easy to operate and maintain and manage

Disadvantages:

▪ resolution problems
▪ cost to replace bulbs
▪ transportation
▪ displaying material
▪ outdated technology

4. FILM PROJECTOR:

A film projector is an opto-mechanical device for displaying motion picture


film by projecting it onto a screen. Most of the optical and mechanical elements,
except for the illumination and sound devices, are present in movie cameras.

The device may be used as a slide projector or as a film strip projector.


Instead of using different slide for different topics or more slides for one topic, one
strip or piece of still film is prepared. Slides produced on films are called film strips.
It usually consists of 40 to 100 separate pictures related to a particular subject,
topic or theme. These pictures may be connected with series of drawings,
photographs, diagrams or combination of these. The film strip projector is a recent
development and it is growing to be a more popular means of pictorial
representation.

216
5.OPAQUE PROJECTOR:

A machine for projecting opaque objects, as books, on a screen, by means of


reflected light.

6. STEREOGRAPH:
The still picture gives an illusion of space, the observer receives the
impression of reality and hence it is known as 3D photograph. The stereo film is a
double photograph made by the stereoscopic cameras, the two photographs being

217
taken from a slightly different angle. The two pictures are enlarged and merged
into one view when seen through the lenses of the stereoscope.
The stereographic projection is a particular mapping (function) that projects
a sphere onto a plane. The projection is defined on the entire sphere, except at one
point: the projection point. Where it is defined, the mapping
is smooth and bijective. It is conformal, meaning that it preserves angles. It is
neither isometric nor area-preserving: that is, it preserves neither distances nor the
areas of figures.

Intuitively, then, the stereographic projection is a way of picturing the sphere


as the plane, with some inevitable compromises. Because the sphere and the plane
appear in many areas of mathematics and its applications, so does the
stereographic projection; it finds use in diverse fields including
complex, cartography, geology, and photography. In practice, the projection is
carried out by computer or by hand using a special kind of graph paper called
a stereo net or Wolff net.

Stereograph is a stereogram generator that produces exclusively true color


graphics. It offers special features to increase the quality of art work such as anti-
aliasing and zoom. Both of them destroy the clear appearance of level transitions
in the third dimension that result of low resolution modes like stereo grams that fit
into a computer screen. For the human eye this resolution is anything but great and
it realizes even microscopic differences.

218
7. MICROFORM:

Microforms are any forms, either films or paper, containing micro


reproduction of documents for transmission, storage, reading, and printing.
Microform images are commonly reduced to about one twenty-fifth of the original
document size. For special purposes, greater optical reductions may be used. All
microform images may be provided as positives or negatives, more often the latter.

219
Advantages:

The medium has numerous advantages:

• It enables libraries to greatly expand access to collections without putting


rare, fragile, or valuable items at risk of theft or damage.

• It is compact, with far smaller storage costs than paper documents. Normally
98 document size pages fit on one fiche, reducing to about 0.25% original
material. When compared to filing paper, microforms can reduce space
storage requirements by up to 95%.

• It is cheaper to distribute than paper copy. Most microfiche services get a


bulk discount on reproduction rights, and have lower reproduction and
carriage costs than a comparable amount of printed paper.

• It is a stable archival form when properly processed and stored. Preservation


standard microfilms use the silver halide process, creating silver images in
hard gelatin emulsion on a polyester base. With appropriate storage
conditions, this film has a life expectancy of 500 years. [12] Unfortunately, in
tropical climates with high humidity, fungus eats the gelatin used to bind the
silver halide. Thus, diazo-based systems with lower archival lives (20 years)
which have polyester or epoxy surfaces are used.

• Since it is analog (an actual image of the original data), it is easy to view.
Unlike digital media, the format requires no software to decode the data
stored thereon. It is instantly comprehensible to persons literate in the
language; the only equipment that is needed is a simple magnifying glass.
This eliminates the problem of software obsolescence.

• It is virtually impossible to mutilate. Users cannot tear pages from or deface


microforms.
220
• It has low intrinsic value and does not attract thieves. Few heavily-used
microform collections suffer any losses due to theft.

• Prints from microfilm are accepted in legal proceedings as substitutes for


original documents.

Disadvantages:

• The principal disadvantage of microforms is that the image is (usually) too


small to read with the naked eye and requires analog or digital magnification
to be read.
• Reader machines used to view microfilm are often difficult to use, requiring
users to carefully wind and rewind until they have arrived at the point where
the data they are looking for is stored.
• Photographic illustrations reproduce poorly in microform format, with loss
of clarity and halftones. However the latest electronic digital
viewer/scanners have the ability to scan in gray shade which greatly
increases the quality of photographs, but they still can not duplicate the
nuances of true gray shade photographs -due to the inherent bi-tonal nature
of microfilm.
• Reader-printers are not always available, limiting the user's ability to make
copies for their own purposes. Conventional photocopy machines cannot be
used.
• Color microform is extremely expensive, thus discouraging most libraries
supplying color films. Color photographic dyes also tend to degrade over the
long term. This results in the loss of information, as color materials are usually
photographed using black and white film.[13] The lack of quality and color
images in microfilm, when libraries were discarding paper originals, was a
221
major impetus to Bill Blackbeard and other comic historians' work to rescue
and maintain original paper archives of color pages from the history of
newspaper comics. Many non-comics color images were not targeted by these
efforts and were lost.
• When stored in the highest-density drawers, it is easy to misfile a fiche, which
is thereafter unavailable. As a result, some libraries store microfiche in a
restricted area and retrieve it on demand. Some fiche services use lower-
density drawers with labeled pockets for each card.
• Like all analog media formats, microfiche is lacking in features enjoyed by
users of digital media. Analog copies degrade with each generation, while
some digital copies have much higher copying fidelity. Digital data can also
be indexed and searched easily.
• Reading microfilms on a machine for some time may cause headache and/or
eyestrain.

