Pattern Recognition 47 (2014) 2673–2688

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Pattern Recognition
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pr

A review of biometric technology along with trends and prospects

J.A. Unar a,b,n, Woo Chaw Seng a,nn, Almas Abbasi a
a
Faculty of Computer Science & Information Technology, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Department of Information Technology, Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering, Science & Technology, Nawabshah, Sindh, Pakistan

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Identity management through biometrics offer potential advantages over knowledge and possession
Received 9 February 2013 based methods. A wide variety of biometric modalities have been tested so far but several factors
Received in revised form paralyze the accuracy of mono-modal biometric systems. Usually, the analysis of multiple modalities
14 November 2013
offers better accuracy. An extensive review of biometric technology is presented here. Besides the mono-
Accepted 27 January 2014
modal systems, the article also discusses multi-modal biometric systems along with their architecture
Available online 5 February 2014
and information fusion levels. The paper along with the exemplary evidences highlights the potential for
Keywords: biometric technology, market value and prospects.
Biometrics & 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Fingerprint
Face
Iris
Retina
Behavioral biometrics
Gait
Voice
Soft biometrics
Multi-modal biometrics

1. Introduction password is divulged to an unauthorized person?”, “How many pass-

The ever increasing criminal and terrorist acts in public places,
government/private properties resulted in chaotic scenarios thereby
making the existing surveillance systems questionable – “How
effective is the surveillance system to prevent unlawful activities?”,
“Does the system guarantee the required level of security?”, “Does the
system distinguish an unauthorized user from an impostor reliably?”,
“Is the system user friendly?”. In early stages, the identity manage-
ment systems relied on cryptographic methods requiring the users to
remember a secret text (password) or keep something with them
(token, card) or a combination of both to prove their identity.
Consequently, the population is flooded with passwords and tokens
to gain access to required resources for instance; access control,
computer logins, e-mail checking, making bank transactions, border
control, welfare disbursements etc. However, the users challenged
the efficacy of such systems through the queries such as, “What
happens, if I forget my password/token?”, “What will be the conse-
quences, if I lost my card?”, “What type of loss I have to bear, if my
n
Corresponding author at: University of Malaya, Artificial Intelligence Depart-
ment, Faculty of Computer Science & Information Technology, 50603 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
nn
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: jawedunar@siswa.um.edu.my,
jawedunar@yahoo.com (J.A. Unar), cswoo@um.edu.my (W.C. Seng),
alma@siswa.um.edu.my (A. Abbasi).
words I have to remember?”, “How many cards I have to keep in my
wallet?”, “How does the system know who is requesting access to
particular resources?” and finally, “Is there any alternative which is
more convenient and reliable?”. As an answer, the research commu-
nity proposed the idea of human identification based on physiologi-
cal or behavioral attributes of individuals very often termed as
“Biometrics”. Computer science describes biometrics as automatic
recognition of individuals through their unique physiological (finger-
print, face, iris etc.) or behavioral (voice, gait, signature etc.) attributes
[1,2]. Although biometrics is not the perfect solution but it offers
several advantages over knowledge and possession based approaches
in the way that there is no need to remember anything, biometric
attributes cannot be lost, transferred or stolen, offer better security
due to fact that these attributes are very difficult to forge and require
the presence of genuine user while granting access to particular
resources. Inspired from the development of Bertillon's system in
1883 to Sir John Galton's elementary fingerprint recognition system
in 1903, the research community devoted their efforts to discover
several biometric modalities. Any physiological or behavioral attri-
bute can qualify for being a biometric trait unless it satisfies the
criteria such as (i) universality: possessed by all humans, (ii) distinc-
tiveness: discriminative amongst the population, (iii) Invariance: the
selected biometric attribute must exhibit invariance against time,
(iv) collectability: easily collectible in terms of acquisition, digitization
and feature extraction from the population, (v) performance: pertains

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.patcog.2014.01.016
0031-3203 & 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2674 J.A. Unar et al. / Pattern Recognition 47 (2014) 2673–2688
Fig. 1. Classification of biometric modalities.
to the availability of resources and imposition of real constraints in
terms of data collection and guarantee to achieve high accuracy,
(vi) acceptability: willingness of population to submit that attribute to
recognition system and (vii) circumvention: prone to imitation or
mimicry in case of fraudulent attacks against the recognition system
[1]. Based on the criteria, several distinctive human characteristics are
identified and tested. Instead of the broad categories (physiological,
behavioral and soft attributes), for convenience the physiological
modalities can be further sub-divided into different sub-categories
according to their respective position in human body such as (i) hand
region attributes, (ii) facial region attributes, (iii) ocular and periocular
region attributes, (iv) behavioral attributes, and (v) medico-chemical
attributes. The sub-division is illustrated in Fig. 1.
The article is written with an intention to provide an in-depth
overview of biometric technology to the readers. In contrast to
several reviews on the subject, this work provides additional
information which is lacking in other review articles, such as
i) The paper provides details about each biometric modality
along with prominent recognition techniques and public data
sets available to the researchers.
ii) The article contains a rough quantitative analysis of individual
techniques in terms of accuracy.
iii) The paper discusses multimodal biometrics in detail which has
not been well covered in other review articles on the subject.
iv) The paper contains current market statistics along with future
prospects for biometric based identification and authentication.
Rest of the article comprises of four sections, whereas, Section 2
provides basic concepts consisting composition, classification, opera-
tional scenarios and performance issues related to biometric systems.
Section 3 discusses biometric modalities as per aforementioned
classification along with advantages, disadvantages, matching tech-
niques and available data sources for researchers. Section 4 throws
light on the limitations of mono-modal biometric systems followed
by an overview of multi-modal biometric systems. Finally, Section 5
presents the recent market trend and thorough analysis with
examples towards adoption of biometric solutions followed by
concluding remarks.
2. Biometric systems
A biometric system is a pattern recognition system which
matches the salient or discriminatory features of acquired image
(probe image) with the features of pre-stored images (gallery
image). For doing so, every biometric system comprises of (i)
Image acquisition module: this acquires the image of a biometric
trait and submits it to the system for further processing, (ii)
Feature extraction module: processes the acquired image thereby
extracting the salient or discriminatory features, (iii) Matcher
module: matches the extracted features of probe image with those
of gallery image to obtain a match score whereas, an embedded
decision making module verifies or rejects the claimed identity
based on the match score and (iv) Database module: contains the
digital representation of previously acquired samples very often
termed as templates. Fig. 2 illustrates the composition of a typical
biometric system.
2.1. Modes of operation
A biometric system operates in one of the following modes:
2.1.1. Verification
This is very often referred as positive recognition. The user after
submitting the biometric signature to the system claims a parti-
cular identity through a PIN, login name, etc. In response, the
recognition system validates or voids user's claim by making a 1:1
 J.A. Unar et al. / Pattern Recognition 47 (2014) 2673–2688
Fig. 2. Composition of biometric system [3].
(one-to-one) comparison between the submitted biometric signa-
ture and enrolled biometric signature associated with that parti-
cular identity. The applications include computer logins, ATMs,
e-commerce, access control and user authentication on mobile
devices [2].
2.1.2. Identification
In this mode, the system tries to recognize the user by
comparing the submitted biometric signature to all the enrolled
signatures in the database by making 1:N (one-to-many) compar-
isons without specific identity claim from the user. Identification is
a crucial component in negative recognition where the user denies
of holding a particular identity. In fact, negative recognition
prevents an individual from using multiple identities. The applica-
tions include issuance of ID cards, passports, driving licenses,
border crossing and welfare disbursements [1,2].
2.1.3. Screening
This is an extension to identification where the biometric
system assures that a particular individual does not belong to a
watch list of identities by performing 1:N (one-to-many) compar-
isons throughout the database. Example applications include air-
port security, surveillance activities, public place and public events
security etc. [4]
2.2. Performance measurements
The performance or accuracy of a biometric system is data
dependent usually influenced by environmental and performance
factors. The environmental factors include temperature, humidity
and illumination conditions around the system, whereas, the
performance factors include capturing good quality images, com-
position of target user population, time interval between the
enrollment and verification phases and robustness of recognition
algorithms [2]. However, being a pattern recognition system, the
accuracy of a biometric system is usually measured in terms of
sample acquisition and performance errors as described below
[1,2]:
2.2.1. Sample acquisition errors
Environmental conditions surrounding the system give rise to
acquisition errors. For instance, (i) Failure to enroll error: which is
the percentage measure of times when the system rejects the
provided samples due to poor quality or noisy images and (ii)
Failure to capture error: that refers to the inability of imaging
sensors to acquire the valid biometric sample. Very often, such
error prevails amongst the systems requiring impression based
imaging of the modalities automatically. Normally, this error
occurs due to dirty surface of the imaging sensors.
2.2.2. Performance errors
These errors are used to measure the accuracy of biometric
systems in real environment. A brief description is given below:
2675
2.2.2.1. False match rate (FMR) or false accept rate (FAR). This is the
percentage measure of invalid matches, also referred as Type – I
error. It is the number of times (in percentage) the system
recognizes unauthorized users as genuine users. For a robust
biometric system, this error must be as low as possible.
2.2.2.2. False non – match rate (FNMR) or false reject rate (FRR). This
is the measure of times (in percentage) the system recognizes an
authorized user as an impostor. It is the percentage measure of
rejecting valid inputs, also referred as Type – II error. From user's
convenience point of view, this number must be low as much as
possible.
2.2.2.3. Equal error rate (EER). It refers to the point where false
accept rate (FAR) and false reject rate (FRR) equals each other. This
is obtained through the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC)
which is a plot of FAR against the FRR and a trade-off between the
false accepts and rejects rates. This trade-off refers to the function