8.MEDIA:

Flat film :

105 x 148 mm flat film is used for micro images of very large engineering
drawings. These may carry a title photographed or written along one edge. Typical
reduction is about 20, representing a drawing that is 2.00 x 2.80 metres, that is 79 x
110 in. These films are stored as microfiche.

222
Microfilm :
16 mm or 35 mm film to motion picture standard is used, usually
unperforated. Roll microfilm is stored on open reels or put into cassettes. The
standard lengths for using roll film is 30.48 m (100 ft)for 35mm rolls, and 100 ft,
130 ft and 215 feet for 16mm rolls. One roll of 35 mm film may carry 600 images of
large engineering drawings or 800 images of broadsheet newspaper pages. 16 mm
film may carry 2,400 images of letter sized images as a single stream of micro
images along the film set so that lines of text are parallel to the sides of the film or
10,000 small documents, perhaps cheques or betting slips, with both sides of the
originals set side by side on the film.

223
Aperture cards :
Aperture cards are Hollerith cards into which a hole has been cut. A 35 mm
microfilm chip is mounted in the hole inside of a clear plastic sleeve, or secured over
the aperture by an adhesive tape. They are used for engineering drawings, for all
engineering disciplines. There are libraries of these containing over 3 million cards.
Aperture cards may be stored in drawers or in freestanding rotary units.

Microfiche :
A microfiche is a flat film 105 x 148 mm in size, that is ISO A6. It carries a
matrix of micro images. All microfiche are read with text parallel to the long side of
the fiche. Frames may be landscape or portrait. Along the top of the fiche a title may
be recorded for visual identification. The most commonly used format is a portrait
image of about 10 x 14 mm. Office size papers or magazine pages require a reduction
of 24 or 25. Microfiche are stored in open top envelopes which are put in drawers or
boxes as file cards, or fitted into pockets in purpose made books.

224
Ultrafiche :
Also called 'ultramicrofiche' is an exceptionally compact version of a
microfiche or microfilm, storing analog data at much higher densities. Ultrafiche
can be created directly from computers using appropriate peripherals. They are
typically used for storing data gathered from extremely data-intensive operations
such as remote sensing.

225
9.MOTION PICTURE:

A film, also called a movie or motion picture, is a series of still images on a


strip of plastic which, when run through a projector and shown on a screen, creates
the illusion of moving images.

A film is created by photographing actual scenes with a motion picture


camera; by photographing drawings or miniature models using
traditional animation techniques; by means of computer animation; or by a
combination of some or all of these techniques and other visual effects.

OVERHEAD PROJECTORS
An overhead projector is a very basic but reliable tool used to display images onto
a screen or wall. It consists of a large box containing a cooling fan and an extremely
bright light, with a long arm extended above it. At the end of the arm is a mirror
that catches and redirects the light towards the screen.
A projector capable of projecting enlarged images of written or pictorial material
onto a screen or wall from a transparency placed horizontally below the projector
and lighted from underneath.
This type of projector can be used to enlarge images onto the screen or wall for
audiences to view. Transparencies can be placed onto the base to be viewed by both
226
the audience and the speaker. The device was once a common feature in both
classrooms and business meetings, although it has seen a decline in use as more
sophisticated computer based projectors are favored.

ADVANTAGES
➢ It is vivid and interest catching
➢ No need to black out the room
➢ Teacher faces the students while discussion.
➢ It is mobile.
➢ Easy to use.
➢ Complex diagram can be taken photocopy on transparency.
➢ Useful in instructing large group.

227
➢ Can be used to focus audience attention.
➢ Less expensive.
➢ It is flexible tool for teaching.
DISADVANTAGES
➢ Bulky and difficult to carry.
➢ Use on & off switch to focus attention
➢ Totally depend on electricity.
➢ Can serve as distracter.
TRANSPARENCY
Single image that is seen by the means of a light passing through a visual
project, usually given to those materials which are projected in the overhead
projector.
A transparency is a thin sheet of transparent flexible material, typically cellulose
acetate, onto which figures can be drawn. These are then placed on an overhead
projector for display to an audience. Many companies and small organizations use
a system of projectors and transparencies in meetings and other grouping of
people.
USES
➢ Uses of transparencies are as varied as the organizations that use them.
➢ To illustrate a point or problem.
➢ To brief engineers and relevant person.

228
229
UNIT- XI

GRAPHIC AIDS

230
GRAPHIC AIDS

Graphic Aids emphasize the use of concrete or non-verbal experience in the


learning process. The produced in the form of some instruction materials, visualize
simple ideas and facts. Graphics are material, which indicate and illustrate ideas,
objects, concepts and process boldly, clearly and vigorously, effectively, eliminating
non-essentials through a synthesis of drawings, pictures and words. It is a forceful
shorthand language.

The use of graphic aids in the classroom has become an important teaching
strategy in education. As educators learn more about how to reach all types of
learners, the use of graphic aids assists in differentiating instruction, giving students
greater access to content, and helping students to achieve greater comprehension
of new information. There are a multitude of graphic aids which can be used in
today's .

BASIC CONCEPT :

✓ To attract attention
✓ To convey meaning clearly and facilitate learning
✓ They make impact on learner
✓ They have universal appeal and their educational values are manifold.
✓ Helps in organizing knowledge and increasing communication skills.

Graphic materials are usually 2-D. Many of them can be projected through an
projected or from strips and slides.

231
LIMITATIONS:

• Cannot be used for larger groups


• Misconceptions can occur
• All ideas cannot be expressed

TYPES :

• Posters Maps Still pictures


• Charts Comics Flash cards
• Diagrams Graphs Illustrations
• Pamphlets

SIMPLE DRAWINGS

Techniques of Simple Drawing :

1. Make several circles over or shapes that could go for head.

2. Draw two small circles for eyes near the picture. Put two dots on the side of
the eyes.

232
3. Place the nose, any shape slightly below and between the eyes, point the
direction where it is supposed to look.