of the threshold value. If design of the system tolerates the input
variations and noise, the FAR increases and vice versa. Indeed,
equal error rate (ERR) is the measure of accuracy of a biometric
system. Nevertheless, our viewpoint considers sample acquisition
errors more important than the performance errors due to the fact
that they have a significant impact on the accuracy of biometric
systems in terms that good quality images provide better accuracy.
Moreover, the accuracy can be increased by decreasing such errors.
This can be achieved through the selection of appropriate imaging
sensors along with the development of robust artifact removal
algorithms.
3. Biometric modalities
This section provides an in-depth overview of different biometric
modalities as per the classification provided in Fig. 1 above.
3.1. Hand region modalities
Human hand contains rich texture information that provided
the foundations for early recognition systems based on finger-
prints. In addition to fingerprints, several attributes have been
identified and tested such as palmprint, hand geometry, finger
knuckle print, finger nail bed and hand vein pattern. However, all
the hand based attributes are an extension to fingerprint technol-
ogy. A fingerprint recognition system uses the texture of ridges
and valleys present on the fingertips [2,5] whereby the ridge
endings (minutiae points) perform the recognition task and the
ridge flow classifies the fingerprints into one of the five categories
such as arch, tented arch, left loop, right loop and whorl [6].
An automated fingerprint recognition systems uses level 1, level
2 or level 3 features (refer Table 1). However, most of the
commercially available systems use level 2 features or minutiae
points for recognition whereas level 3 features offer robust
recognition against poor quality or latent fingerprint images [7].
An automated palmprint recognition system considers the texture
2676 J.A. Unar et al. / Pattern Recognition 47 (2014) 2673–2688
Table 1
Summary of hand region modalities.
Modality Feature Set
Fingerprint Ridge flow, ridge pattern, singular points, ridge skeleton, ridge
flow, ridge ending, ridge contours, ridge kernel, orientation
field, island, spur, crossover, learned feature, sweat pores, dots
& incipient ridges
Palmprint Ridges, singular points, minutiae points, principal lines,
wrinkles, palm texture, mean, variance, moments, center of
gravity & density, spatial dispersivity, L1-norm energy
Hand geometry Length & width of fingers, aspect ratio of finger or palm,
length, thickness & area of hand, hand contour, hand
coordinates and angles, Zernike moments, skin folds and
crease pattern
Hand vein Vein bifurcation & ending
pattern
Finger knuckle Texture of lines, orientation, magnitude
print
Fig. 3. Hand region modalities: (a) fingerprint [6] (b) palmprint, (c) hand geometry, (d) hand vein pattern [20], (e) finger knuckle print.
consisting of principal lines and secondary creases present on the
palmar region of human hand [8,9] thereby acquiring the low and
high quality images. For matching, the recognition system extracts
ridges, singular points and minutiae points from high quality
image, principal lines, wrinkles and palm texture from low quality
image. In terms of matching algorithms (refer Table 1), the system
applies line [10], sub-space [11], local and global statistics based
approaches [12,13]. A hand geometry system takes into account
the length, width, aspect ratio of fingers or palm as well as length,
thickness, area, skin folds and crease patterns of human hand
[14,15]. A finger knuckle print system (although new in biometric
modalities) utilizes the texture of lines present on the outer part of
the fingers near phalangeal joint [16–18] whereas the finger nail
bed refers to the measurement of the distance between parallel
dermal structures present under the finger nail [19]. A hand vein
recognition system utilizes the vein bifurcations and endings
beneath the skin of human hand [20]. Most of the image acquisi-
tion methods in all the hand based modalities are impression
based requiring optical, thermal, silicon or ultrasonic imaging
sensors [20–22]. However, some exceptions are hand geometry
systems that use a camera to acquire 3D image of human hand
[22] and hand vein recognition system that images the vein
structure beneath the skin thereby exposing hand to near infrared
light [20]. Nevertheless, fingerprinting technology occupies a
prominent place in other hand based biometrics due to the longest
serving method and higher degree of uniqueness as well as high
acceptance. And this makes it a suitable choice for verification as
well as recognition applications. On the contrary, other hand based
modalities suit to verification task only [2,20,23]. The potential
Recognition Techniques Datasets
k-nearest neighbor [24], FFT [25], GA [26,27], DTW [28], ACO CASIA, Sfinge, FVC
[29], Graph matching [30,31], Neural networks [32–34], SVM 2004 DB1, FVC
[34,35], HMMs [36], Bayesian [37], Adaboost [6], Fuzzy logic 2006, NUERO
[38,39], Corner detection [40], Decision trees [41] technology
Edge maps [42–46], PCA [47,48], LDA [48–50], ICA [48,51], DCT CASIA, PolyU, IIT
[52], Zernike moments [53], Hu invariant moments [54], Mean Delhi
[55,56], HMM [21], Directional line detector [55], Wavelets
[57–60], LBP [61], SVM [62]
Correlation co-efficient [63], Absolute distance [64,65], Bosphorus
Mahalanobis distance [66,67], Euclidean distance [68], Bayes
classifier [69], Mean alignment error [70], Hamming distance
[22], GMM [22,71], L1 cosine distance [65], SVM [72]
Adaptive thresholding [73], Morphological gradient operator —
[74], PCA [75], LDA [76], FFT [72], Feature point distance [73],
Vein triangulation and shape [20], SVM [77], SIFT [78], LBP
[79], Curvelet transform [80]
Localized Radon Transform [81], PCA [81], Gabor filters [82], PolyU (FKP)
BLPOC [17], LDA [82], OE-SIFT [83], Phase congruency [18], ICA database
[82]
advantage of low cost imaging sensors and small template size
makes hand region attributes a favorable choice for a variety of
applications as compared to other biometric signatures. Conver-
sely, distorted images, physical contact with imaging device, high
user cooperation, hand diseases (arthritis) and natural imaging
contaminants (dead cell, scars, cuts, wet and dry skin) as well as
dirty or oily surface of imaging sensors are some of the challenges
associated with hand based biometrics [2,20,23]. Comparatively,
fingerprint technology occupies the top layer amongst all other
hand region modalities due to diverse applications whereas all
other attributes well suit the verification tasks. However, it is
known that the artificial gummy fingers and recognition from
latent fingerprint images challenge the authenticity of fingerprint
recognition systems. Nevertheless, the recent trend indicates more
interest in vein technology as compared to other hand based
modalities. This is due to the hardness of vein pattern against
forgery. Table 1 displays feature sets, promising recognition
techniques and public data sources available to each hand based
characteristic. Fig. 3 displays all the hand region modalities.
3.2. Facial region modalities
Human facial region has been an interesting topic for researchers
due to the fact that human face is the most natural biometric trait
used to recognize fellow beings since centuries [2]. Although being
the most natural biometric characteristic, the non-linear structure of
human face makes it complex pattern recognition problem as well as
an active area of research in computer vision applications [84]. As a