4. The face of the mouth generally gives the necessary expression.

5. The eyebrow will add emphasis, but it can also be omitted.

6. Add few lines for hair and two half circles for ears at the level of the eyes.

7. Try the rest of the body.

8. It is ready for action to emphasis your teaching.

USE YOUR DRAWING TO HELP YOU TO TEACH SIMPLE DRAWINGS :

1. Stick figure is easy to draw. They can be made to express everything that you
need in your wailing illustrations.

a. Draw straight line for back bone

b. For head, draw circle

c. Arms and legs straight lines according to actions.

d. Figure complete ready for action.

2. Use symbols to emphasis good teaching.

233
3. You can create wonders with first stroke as your pencil to express facial expressions.

1.CARTOONS

Definition :

It is a metaphorical representation or character of a persons, idea or


situation that is designed to influence the public opinion.

234
Characteristics of a good cartoons :

• Concretized editorials

• Permanent and profitable instrument of education

• An informal teacher of philosophy

• Tells its study metaphorically through picture

• Perfect cartoon needs no caption

• The symbolism conveys the message

• Ethically pleasurable

Advantages:

• Cartoons are natural attention getters and hold viewer's


attention long enough cartoons to deliver short messages.
• They liven up dreary subjects.
235
• Cartoons emphasize security and safety, 'add interest to
training and briefing material, and promote recruiting and
retention.
• Use a cartoon to subdue real tragedies that would normally frighten
or repulse.
Disadvantages :

• Over simplification, bias, stereotyped ideas. It should be used carefully and


intelligently.
• It Makes your eyes hurt

• You are at risk of being yelled at by your parents (take it from a kid) > If you
get addicted to cartoons, you don't have homework time, which results in
bad grades, and of course stress.
2. COMICS :

It may be defined as a form of cartooning in which some comic characteristics


enacts a story in a sequence of closely related drawing designed to entertain the
people

236
3.CHALK BOARD

A chalkboard or blackboard is a reusable writing surface on which text or


drawings are made with sticks of calcium sulfate, known, when used for this
purpose, as chalk. Blackboards were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black
or dark grey slate stone. Modern versions are often green or brown and are thus
sometimes called a green board or brown board instead.

A blackboard can simply be a piece of board painted with matte dark paint
(usually black or dark green). A more modern variation consists of a coiled sheet of
plastic drawn across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional
writing space while saving what has been written. The highest grade chalkboards
are made of a rougher version porcelain enameled steel (black, green, blue or
sometimes other colours). Porcelain is very hard wearing and chalkboards made of
porcelain usually last 10-20 years in intensive use.

Uses:

1. It makes group instruction more concrete and understandable

2. If it is used properly,it can set standards of neatness, accuracy and speed.

237
3. It can restore the attention of the group.

4. It can be a mean of motivation and interest.

5. It can be used for recording the progress and status.

4. BULLETIN BOARD

It will be for both informational and educational purposes. It can motivate,


supplement and euricle learning, stimulate thought. It employs intrinsic motivation
through the medium of interest, curiosity and desired for knowledge.

It is a simple device placed either indoor or outdoor, kept in a suitable place. It can

provide a suitable for the display of all kinds of creative work of the students.

Uses of Bulletin Board:

1. To communicate the ideas.

2. To describe the ways of doing a particular item.

3. To follow up instruction on things demonstrated and emphasized.


238
4. Photographs to show local activities.

5. To motivate the learner.

6. To provide information.

7. Add variety to the classroom activity.

Principles in the use of Bulletin Board:

1. A board for posting notices should be kept separate from those for current
events.

2. The contents of the boards should be organized around a central theme of


content and materials should be dated to ensure that it does not remain or longer
than desired.

3. The appearance must be neat, orderly and in an attractive manner.

4. The material should be changed frequently and systematically to encourage


interest.

5. Crowding of display materials should be avoided.

6. The contributions should be well labeled.

7. All materials should be organized in an attractive manner.

8. The bulletin board should be kept a little above the eye level.

Types of Bulletin Board:

1. Flannel Board

2. Magnetic Board

239
3. Fixed Type

4. Movable type

5. Folded type

1. FLANNEL BOARD

2.MAGNETIC BOARD

240
3.FIXED TYPE BOARD

4.MOVABLE BOARD

241
5.FOLDED BOARD

5.GRAPHIC MATERIALS : It is a combination of graphic and pictorial material designed for


the orderly and logical visualizing of relationships between key facts and ideas. It includes graphs,
charts, maps and diagrams.

242
6.DIAGRAM : It is a simplified drawing designed to show inter relationship primarily by means
of lines and symbols. E.g. stick figures, science figure, geometry, facial expression drawing can
be drawn by hand to convey a variety of ideas, concepts and situations.

7.CHARTS : These visual symbols used for summarizing, comparing, contrasting or

performing other services in explaining subject matter. Diagnostic representation


of the facts and ideas, a chart is a combination of pictorial graphic, numerical which
present saclear visual summary.

243
CHART

Purposes of Charts:

• For showing relationships by means of facts and figures.

• For presenting the material symbolically.

• To show continuity in process.

• For presenting abstract ideas in visual group.

• For showing development of structure.

• For creating problems and stimulating thinking.

8. GLOBE: Three dimensional representation of the earth in a spherical manner.


We can see the physical unity of the world, the relation of one part to all rest and
the direction of one part of the world relative to another.

244
9.GRAPHS: It depicts numerical or quantitative relationship or statistical data are
presented in the form of visual symbols. Exact specifications depict specifically
quantity data for analysis comparison and interpretation

1. Pie graph

2. Bar graph
245
A bar chart or bar graph is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths proportional
to the values that they represent. Bar charts are used for comparing two or more
values. The bars can be horizontally or vertically oriented. Sometimes a stretched
graphic is used instead of a solid bar. It is a visual display used to compare the
amount or frequency of occurrence of different characteristics of data and it is used
to compare groups of data.

3. Line graph

In a graph theory, the line graph of an undirected graphG is another graph that
represents the adjacencies between edges of G. The line graph is also sometimes
called the edge graph, the adjoint graph, the interchange graph, or the derived graph of G.

246
4. Pictorial graph

Graph is a pictorial representation of Data.

5. Histogram or column diagram

Many digital cameras have a histogram that is viewed on the LCD or electronic
viewfinder. The histogram provides an indication of whether or not an image is
properly exposed so that you don't lose detail in the shadows and highlight area. If

247
the histogram indicates that an image is not exposed properly, change exposure
settings and retake the picture.

6. Frequency polygon

Frequency polygons are a graphical device for understanding the shapes of


distributions. They serve the same purpose as histograms, but are especially helpful
in comparing sets of data. Frequency polygons are also a good choice for displaying
cumulative frequency distributions.

248
7. Cumulative frequency graph

This is the running total of the frequencies. On a graph, it can be represented by a


cumulative frequency polygon, where straight lines join up the points, or a
cumulative frequency curve.

249
UNIT – XII

PRINTED MATERIAL

250
PRINTED MATERIAL

INTRODUCTION

Printed matter is a term to describe printed material produced by printers or


publishers, such as books, magazines, booklets, brochures and other publicity
materials and in some cases, newspapers. Because much of this material is mailed,
it is also a category of mail , accepted for delivery by a postal administration , that
is not considered to be first class mail and therefore qualifies for a special reduced
printed matter postal rate . depending on specific postal regulations of the country
, it usually non-personal correspondence and printed in multiple quantities. Most
postal authorities do not permit additional services , like registration or express
services , to be added to items mailed as printed matter. In the postal convention
between the united states of America and Republic of Mexico , proclaimed on June
20 , 1862, terms were specified relating to the rates of printed matter between the
two countries. The rate was one cent for every ounce or fraction of an ounce.

TYPES OF PRINTED MATERIALS:

➢ Pamphlet
➢ Handout
➢ Books
➢ Leaflet
➢ Magazine
➢ Journals
➢ Periodicals

251
PAMPHLET

A pamphlet is an unbound booklet (that is, without a hard cover or binding).


It may consist of a single sheet of paper that is printed on both sides and folded in
half, in thirds, or in fourths (called a leaflet), or it may consist of a few pages that
are folded in half and saddle stapled at the crease to make a simple book. In order
to count as a pamphlet

The pamphlet has been widely adopted in commerce, particularly as a format

for marketing communications. There are numerous purposes for the pamphlets,
such as product descriptions or instructions, corporate information, events
promotions or tourism guides and are used in the same way as leaflets, brochures.

252
1. An unbound printed work, usually with a paper cover.

2. A short essay or treatise, usually on a current topic, published without a binding.

HANDOUT

A handout is a paperbased resource used to support teaching and learning


which can free students from excessive notetaking or supplement information not
easily available elsewhere. Ideally it should aid learning and may increase attention
and motivation and help students to follow the development of an idea or
253
argument. The first task therefore is to clarify the aim in using any handout. The
desired outcome will affect the information, its quantity, presentation and,
crucially, when you distribute it.

Uses of handout

There are several reasons for using a handout. It can:

• provide definitions for the more jargon ridden subjects;


• provide background information or detailed information, e.g. statistics,
which are not readily available elsewhere;
• put forward a point of view;
• outline a course of action;
• pose conceptual questions;
• provide a case study for problem solving or discussion;
• provide a complex diagram rather than students copying from the OHP;
• give a step by step instruction for teaching a skill or running a laboratory
exercise;
• outline the session with a series of bullet points per topic area;
• produce a hard copy of the transparencies used by reducing the print size of
your overhead transparencies which can be printed down one half of the
page, allowing students space to add their own comments or questions
alongside.

254
General Principles of Handouts

• Reading handouts: give students activities to complete or questions to answer


whilst reading (this helps concentration), e.g. list four points X makes about
Y; identify two/three key issues in this section; what further questions do you
need to ask to understand this section/para/chapter?
• Use the what, how, why, when and where questions as appropriate.
• Avoid long, dense handouts. Make them look attractive: leave spaces etc.
• Make sure the appearance of the material is up to standard. Try to keep

handouts as concise as possible.


• If, after considering the alternatives suggested, you find it necessary to
photocopy substantial extracts from books, have you remembered to check
the issue of copyright? If you think you may be infringing the law, consult the
guidelines which are displayed by photocopiers.
• Print size: use the smallest print size which is manageable for the average
reader

Types of Handouts

Uncompleted or gapped handout: this is a handout with gaps which students


fill in.

Advantages:

• the handout contains key points which will be the same for all students;
• the student has to listen actively to complete the notes;
• it spares student tedious note making and thereby should generate greater
concentration on the lecture;

255
• partially provides correct information but relies on the students completing
the information either from the lecture itself, or from further reading thus
removingthe passive element in a situation where all the information is
provided.

Examples:

• complete the plotting of a graph


• complete the labelling of a diagram (Note: complicated diagrams are best
provided on a handout rather than an OHT)
• under a heading, ask students to complete half a dozen lines of notes.
• incomplete calculations which the student must finish.
• complete a flow chart for a process.

Skeletal notes: literally the bare bones of a session (key statement, a definition, a
diagram) with gaps/spaces and omissions to be completed by the student. The
advantages are similar to the gapped handout.

Worksheets: questions, problems which the student must answer or solve.

o Laboratory sheet: a set of instructions to be followed.


o Briefing sheets: this could cover how the students are to approach a
case study, a role play or simulation.

Advantage:

• Essential information is given to all students and is available for reference.


• Information sheets: there are several areas of the institution where a guide
would be useful, e.g. administration of the course (term dates, semester

256
dates, assessment hand-in dates etc.); a teaching scheme for the module;
computer and library information - the list is a long one!
• BOOKS

A written or printed work consisting of pages glued or sewn together along


one side and bound in covers.

Advantages:

1.Books are portable, durable, infinitely re-printable, and require no batteries or


electricity.