 J.A. Unar et al. / Pattern Recognition 47 (2014) 2673–2688
Table 2
Summary of facial region modalities.
Modality Feature Set
Face Distance between eyes, mouth, side of nose, entire
face image, corner points, contours, gender, goatee,
roundness of face, edge maps, pixel intensity, local
and global curvatures
Ear Shape Size, length, width & height of helix rim, triangular
fossa, anti-helix, concha, lobule, step edge magnitude, transform [116,117], GA [118], PCA [119,120], Active
color, curvature, contours, edge information, shape
indices, registered color, range image pair
Tongue print Width, thickness, curvature of tongue contour, cracks, 2D Gabor filter [93,139]
texture
result, the research community invested considerable efforts in the
development of robust automated face recognition systems.
An automated face recognition system establishes the identity
of an individual based on the computation of 2D or 3D features
(refer Table 2) [84,85]. We acknowledge that the 3D facial
recognition is the new trend proposed to rectify the basic
problems associated with 2D facial recognition such as image
degradation, poor alignment and movement of head and facial
expressions. However, these systems cannot guarantee reliable
identification in presence of artifacts such as application of
cosmetics and plastic surgery. Moreover, a person's face may
change or be changed over time which may have a significant
impact on the accuracy of such systems. In addition, the expensive
imaging hardware is another factor which limits the use of such
systems. In order to develop robust face recognition systems, the
research community proposed the idea of human recognition
based on facial thermograph which shows the heat radiation
patterns of human face due to the presence of vascular structure
beneath the human skin [86]. Few studies [87,88] claimed to
achieve better accuracy in terms of face detection, localization and
segmentation against the facial images acquired in visible light.
Besides human face, human ear, teeth and tongue also qualify the
criteria for being the biometric modalities. An automated ear
recognition system takes into account the shape of human ear to
establish the identity based on 2D or 3D features (refer Table 2)
[89,90]. This includes different imaging techniques such as taking the
photograph of ear, pushing the ear against a flat surface to get an ear
mark, taking the thermograph of ear and measuring the acoustic
transfer function of a sound wave projected on human ear [90–92].
Identification based on tongue print is relatively new in biometric
modalities. The potential advantages associated with tongue print
include protection from external environment and its squirm which
proves the liveliness of the subject. In order to establish identity, a
tongue print identification system uses the geometrical features such
as width, thickness and curvature of tongue contour, crack features
and texture features of human tongue [93]. The conformity of tongue
print as biometric attribute requires large scale studies. In terms of
dental biometrics, due to no public deployment of automated dental
biometric systems and extensive usage of the same in postmortem
and forensic applications, we consider dental biometrics beyond the
scope of this paper. The comparative analysis of all the facial region
modalities reveal almost the common advantages such as, non-
intrusive and contactless image acquisition thereby resulting in the
higher public acceptance. Parts from advantages, the challenges
include sensitiveness to illumination conditions, pose variations,
ageing conditions and poor recognition accuracy in presence of
partial or full occlusions. In order to overcome these challenges
and to achieve better recognition accuracy, the research community
2677
Recognition Techniques Datasets
PCA [95,96], LDA [97], Self-organizing map & FERET, AR faces, MIT, CVL, XM2VTS, Yale
convolutional network [98], Template Matching [99], face, Yale face B, 3D RMA, CASIA,
LEMs [100], EBGM [101], DCP [102], LBP [103], CSML GavabDB
[104], SVM [105], DBN [106–108], NMF [109], SIFT
[110,111], HMM [112], HOG-EBGM [113]
Vornoi distance graphs [114], LDA [115], Force field XM2VTS, UND, UCR, USTB (Dataset 1,
Dataset 2, Dataset 3, Dataset 4), WPUT-
shape model [121], NMF [122], Gabor filters [123–125], DB, IIT Delhi, IIT Kanpur, ScFace, YSU,
ICA [126], Wavelets [127], SIFT [128,129], SURF [130], NCKU, UBEAR
LBP [131–138], Moment invariants [133], SVM [134],
ICP [135], Mesh-PCA [136], Local surface patch [137]
—
suggested the utilization of 3D features instead of 2D features
[90,94]. However, due to the challenges stated above as well as
medium level of distinctiveness, facial recognition systems are very
much prone to recognition errors. Table 2 provides an overview of
facial region modalities in terms of feature sets, prominent recogni-
tion techniques and public data sources. All the facial region
modalities have been presented in Fig. 4.
3.3. Ocular region modalities
Human ocular region attained considerable attention of research-
ers in the past decade due to the fact that this region possesses most
accurate, highly reliable, well protected, stable and almost impossible
to forge biometric signatures, for instance, retina, iris and sclera vein
pattern. A retinal identification system takes into account the unique
and invariant structure of blood veins present on human retina to
establish the identity [140,141]. In fact, a retinal scan system estab-
lishes the identity by examining either the landmarks (position and
bifurcations of blood vessels) [142] or measuring the area of
reference (fovea, optic disk) [143]. An automated iris recognition
system uses the unique and stable texture consisting of crypts,
furrows, corona and freckles of human iris [144,145]. Consecutively,
sclera based identification system utilizes the vascular pattern of
blood vessels present in the sclera region of human eye [146].
However, a few studies talked about the authenticity of sclera
vasculature as a biometric characteristic [146,147]. Consequently,
the conformity requires large scale studies. Although the established
traits (retina, iris) belong to the same region but utilize different
imaging procedures. For example, retinal vascular pattern that can
only be imaged by exposing the human eye to infra-red light whereas
iris texture can be acquired either by illuminating human eye with
near infra-red light or in visible wavelength light. Comparatively, iris
occupies a prominent position in ocular biometric signatures due to
noninvasive image acquisition and clear visibility at a distance [144]
whereas the intrusive imaging procedure of retinal scan systems
restrict their use to military purposes only instead of large scale
deployment in public places. Besides imaging iris texture in NIR light,
the ocular biometric researchers attempted to perform recognition
on iris texture acquired in visible light, at a distance and on the move
[148–152]. However, the development of synthetic iris images from
stored iris codes [153] opened a new debate in iris template
protection. Nevertheless, higher uniqueness, stability over time,
highly secure and hardness to forge makes ocular biometrics a
suitable choice for verification as well as recognition tasks. Conver-
sely, sensitivity to illumination, higher degree of cooperation from
the subjects, high cost of imaging sensors and reflections from
ambient light sources are some of the challenges associated with
ocular biometrics. A comprehensive overview in terms of feature sets,
2678 J.A. Unar et al. / Pattern Recognition 47 (2014) 2673–2688