2.Books can go with a person anywhere, and be read everywhere. One can
reference a book easily with tabs, marks, notes, underlines, or highlights. Books are
easily shared or transferred as gifts and loans.

3. Books are inexpensive and readily available nearly everywhere.

4.Books can be stored easily. Books can be translated easily. Books allow the reader
to set their own pace and flip back and forth between pages for easy reference to
other passages.

5.A book is often of immeasurable value in relation to its cost.

Disadvantages:

1. They can wear out.

2. They can become outdated and need to be updated.

3. They can be lost.

4. They cannot be understood in any language except ones they are available in.
257
5. Not everyone can read, so those who are illiterate cannot use them.

LEAFLET:

A printed sheet of paper, sometimes folded, containing information or


advertisement

258
Advantanges:

1. Lots of information, brief, colourful, mind and eye catching.


2.Relatively cheap to produce.
3. Can be left anywhere, in waiting rooms, post boxes, shopping centres.
4.Inclusion of phone number or address can lead to future contact.

Disadvantages:

1. People may think of the leaflets as junk mail and not pay attention to them.

2. Sometimes the leaflets can become outdated and the prices listed on the leaflets
may become invalid if the leaflet/mail is kept for a long period of time.

3. It can be time consuming to create a design for the leaflet and the information
that it contains therefore there may be a need to make sure that all of the leaflets
are printed accurately with no errors.

259
MAGAZINE

A periodical publication containing articles and illustrations, typically covering a


particular subject.

Advantages:

• More targeted: specific magazine titles appeal to specific target groups more
so than a newspaper advert.
• Long Life: magazines have a longer “life” than newspapers; they sit about in
doctor’s waiting rooms, magazine racks and with collectors.

260
• Pass-on readership – people may pass magazines on to their friends and
family which will increase exposure of your advert
• Status – some magazine titles are well respected in their field, so an
advertisement in these will increase your product/service’s prestige by
association.

Disadvantages:

• Deadlines months in advance – magazines often require the ads to be


submitted weeks or months in advance. This means you have to ensure your
marketing strategy is in place well in advance. It also means that testing
adverts can be a lengthy process!
• Cost of testing – colour artwork can be more expensive, so small tests are
often uneconomical
• Regional testing – can’t often be done as magazines area often national
• Graveyard – your ad runs the risk of being shovelled into the graveyard of
ads in the back of the magazine unless you pay for premium positioning.

Journals

The articles is about the journal as a written medium. For other uses , see journal
(disambiguation).

A journal (through French from Latin diurnalias , daily) has several related meanings

 A daily record of events or business ; a private journal usually referred to as


a diary
 A newspaper or other periodical , in the literal sense of one published each
day
261
 Many publications issued at stated intervals , such as magazines , or scholarly
journals , academic journals , or the record of the transactions of a society ,
are often called journals . although journal is some times used as a synonym
or “ magazine”, in academic use , a journal refers to a serious , scholarly
publication that is peer-reviewed. A non scholarly magazine written for an
educated audience about an industry or an area of professional activity is
usually called a professional magazine .

TYPES

There are mainly two types:

PUBLIC JOURNAL

A public journal is a record of day-by-day events in a parliament or congress. It is


also called minutes or records

BUSINESS AND ACCOUNTING

The term “journal” is also used in business :

 A journal is a book or computer file in which monetary transaction are


entered the first time they are processed. This journal lists transactions in
chronological sequence by date prior to a transfer of the same transactions
to a ledger in the process of bookkeeping
 Narrations or equivalent to a ship’s log, as a record of the daily run, such as
observations, weather changes, or other events of daily importance.

262
ADVANTAGES

 Quick distribution of scholarly research. There is no need to wait for months,


for example for an article to fit with the theme of a journal before it can be
published.
 Free world wide access for large audience. This way makes it possible for
people without connections to scholarly institutions to have access to results
of scholarly research.
 Greater visibility of scholarly output for both the researcher and the research
institutions. This can have a status heightening effect.
 Research shows that open access publications are cited more often on the
average than closed publications.
 Efficient achieving and availability
 Guaranteed sustainable storage and accessibility
DISADVANTAGES

• Prestige, faculties and management teams often base their evaluation of a


scholarly and the value of research on citation indices and the journal impact
factor of the scholarly journal in which the researcher published. This
mentality must change before open access can replace the traditional form
of publishing.
• Quality control. In contrast with the strictly regulated process of peer review,
quality control differs from one publication to the next in open access. The
quality control is especially low in repositories; some repositories also
contain dissertations as well as theses. The method of quality control in open
access journals vary greatly.

263
• APCs (Article processing charges). Open access journals often ask for APCs,
which are meant to be paid by the author or the scholarly institutions.
Consequently, new scholars (primarily) are not in the financial position to
publish in open access journals.
• Fewer options among journals with status or high impact factor.

264
UNIT – XIII

TRADITIONAL AIDS

265
TRADITIONAL AIDS

Traditional teaching is concerned with the teacher being the controller of the
learning environment. Power and responsibility are held by the teacher and they
play the role of instructor (in the form of lectures) and decision maker (in regards
to curriculum content and specific outcomes). They regard students as having
'knowledge holes' that need to be filled with information.

In short, the traditional teacher views that it is the teacher that causes
learning to occur learning is chiefly associated within the classroom and is
often competitive. The lesson's content and delivery are considered to be most
important and students master knowledge through drill and practice (such as rote
learning). Content need not be learned in context. The most common seating
arrangement used by the traditional

STUDENT-CENTERED TEACHING:

The teaching role in a student-centered learning environment is, at most,


one of facilitator and guide. The students are in control of their own learning and
the power and responsibility are the students concern. Learning may
e independent, collaborative, cooperative and competitive. The utilization and
processing of information is more important than the basic content. Learning takes

266
place in relative contexts and students are engaged in constructing their own
knowledge.

The teacher that utilises this method effectively is constantly on the move.
They may be engaged with the students as a classroom collective, individually or in
groups. Their involvement would include questioning, disciplining, guiding,
validating, monitoring, motivating, encouraging, suggesting, modelling and
clarifying.

PUPPET:

A puppet is an inanimate object or representational figure animated or


manipulated by an entertainer, who is called a puppeteer. It is used in puppetry,
which is a very ancient form of theatre. There are many different varieties of
puppets, and they are made of a wide range of materials, depending on their form
and intended use. They can be extremely complex or very simple in their
construction.

267
TYPES OF PUPPETS:

1. Hand Puppet
2. Rod Puppet
3. Shadow Puppet
4. String Puppet (Marionette)

PRINCIPLES

➢ Puppets plays must be based on action rather than words


➢ Keep plays short, puppet must be skillfully manipulated.
➢ Do not omit the possibilities of music and dancing as a part of the puppet
show
➢ Adapt the puppet show in all respect to your audience. The age, background
and tasks of the pupils must be related to the types of puppets used and to
play itself.
➢ Do not hesitate to adapt the puppet play. There is no value in sticking to the
text. If by departing from it you can add interest and points to play.

HAND PUPPETS:

The Hand Puppets are puppets controlled by one hand which occupies the
interior of the puppet. The Punch and Judy puppets are familiar examples of hand
puppets. Larger varieties of hand puppets place the puppeteer's hand in just the
puppet's head, controlling the mouth and head, and the puppet's body then hangs
over the entire arm. Other parts of the puppet (mainly arms, but special variants
exist with eyelids which can be manipulated; the mouth may also open and close)
268
are usually not much larger than the hand itself. A sock puppet is a particularly
simple type of hand puppet made from a sock.

ROD PUPPETS:

A Rod Puppet is a puppet constructed around a central rod secured to


the head. A large glove covers the rod and is attached to the neck of the
puppet. A rod puppet is controlled by the puppeteer moving the metal rods
269
attached to the hands of the puppet and by turning the central rod secured
to the head.

SHADOW PUPPET:

A shadow puppet is a cut-out figure held between a source of light and


a translucent screen. Shadow puppets can form solid silhouettes or be
decorated with various amounts of cut-out details. Colour can be
introduced into the cut-out shapes to provide a different dimension and
different effects can be achieved by moving the puppet (or light source) out
of focus

270
STRING PUPPETS (MARIONETTE)

Marionettes are "string puppets" are suspended and controlled by a


number of strings, plus sometimes a central rod attached to a control bar
held from above by the puppeteer. The control bar can be either a horizontal
or vertical one. Basic strings for operation are usually attached to the head,
back, hands (to control the arms) and just above the knee (to control the
legs). This form of puppetry is complex and sophisticated to operate,
requiring greater manipulative control than a finger, glove or rod puppet.
The puppet play performed by the Von Trapp children with Maria in the
Sound of Music is a marionette show.

271
ADVANTAGES OF PUPPETS

 The craft puppetry is an effective aid to learning


 It develops co-operation among children
 Children develop their imagination by providing the puppets with speech.
 Children increase their manual dexterity through manipulation.
 Puppet playing helps children express themselves more freely because they
are separated from the audience by a serene.

DISADVANTAGES

 It needs special training for manipulation of puppets and marionettes to


convey ideas.
 Ideas conveys through puppet show can be misinterpreted by the audiences.
 It require to keep in mind the age, background and task of the student
 Puppets play with too much action takes away the attention of the audience.

272
UNIT -XIV
ACTIVITY TEACHING
AIDS

273
ACTIVITY TEACHING AIDS

There are certain learning situations in which student’s participation through direct
experiences can be easily incorporated and these are called Activity Aids.

There four important activity teaching aids.

1. Field trips
2. Demonstrations
3. Experiments and
4. Dramatization.

1.FIELD TRIP: A field trips is defined as a planned visit of a group of students outside
the normal classroom to get the first hand educational experience.

274
Field trips are not the pleasure trips rather they are educative and informative trips
and should be planned in the way only

DEFINITIONS

1. “Any teaching and learning excursion outside the classroom”.


2. A group excursion for the purpose of first hand observation, as to a museum,
the woods, or a historic place.
3. A trip by a scholar or researcher to gather data first hand, as to a geological,
archeological, anthropological, or other site.
4. Field trips can be considered as one of the three avenues through which
science can be taught-through formal classroom teaching, practical work and
field trips

PURPOSES

❖ To make a connection between reality and theory.


❖ can be used as an introduction to unit or a culminating activity
❖ To provide an authentic learning experience.
❖ Exciting, students eager to meet and interact with others in outer areas,
memorable life experience
❖ They can experience all five sense e.g., see, touch, feel, smell and taste
❖ Students remember the field trips because they learn new by using different
methodology.
❖ A valuable tool in the extension agent’s educational tool box.
❖ Provides participants with firsthand experience related to the topic or
concept being discussed in the programme.

275
❖ Provide unique opportunities for learning that are not available within the
four walls of a classroom.

PREPARATION FOR FIELD TRIP

➢ Have a sound pedagological for the field trip. Students should be prepared
for learning outdoors, because of the pre-trip activities you have done.
Parents should be informed of where you are going and what mode of
transportation and of the number of adults per students will be along. Visit
the site in advance and find any possible danger areas.
➢ Discuss with the total group the organization of the program, specified
objectives and activities to be carried out.
➢ Prefer to have activities for the students to carry out at different places at the
site.

PLANNING AND ORGANIZING A SUCCESSFUL FIELD TRIP

Pre-trip stage:

 The administration component.


 Involves all the steps taken by the field trip organizer to arrange the logistics
of the field trip.
 Securing permission from appropriate administration, organizing
transportation to and from the field trip location, contacting the field trip
location to verify the schedule and activities and obtaining signed permission
slips from parents/ guardians of youth attending the field trip.
 Planned and effectively organized, Check for school/board policy on field
trips, students to supervisor ratios, fund raising, involve the students from
the plan of action as much as possible, involve school principal and vice-
principal (authorities) and management (private sector).
276
 Prepare a checklist to ensure that all task are completed (e.g., booking
facilities and transportation, parental notifications, medical forms,
supervision, safety precautions, emergency information and have the school
administration sign the checklist once completed.
 Be sure to visit the site ahead of time in order to plan for safety, resources
and resources personnel facility.
 Plan on route activities to enrich their experience during the field trip.
 Provide parents with rationalization for the field trip and trip itinerary.