Fig. 4. Facial region modalities: (a) face, (b) facial thermograph [88], (c) ear shape, (d) tongue print.

Table 3
Summary of ocular region modalities.

Modality Feature Set Recognition Techniques Datasets

Iris Color, shape and iris texture 2D Gabor filters [144,154,155], Wavelets [156–159], LoG filter [160], DCT [161], Ordinal CASIA, UBIRIS, WVU,
(crypts, furrows, corona, freckles) measures [162,163], ICA [164], PCA [165,166], LDA [167], LBP [168,169], WCPH [170], MMU1, MMU2, IIT Delhi
Neural Networks [171,172], SVM [173], SIFT [168,174], Adaboost [175], Texton histogram [162],
Weight map [176], Directionlets [177], GA [178]
Retina Vein bifurcations, area of optic Principal bifurcation orientation (PBO) [140], DB-ICP [179], Gabor wavelet [180], SIFT [181], VARIA
disk or fovea SFR [182]
Sclera Vein bifurcations ANN [146], SURF [183], Direct correlation [183], Minutiae matching [183] —

prominent recognition algorithms and public data sources is pre-
sented in Table 3. Fig. 5. illustrates all the ocular region modalities.
3.4. Medico-chemical biometrics
Parts from the classical classification, we classify body odor,
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), heart sound and Electrocardiogram
(ECG) as medico-chemical biometrics due to the fact that the
recognition process requires specialized medical/chemical sensors
for data acquisition. Nevertheless, the authenticity of DNA is well
established whereas identification based on the analysis of heart
sound and ECG signals need conformity through large scale
studies. Consequently, DNA being a well-established and most
accurate biometric signature dominates other group members.
A one dimensional DNA code is usually extracted from small
varying region of entire code very often termed as short tandem
by acquiring the samples from blood, hair, ear wax, dental floss
and fingernail clippings [184,185]. Body odor being the composi-
tion of different organic compounds can be acquired through an
array of chemical sensors sensitive to those compounds [1,186].
However, such a system to recognize humans based on their body
odor is not realized yet, albeit some commercial products are already
available in the market known as e-noses which can recognize the
particular odor such as gases and vapors [187]. In this connection, a
British company Mastiff electronic systems and DARPA claimed to
achieve specific milestones in human recognition based on body
odor [188]. Furthermore, some studies based on the analysis of
cepstral coefficients of heart sound and analysis of fiducial points
from ECG data displayed promising results towards human identifi-
cation [189–192]. Conclusively, intrusive data acquisition procedure,
privacy issues, physical contact with sensors, requirement of skilled
operators, full cooperation from the subjects and dependence over
human medical and emotional states are some of the restrictions
towards large scale deployment of such systems.
3.5. Behavioral biometrics
Behavioral attributes establish identity based on the analysis
of the way humans do the things. For example, typing styles
(keystroke dynamics), vocal characteristics (voice), signature
dynamics and the way humans walk (gait). In fact, a keystroke
dynamics system establishes the human identity through analyzing
the typing rhythms of an individual [193]. A speaker verification
system uses the vocal characteristics of an individual to establish
the identity either by imposing the fixed vocabulary constraints
(text dependent) or in a dynamic way i.e. without imposition of
vocabulary constraints on the individuals [194,195]. A signature
recognition system establishes the identity based on the analysis of
an individual's signature characteristics produced to the system
either in static or dynamic modes [196,197]. Human identification
through gait requires the analysis of human motion features such as
the shape and dynamics information [198]. Recently, user authenti-
cation based on gait analysis has been applied on mobile devices
which in turn produced another research arena in gait biometrics.
The potential approaches utilize human motion features acquired
through embedded accelerometers of mobile devices to recognize
their legal users. Several approaches have been developed so far
thereby the authors claimed to achieve better recognition accuracy
[199–203]. A closer analysis reveals that behavioral attributes do
not provide sufficient discriminatory information because these
attributes are usually affected by human emotional states, health
conditions, dietary habits and aging conditions. These said factors
restrict their usage to verification only. For example; the back-
ground noise, poor quality of acquisition devices as well as health
conditions may have severe impact on the accuracy of speaker
verification system. Additionally, the accuracy of signature verifica-
tion drops significantly due to muscular illness of subjects. Further-
more, a gait recognition system may provide high false rates due to
walking conditions and walking surface dynamics. However, human
motion analysis provides the potential advantage of human identi-
fication in the absence of other biometric characteristics. On the
contrary, identification based on behavioral biometrics is not
beyond doubt since mimicking human behavior is easy for an
experienced and skilled impostor. Table 4 provides behavioral
biometrics information in terms of feature sets, promising recogni-
tion algorithms and public data sources available to researchers. The
behavioral modalities have been displayed in Fig. 6.
Nevertheless, in terms of accuracy Table 5 presents a rough
comparison between different biometric recognition techniques in
terms of average accuracy as reported in the literature (refer
Tables 1–4). However, an accurate comparison is very difficult
due to variance in datasets.
 J.A. Unar et al. / Pattern Recognition 47 (2014) 2673–2688
Fig. 5. Ocular region modalities: (a) iris, (b) retina [142], (c) sclera and vasculature.
Table 4
Summary of behavioral modalities.
Modality Feature Set
Voice Spectrum, Glottal pulse features, pitch, energy,
duration, rhythm, temporal features, phones, idiolects,
semantics, accent, pronunciation,
Keystroke Keystroke duration, hold time, keystroke latency, speed,
dynamics pressure, digraph latency,
Gait Full subject silhouette, strides, length, cadence, speed,
singularity of silhouette shape
Signature Signature shape, Pen position, pressure, pen direction,
acceleration, length of strokes, tangential acceleration,
curvature radius, azimuth
3.6. Soft biometrics
The poor recognition accuracy of biometric systems due to
imaging errors convinced the research community to find the ways
and means in order to improve the recognition rate or in other
words make the systems robust against the environmental factors.
Parts from this, many applications require the production of recogni-
tion results within minimum possible time. As a result, the
researchers proposed the use of soft biometric attributes along with
the hard biometric modalities (face, iris etc.). However, soft biometric
characteristics lack distinctiveness and permanence because these
attributes are most common among the humans. For example;
gender, ethnicity, height, weight, skin color, eye color, hair color
and SMT(scars, marks and tattoos) [268,269]. Even though soft
biometrics possess inability to provide sufficient discriminatory
information to perform the recognition task, they can be used for
data categorization which ultimately improves the recognition
time as well as accuracy thereby narrowing down the search
space. Furthermore, these traits can be used for identification
either in absence or contaminated hard biometric traits.
Amongst the soft biometric modalities, the recent years wit-
nessed considerable interest in tattoo recognition [270]. However,
tattoo recognition is limited to forensic applications only. This is
due to the prevailing trend of using tattoos in criminal groups
which in turn helps the agencies to establish gang associations,
previous convictions and years spent in jail [271]. On the contrary,
the general population uses the tattoos to distinguish them from
others as well as to display their religious beliefs. Generally, the
law enforcement agencies use tattoos to establish identity of a
suspect/victim in absence or corrupted hard biometric evidences
[271]. For the purpose, many agencies regularly collect tattoo
images and maintain the same in databases for future use. The
exemplary evidences are identification of victims of 9/11terrorist
attacks and Asian tsunami in 2004. This has become possible due
to the physical characteristics associated with tattoos that they are
usually carved deep on the human skin that even the severe skin
2679
Recognition Techniques Datasets
LPCC [204], MFCC [205], VQ [206–208], HMM [209], GMM [210,211], TIMIT, TIDIGIT,
DTW [212,213], ANN [214], ICA [215], SVM [216,217], ACO [195,218] AURORA, YOHO
Nearest neighbor [219], SVM [220,221], HMM [222], Manhattan MySQL, GREYC
distance [223], GMM [224], Euclidean distance [225], ANN [226–228],
Random forests [229], Fuzzy logic [230], GA [231], Mean & Standard
deviation [232], Bayesian & FLD [233], Time interval histogram [234]
PCA [235], LDA [236], K-nearest neighbor [237], SVM [238], DTW CASIA, CMU Mobo,
[239,240], HMM [241–244], VHT [245,246], Radon transform [247], UMD, USF
LPP [248,249], DLA [250], Wavelets [251]
DTW [252,253], HMM [254,255], ANN [256,257], Bayesian [258], SVM MCYT, SignatureDB,
[259,260], Fuzzy [261],EPs [262], PCA [263], Regional correlation SUSIG, GAVAB offline
[264], NCA/PCA [265], DTW-VQ [266] signature database
burns cannot destroy them [272]. In general, establishing a
suspect's or victim's identity through tattoos in forensic applica-
tions is usually done by the human experts manually [271,272].
However, the authors in [270–272] developed an automated CBIR
system for tattoo recognition and claimed to achieve good recog-
nition accuracy. However, from our stand point, tattoos do not
qualify for being a biometric modality. This is due to the fact that
tattoos negate the basic requirement of “Universality” which
clearly states that the attribute must be possessed by entire/
majority of the population [1]. Nevertheless, several studies
[268,269,273,274] claimed to achieve significant improvements
in recognition accuracy by combining soft biometrics with hard
biometric modalities.
3.7. Application perspectives
The recent years witnessed mass deployment of biometric
technologies for reliable human identification in public as well
as private sector. Nevertheless, the application environments for
each technology are summarized in the following table Table 6.
A closer look reveals that most of the techniques in order to
establish the identity require close contact of the subject with the
imaging sensor. However, face recognition and recognition based
on gait has the potential to identify humans at a distance. As a
result, face recognition and gait recognition suits more the video
surveillance activities such as suspect identification at airports as
well as crowd monitoring and human activity recognition at public
places which is not possible with other biometric techniques such
as fingerprint, iris recognition which require dedicated arrange-
ments for imaging as well as sufficient user cooperation.
4. Multi-modal biometrics
Instead of the tremendous advances in biometric technology,
the recognition systems based on the measurement of single
2680 J.A. Unar et al. / Pattern Recognition 47 (2014) 2673–2688

Fig. 6. Behavioral modalities: (a) voice signal [194], (b) typing rhythm [267], (c) gait, (d) signature.

Table 5 4.1.1. Multi-sensor systems

Rough accuracy comparison between different bio- Multi-sensor systems acquire the sample of required modality
metric techniques.
through multiple sensors or capture units. This is based on the
Biometric modality Accuracy level consideration that multiple sensors provide detailed as well as
complementary information which in turn enhance the recogni-
Fingerprint 99.9% tion accuracy. The sample acquisition through different sensors
Palmprint 4 95% also decreases the possibilities of poor quality or distorted images.
Hand geometry 4 95%
Vein pattern 99%
Although the scheme efficiently handles poor quality or distorted
Finger knuckle print Not available data, it results in increased cost of the system. It also demands
Face 95% higher level of cooperation from the user. In addition, users may
Ear 4 95% be reluctant to submit the required trait due to hygiene concerns
Tongue print Not available
if the system requires physical contact with the imaging sensors.
Iris 99.9%
Retina 99% In order to increase user convenience, we are of the view that
Sclera Not available multi-sensor systems must contain some contactless sensors.
Voice 4 90%
Keystroke dynamics 4 90%
Gait 4 90% 4.1.2. Multi-algorithm systems
Signature 4 90% These systems use different feature extraction and matching
algorithms on a single modality acquired through a single sensor.
Then, the individual results from each matcher are combined to
obtain the final decision. Poor quality or distorted samples due to
modality cannot guarantee 100% accuracy. This is due to influence non-uniform illumination and improper sensor handling may
of several factors. For instance; (i) Noisy data: the quality of affect overall performance of the system. Besides, careful attention
acquired sample may not be the same as the template due to must be paid in selecting the multiple algorithms due to the fact
defective / improperly maintained sensors or unfavorable lighting that different algorithms require different execution time which
conditions. As a result, matching will yield high FAR and FRR rates, may delay the arrival of final decision.
(ii) intra-class variations: the acquired sample of an individual may
vary from the template due to incorrect interaction with the
4.1.3. Multi-instance systems
imaging sensor / modification in sensor characteristics, (iii) dis-
Such systems capture multiple instances or snapshots of a
tinctiveness: the acquired sample fails to provide sufficient dis-
single modality employing a single imaging sensor from different
criminatory information due to large inter-class similarities in
angles and orientations. The multiple instances provide complete
feature sets, (iv) non-universality: inability of an individual to
information of the trait under measurement. Improper lighting
provide the required biometric characteristic due to improper
and sensor conditions may have drastic effects on the recognition
interaction with the imaging sensor, non-cooperation and loss of
accuracy due to the limitations of a single imaging sensor.
an organ possessing the required trait, and, (v) spoof attacks:
submission of a spoofed biometric signature of a genuine user
from an impostor to gain unauthorized access [275]. In fact, these 4.1.4. Multi-sample systems
factors laid the foundation of the systems which use multiple These systems use a single imaging sensor to acquire multiple
independent evidences of biometric information from either examples of a single trait. For instance, an individual's left and
single or different biometric modalities, very often termed as right eye serves as an input to the system. However, such systems
multi-modal biometric systems. Keeping in view the bottlenecks require huge storage to hoard the templates.
attached with mono-modal systems, it is obvious that multi-modal
systems offer more robustness in terms of recognition accuracy as 4.1.5. Multi-modal systems
well as handling the poor quality of biometric samples [276]. These systems use multiple uncorrelated biometric signatures
acquired through different imaging sensors. For example, iris and
palmprint of an individual is combined to establish the identity.
4.1. Sources of information Such systems offer better accuracy and show robustness against
illumination conditions, sensor operating conditions, and impro-
According to the nature of information sources, a multi-modal per contact with the imaging sensors. However, they require
biometric system can be classified into following categories effective dimensionality reduction techniques. In addition, the
[23,275,276]: multiple modalities must be selected from different regions
 J.A. Unar et al. / Pattern Recognition 47 (2014) 2673–2688 2681