The instruction component

 The pre trip stage is critical on preparing participants for the experience.
Participants, especially youth, often have high levels of anxiety when going
on a field trip. Often a field trip is the first experience a person has with a
particular location.
 Pass out permission slips and an information sheet for students including
due dates for money and signed forms and the cost and details of your trip.
 Collect money and keep a careful accounting.
 Create student groups.
 Create a lesson for students to complete in conjunction with the field trip.
 Work sheet with questions to answer while at the destination, an essay that
they must complete upon return or some other activity.
 On field trip day, get to school early. Make sure you have all required forms
ready to go. If you need to get lunches from the cafeteria, make sure you
have these also. Debrief concerning the field trip the next day after you
return. Talk about the group impressions and what students learned.

277
TRIP STAGE

1. The role of the participants

 It is accomplished by establishing a field trip agenda and sharing this agenda


and field trip objectives with the participants. It starts with a brief amount of
free time for the individuals to explore the field trip site on their own.
 A whole group guided tour: During the tour , the organizer can point out
specific items that relate to the educational goals of the field trip.
 A small group learning activity : working in pre assigned groups of two to
three participants can complete an activity such as a short worksheet .

THE ROLE OF THE ORGANIZER

 Throughout the field trip , the organizer should be actively engaged in


teaching activities. Should also initiate discussion and function more as
facilitators and guides rather then directors, which can increase student
interest and learning .

POST TRIP STAGE

 Debriefing activity: participants should be encouraged to share and discuss


their experiences. They should also be given an opportunity to identify
problems encountered during the field trip
 Culminating activity : this activity should give participants an opportunity to
apply a content knowledge they gained during the field trip.
 Field trips are not the pleasure trips rather they are educative and
informative trips and should be planned in the way only.

278
TYPES OF FIELD TRIPS:

Depending on the place of place of visit and its duration, there are four types.

❖ Local school trips: It’s a trip within the school. Eg: Taking students to the
library.

❖ Community trip: It’s a trip made to nearly place. Eg. A trip to a local zoo, local
park and garden, local museum, etc.

279
❖ Educational trip: It’s the trip made to a distant place requiring more than
one day. Eg. A trip to far off historical city.

AIMS OF FIELD TRIP:

• To get the first hand experience and direct contact with the things and systems
of real life related to textual material to classroom instruction.
• To arouse interest in instructional unit.

The purpose of the trip is usually observation for education, non-experimental


research or to provide students with experiences outside their everyday activities.

280
FOLLOW UP AFTER TRIP:

A well planned follow up session after the trip increases it educational value.

Advantages of field trip:

✓ Field trips are valuable aids to what students curiosity about natural and made
processes and objects.
✓ Field trips develop proper attitudes and social skills among children.

Limitations of field trips:

✓ A field trip can be only an occational activity.


✓ They can be expensive and many schools can only ill afford such efforts.

2.DEMONSTRATIONS:

It is a performance to show a process or activity to others. The correct use of


various devices and instruments are to be demonstrated to the students for proper
handling by them.

DEFINITION

“A demonstration is an activity to show “how” and providing proofs for a process


or happening”

Eg: to show how to give N.G tube feeding

Purposes

 To demonstrate experiment and procedures


 To revise or review procedures to met a special situation
 To demonstrate a procedure at the bed side
281
 To introduce a new procedure
 To teach a patient about the procedure

STAGES:

Preplanning: The teacher must plan the sequence in which he will inject in
his commentary and verbal information.
Rehearsal: The teacher must try out the demonstration for his own sake.
Performance: It should be slick to the point and with proper explanation of
key concept.

282
CHARACTERISTICS

 before the demonstration keep everything ready and be well organized


 place the pieces of equipments for demonstration high enough for
everybody to observe
 present the information sequentially stressing the main ideas
 let the demonstration proceed smoothly without interruptions
 ask questions from the students regarding what they have observed
 if the students have not understood certain ideas during the demonstration
, the do it again
 summaries the main points after demonstration
 allow students to perform after demonstration is over

FOLLOW UP:

The teacher must ask questions and discuss what has been observed by students.

Advantages:

Good for acquiring and perfecting operational skills.


Engage students attention and operation.
Correlate theory with practical.
Enable the learner to do step by step the procedure in a systemic way.
Monitoring the learners is easy for the teacher.

Disadvantage

 Teacher can supervise less number of students in a single laboratory session


 More time consuming

283
 Expensive in terms of time , personal and equipment.
 Feasibility of acquiring competence is difficult

3. EXPERIMENTS:

It is a learning activity in which students collect and interpret the observations using
measuring instruments to reach some conclusions. The results of the experiments
should be based upon cause and effect of relationships and conclusions from the
observations.

Definition

“It is a learning activity in which students collect and interpret the observations
using measuring instruments to reach some conclusions. The results of the
experiments are invariably used as instructional aids as the encourage learning by
doing.”

Eg: Verifying Boyle’s low of gases. Finding relationship between family size and
literacy.

STEPS OF EXPERIMENT

1. Object of the experiment.


2. Apparatus required
3. Procedure or methodology
4. Observation for data
5. Treatment of observation or data. i.e-computations to be used
6. Results or conclusion
7. Precautions
8. Ideas for further work
284
Advantages:

➢ The teacher can individually attend students.


➢ Make students regular, patient and punctual.
➢ Build scientifically attitudes, observational power and ability to draw the
conclusions.

5. DRAMATIZATION:

It is a very potential methods of keeping the classroom instruction lively and


interesting.

285
Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance. The term comes
from a Greek word meaning “ action”, which is derived from “to do”.

286
TYPES:

➢ Role playing: The players act out the characters based upon their own
knowledge and impressions of a small incident. This act requires no script
and rehearsal. Eg. Acting out a family scene.
➢ Play lets: The players stage a small play lasting for ten to fifteen minutes with
a script preparation and costumes. Eg. Story of snow white and seven dwarfs.
➢ Pageant: The players present a colorful enactment of a phase of history with
the period costumes. Eg. the story of Indian freedom struggle being staged.
➢ Pantlomne: The players present a scene in which characters act out loudly
with expressions and gestures but do not speak. Eg. a street scene in which
objects and some characters are shown by gestures
➢ Tableaux: The players neither talk nor they act but they only pose different
actions. Eg. a factory scene with workers action posed with commentary from
the background and spotlight shifting from posed with commentary from the
background and spotlight shifting from one pose to another.

ADVANTAGES:

Makes learning a pleasure.


Makes student creative, sensitive and alert.
Very helpful in nursing education in selected situations.

287
UNIT – XV

ADMINISTRATION
OFAVAIDS

288
ADMINISTRATION OF AV AIDS

There are two main approaches

1.Centralised

2. De-centralised

STAFFING

1.Projectionist

2.Technician

3.Artist

FACILITIES REQUIRED

1.Projected room

2.Darkening facilities

3.Displaying and working place

4.Graphic aid room

5.Self Instructional facilities

6. Dustproof, sound proof, adequate spacing

289
FUNCTIONS OF AV AIDS CENTRE

1.To assist with subject matter specialist with the selection and evaluation the
material

2. Purchase and produce materials recommended

3. To categorize all material all issue the list of o purchase repair and maintain all
equipment

5. To inspect repair and maintain equipment

Budget

For repairs and replacement and maintenance regardless of size of the


school system there must be center location where teacher can go for assistance
material and equipment.

STAFFING

290
PROFESSIONAL STAFFING TEAM

PROFESSIONAL STAFFING TEAM

INTRODUCTION

The managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure


through proper and effective selection, appraisal and development of the
personnels to fill the roles assigned to the employers/workforce.

DEFINITION

According to Theo Haimann, “Staffing pertains to recruitment, selection,


development and compensation of subordinates.”

291
Staffing Function

1. Staffing is an important managerial function- Staffing function is the most


important managerial act along with planning, organizing, directing and
controlling. The operations of these four functions depend upon the
manpower which is available through staffing function.
2. Staffing is a pervasive activity- As staffing function is carried out by all
mangers and in all types of concerns where business activities are carried
out.
3. Staffing is a continuous activity- This is because staffing function continues
throughout the life of an organization due to the transfers and promotions
that take place.
4. The basis of staffing function is efficient management of
personnel’s- Human resources can be efficiently managed by a system or
292
proper procedure, that is, recruitment, selection, placement, training and
development, providing remuneration, etc.
5. Staffing helps in placing right men at the right job. It can be done effectively
through proper recruitment procedures and then finally selecting the most
suitable candidate as per the job requirements.
6. Staffing is performed by all managers depending upon the nature of
business, size of the company, qualifications and skills of managers, etc. In
small companies, the top management generally performs this function. In
medium and small-scale enterprise, it is performed especially by the
personnel department.

293
Professional staff checking indent

294
BIBLIOGRAPHY

295
BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS:

1. K.Tryphena Sheeba, “Communication and Educational technology”, 1st

edition, Frontline publications, Hyd, Page No:-129-175.

2. B.T. Basavanthappa [2003] The text book of Nursing Education, 1stEdition ,


published by Jaypee Brothers. Page no 587-645.
3. Khanna-D 1993 “technology of Teaching Educational by”,Kuoada house, New
Delhi.
4. K.P. Neeraj a [2003] Text book of Nursing Education, 1stEdition , published
by Jaypee brothers page no 206-229.
5. Loretta Heidgarken [2008] “Teaching and learning in schools of Nursing, 3rd
edition, Published by Konark .
6. Clinical Teaching in Nursing [2005] Ruthwhite& Christine Ewas, published by
champan& halt, U.K.
7. Elsa Santambi Devi [2006] Manipal Manual of Nursing Education, published
by Jain , Newdehli, India.
8. B.Sankaranaryanan ,Learning& Teaching Nursing, [2009] 3rd edition,
published by Nagesh Rao&team.
9. JJ Guilbert , educational hand book for health personnel’s , 6th edition , New
Delhi , CBC publishers 2002
10.Parker ME. A text book of nursing education 1st edition New Delhi ,Jaypee
brothers 2003
11.Paramilaar A. nursing communication and educational technology , 1st
edition Bangalore , jaypee publications 2004

296
12.White R, Ewas . clinical teaching in nursing 1st edition United Kingdom,
champan and halt, 2005 .
13.Laximi K communication and educational technology 2nd edition Hyderabad
,Florence publishers , 2005
14.Sharma DK. Communication and educational technology , 3rd edition New
Delhi, Jaypee publication , 2006
15.Devi ES. Manipal manual of nursing education , 1st edition jain ; 2006
16.Heidgerkan L. Teaching and Learning I schools of nursing 3rdedition , New
Delhi, Konark publications 2008
17.Bhaskara Raj DE. Text book of nursing education 1stedition , Bangalore ,
Emmess; 2013

JOURNALS:

Journal of Teacher Education.

1. Journal of science Teacher Education.


2. Journal of science Education & Technology.
3. Journal of Indian Education.
4. Journal of progressive Education.

WEBSITES:

1. www.pubmed.com
2. www.answer.com
3. www.google.com
4. www.medline.com
5. www.nurseonline.com
6. www.scholarly.org

297
7. www.naandi.org
8. www.indianjournals.com
9. www.jriem.com/
10.www.isteonline.com
11.www.blogspot.com.

12.www.scribd.com

13.www.wikipedia.com.

14.www.tpub.com.

298

You might also like