Table 6
Application scenarios for biometric based identification.

Biometric technology Applications

Fingerprint Border control, forensics, criminal identification, access control, computer logins, e-commerce, welfare disbursements, missing children
identification, id-cards, passports, user authentication on mobile devices, time and attendance monitoring systems
Palmprint Access control, e-commerce, computer logins, user authentication on mobile devices, time and attendance monitoring systems
Hand geometry Access control, e-commerce, computer logins, user authentication on mobile devices, time and attendance monitoring systems
Hand vein pattern Access control, e-commerce, computer logins, user authentication on mobile devices
Finger knuckle print Access control, e-commerce, computer logins, time and attendance monitoring systems
Face Border control, forensics, criminal identification, access control, computer logins, e-commerce, welfare disbursements, missing children
identification, id-cards, passports, video surveillance, crowd monitoring
Ear shape Access control, e-commerce, computer logins, time and attendance monitoring systems
Tongue print Access control, e-commerce, computer logins
Iris Border control, criminal identification, access control, computer logins, e-commerce, welfare disbursements, missing children identification,
id-cards, passports, time and attendance monitoring systems
Retina Border control, criminal identification, access control in highly sensitive installations
Sclera Access control, e-commerce, computer logins
Voice Access control, e-commerce, computer logins, user authentication on mobile device
Keystroke dynamics Computer logins, user authentication on mobile devices
Gait Video surveillance, forensics, criminal identification from video sequences, user authentication on mobile devices
Signature Access control, e-commerce, computer logins, e-banking

containing biometric features. For example, fingerprint along with

face or iris etc. Selecting the modalities requiring different image
resolution will help to overcome the problem of improper illumi-
nation. For instance, face combined with palmprint, or iris com-
bined with fingerprint.

4.2. Modes of operations

A multi-modal biometric system functions in two modes;

(i) Serial/cascaded mode: the acquired multiple traits are processed
one after another. The output of one trait serves as an input to the
processing of next trait. Within the frame of this scheme, the first
modality is normally used as an index to narrow down the search
space before the next modality is processed which in turn results
in the reduction of recognition time, (ii) Parallel mode: multiple
modalities are processed simultaneously and the obtained results
are combined together to obtain a final match score. This archi-
tecture provides better accuracy but requires more time to estab-
lish the identity [5,275,276]. Serial and parallel mode architectures Fig. 7. Multi-modal system architectures [276]: (a) serial architecture (b) parallel
are illustrated in (Fig. 7). architecture.

4.3. Fusion levels

The multiple biometric evidences acquired from different
sources can be combined together at different levels; (i) sensor
level: the raw data from different sensors is integrated to form a
new dataset which is used for feature extraction. For instance,
2D texture information and 3D (range) information of human ear
are combined together to get the 3D information, (ii) feature level:
the feature sets of different modalities are fused together to form a
new feature set, provided that the feature sets must be indepen-
dent and lie within the same measuring scale. Concatenating the
feature sets of face and iris is a typical example, (iii) matching score
level: the feature vectors from different modalities are processed
independently and matched with templates through different
classifiers. The generated outputs are then fused together and
the decision module accepts or rejects the claimed identity based
on the composite match score, (iv) decision level: multiple match-
ers match the feature vectors with the templates and their
decisions are fused together to reach the final decision by employ-
ing different techniques such as majority voting. Fig. 8 illustrates
different information fusion scenarios. Information fusion at
match score level outperforms the others in terms of real time
decisions, whereas, in terms of accuracy fusion at feature level
outperforms the others. However, feature level fusion requires
complex classifiers and efficient methods to deal with the curse of
dimensionality as well as the computational overhead. Conversely,
the sensor level fusion though provides good information from
different modalities but depends heavily on the operational con-
ditions of the sensors. It is so because the presence of artifacts in
any sensor data may result in the generation of noisy dataset
which in turn affects the performance of latter stages in recogni-
tion. The decision level fusion however produces better results due
to the presence of multiple matchers but it fails to meet the real
time constraints [5,275,276].
5. Biometrics prospects
The increasing interest from the government and private
stakeholders to adopt biometric based identity management
systems prove the efficacy of such systems over the knowledge
and possession based systems. In this context, the continuously
increasing market for biometric based surveillance products from
2007 to 2015 estimated by Acuity Market Intelligence [277] is
reproduced as evidence in (Fig. 9).
2682 J.A. Unar et al. / Pattern Recognition 47 (2014) 2673–2688

Fig. 8. Fusion levels in multi-modal systems [5]: (a) feature level (b) score level (c) decision level.

The aforementioned report also predicts further revenue
growth at CAGR of 60.99% from 2009 to 2017. Besides, another
source predicted the revenue growth at a CAGR of 21.6% from
US$ 4217 million in 2010 to US$ 11,229.3 million by the year
2015 [278].
The forecasted revenue share for each modality produced in
[277] is illustrated in Fig. 10.
An interpretation shows the dominance of fingerprinting techno-
logy perhaps due to the preliminary biometric technology as well as
the low cost of imaging sensors. In comparison to the figures for the
 J.A. Unar et al. / Pattern Recognition 47 (2014) 2673–2688
Fig. 9. Biometric revenue 2007–2015 [277].
Fig. 10. Global market by technology [277].
Fig. 11. Regional market share [277].
year 2009 produced in [279], a considerable growth in terms of
revenue is evident for face, iris and vein recognition technologies.
Furthermore, a deep analysis reveals a slow pace of increase in usage
of face and iris recognition technologies which may be due to the
costly imaging sensors. On the contrary, a rapid growth is noticeable in
vein recognition technology which may be due to its hardness
to spoof.
The approximated regional share in the biometric market for
the year 2015 produced in [277] is depicted in Fig. 11.
2683
A comparative analysis of the forecasted regional market share
for the year 2015 with the figures for the year 2007 presented in
[277] reflects the growing interest from Asia Pacific region as well
as Middle East and African countries.
Nevertheless, USA and most of the European countries are in a
leading position due to early adoption of biometric based identity
management in terms of visa enrollments, passports, border con-
trol, criminal identification along with e-commerce and e-banking.
However, the analysts are predicting the biometric market shift
towards Asia Pacific region in near future due to the continuous
efforts from governments in terms of citizen registration, passports
and driving licenses. Besides Japan, Singapore and Taiwan which are
already leading the way in biometrics based surveillance and access
control management in the region, the substantial demands from
financial institutions in China, India and Malaysia are growing [280].
The exemplary evidences include issuance of multi biometric
National Identity Card and Passport scheme in Pakistan through
National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) [281] along
with its collaboration with Bangladesh government's high security
driving license scheme [281], Indian government's Aadhaar/Unique
ID project [282] which has been ranked as world's largest biometric
project [283] through Unique Identification authority of India
(UIDAI). On the other hand, Kenyan passport issuance scheme in
collaboration with NADRA Pakistan [281], Nigerian precise bio-
metric National ID Card scheme which will also work as a bank card
[284], biometric based passport scheme in Ghana [285], establish-
ment of biometric recognition systems in South Africa's leading
banks Absa and FNB in November 2011 [286], introduction of
e-zwich platform in Ghana by Ghana Interbank Payment and
Settlement Systems (GHIPSS) [285] and increasing calls for bio-
metric based voter registration in Zimbabwe [285] show substantial
interest from African countries towards biometric technology.
In addition, Sudan's civil registration project in collaboration with
NADRA Pakistan [281] and Saudi Arabia's National ID card program
[287] will add up to the pace of growth towards the adoption of the
technology in Middle Eastern countries. Moreover, the introduction
of hand vein recognition based ATMs in 2006 by Bradesco (a leading
bank in Brazil) [286] will surely add up the momentum to the
interest shown by the financial institutions in order to safeguard the
rights of their lawful customers against the fraudulent attacks.
Conclusively, the presented facts and figures display a keen interest
from different stakeholders in biometric technology which in turn
ensures the emergence of biometric based identification as a promis-
ing and reliable identity management technology in coming years.
6. Conclusion
Reliable identification is a crucial requirement in a wide variety
of systems and different scenarios. Traditional cryptographic
methods do not offer practical identification capabilities since
they require the users to know something or to possess something.
Besides, several factors paralyzed the efficacy of such systems and
their reliability has been challenged from time to time. As an
alternative, reliable identification based on the distinctive physio-
logical or behavioral characteristics, very often referred as “bio-
metrics” provide better solutions to high security demands of the
present day. Moreover, these distinctive characteristics are sole
property of an individual. Hence, the individuals are not required
to memorize large cryptographic words as well as this relieves
them from safeguarding the tokens. In addition, these features
cannot be stolen or forgotten and require the genuine user to be
present on the spot for identification. A wide variety of biometric
characteristics have been discovered and tested in recent decades.
In this paper, we provided an overview of the existing biometric
technologies along with their composition, classification and
2684 J.A. Unar et al. / Pattern Recognition 47 (2014) 2673–2688
performance evaluation indicators. This paper also provides an in-
depth overview followed by detailed discussion over different
biometric attributes along with their potential advantages and
challenges. However, the limitations of mono-modal biometric
systems forced the researchers to search for more options. Conse-
quently, the multi-modal biometric systems evolved. Multi-
modality based systems offer better accuracy as compared to
mono-modal systems. However, in terms of multiple attributes,
careful selection is the key point to success since selecting the
modalities belonging to one region may not be a good choice
because accidental loss of that organ will result in user's inability
to submit the required signature. Hence, we are of the view that
the selected multiple modalities must be from different organs.
Furthermore, we also stress the importance of reliable template
protection strategies since the development of artificial gummy
fingers and synthetic irises may lead to questions regarding the
reliability of the most secure biometric signatures so far.
Despite the challenges, the market trend presented in the paper
portrays a keen interest in biometric solutions to a number of
identity management tasks. The large deployment of such systems
in private as well as the stringent security environments is evident
from the exemplary evidences produced here. Conclusively, the
increasing trend of interest from government and private stake-
holders promises a bright future to the science of biometrics.
Conflict of interest statement
No conflicts.
Acknowledgment
This work is funded by IPPP research grant from University of
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia under Project No. PS036-2012A.
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Jawed Akhtar Unar received his B. Engg. (Bachelors) in Computer Systems Engineering in 1994 and M. Engg. (Masters) in 2005 from Mehran University of Engineering &
Technology, Jamshoro, Sindh, Pakistan. He joined Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering, Science & Technology University in 2006 and still affiliated with the same University.
Currently, he is pursuing Ph.D. from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. His field of interest is Image Processing, Pattern Recognition, Biometrics and Computer Vision.
Woo Chaw Seng is a senior lecturer at the Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Malaya. His research interests include image processing and
mobile applications.
Almas Abbasi is a Research Scholar at the Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Malaya. Her research interests include image processing and
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