TOS

3:
UNIT 2A : LOADING ON
BUILDINGS
1. To Understand the Various Loads Acting Load Types
on a Building.
2. To Quantify Dead Loads Design
3. To Quantify Live Loads. Methods
4. To Understand Wind Load and Reversal W.S.M
of Stresses,
5. To Understand Seismic Load
6. To Understand Snow Load
7. To List and Understand the Different
Design Philosophies in Structural Design
To Understand Working Stress Method
its Limitations and Advantages over
other Methods

Ar. Arthur Cutinho

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TOS 3 Unit 2a: Loading On Buildings and W.S.M

2.a.1 Introduction to Loading: Structures have to carry different types of Loading. Estimation of
loads to which the structure will be subjected is the most intricate, difficult and tedious
part of Structural Design.
The designer has to
1. Assess the loads which the structure has to carry through-out its lifespan.
2. Also think of combination of loads for worst effect on structures.
The Loads which can come on a structure can be classified as follows (The first group is defined but explained
in detail later on).
1. Dead Loads – This is the weight of the Structure. Basically a Vertical load.
2. Live Loads – This is due to the Live Occupancy and related Furniture. Basically Vertical.
3. Wind Loads – Wind Exerts pressure on the obstruction in its path. Basically Horizontal.
4. Seismic Force – Earthquake shock causes vibrations. Basically Horizontal.
5. Snow Loading – Structures to be designed for this load where likely. Basically Vertical.

The following loads are also need to be considered in the Design of Structures.
6. Impact Loads – The instantaneous effect of a suddenly applied load is known as impact. The deformations
caused due to impact are much larger than due to a gradually applied load. These could be horizontal or
vertical or even inclined. E.g. Loads caused due to LIFTS, CRANES, ETC.
7. Earth Pressures – Structures like Basement walls, Retaining Walls, Abutments having to support earth on
one side are subjected to Earth Pressures. This is Basically Horizontal.
8. Water Pressure – Water Tanks are a good example of a structure subjected to Horizontal Water Pressure.
9. Braking Loads – When moving objects are braked, they cause longitudinal forces in structures on which
they move, like wheels of a crane moving on a Crane Girder.
10. Erection Loads – These are caused by temporary storing of construction materials in the structure during
erection. These are temporary and require temporary support measures.
11. Secondary Loads – Ideal conditions assumed in the analysis of the structures may not be provided. E.g.
Joints of trusses are assumed to be pin jointed while riveting or welding will provide fixity causing stresses
called Secondary Stresses.
12. Vibration Loads – These are caused by movement of heavy machinery like turbines and pumps.
Let us now discuss the first group in detail

2.a.2 Dead Loads: The weight of all permanent fixtures in a structure including self-weight is called the
dead load. The dead weight shall consist of weight of all walls, partition walls, floors, roofs and all
permanent constructions attached to it.
Material Density in kN/m³
1. The chances of dead loads changing after
Wood 7 to 12 construction are very low so the factors of safety applied
Water 10 to dead loads are much lower compared to F.O.S applied
Cement 14.4 to live loads
2. Loads of partitions should be calculated on basis of
Earth 16
construction details and position of partitions. In case of
Brick 19 details not being known some assumption may be made
Cement Concrete Plain 23 E.g. in case of office floors a load of 1 kN/m² may be taken.
Cement Concrete Reinforced 25 3. We may have to know the unit weights or densities
Steel 78.5 of many building materials to calculate the dead loads.

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Let us derive some standards to be used in most of the problems

Problem.1 Floor Finish: Floors are generally made of 10mm to 35mm thick flooring tiles laid on a
25mm to 35 mm thick cement
mortar screed. So the total thickness
considering 25mm thick tiles on 25
mm thick screed would be 50mm

Hence dead weight of floor finish

as a standard could be 0.05m x
25kN/m³ = 1.25 kN/m²
Problem.2 Calculate the dead weight of a 150 mm thick terrace slab, to be water proofed by 80 thick
Brick Bats and with standard floor finish in kN/m².
Weight of Slab 0.15 x 25kN/m³ = 3.75 kN/m²
Weight of water proofing 0.08 x 19 = 1.52 kN/m²
2
Weight of Floor Finish = 1.25 kN/m
Total Dead Load of slab and floor = 6.52 kN/m²

2.a.3 Live Loads: Examples: People, furniture, equipment.

 Live loads are either movable or moving loads with-out any acceleration or impact.
 They are assumed to be produced by the intended use or occupancy of the building including weights
of movable partitions or furniture etc.
 The floor slabs have to be designed to carry either uniformly distributed loads or concentrated loads
whichever produce greater stresses in the part under consideration.
 Since it is unlikely that any one particular time all floors will not be simultaneously carrying maximum
loading, the code permits some reduction in imposed loads in designing columns, load bearing walls,
piers supports and foundations.
 Live loads are due to the people occupying a space. A Balcony or Staircase is such parts of the
structure that are liable to overcrowding. In case of a fire or at certain times during a day the
staircases of most buildings have a lot of people using them e.g. school opening hours and closing
hours or office opening and closing timings. When a procession is on the road all people on any floor
crowd in a balcony to witness the scene. Such areas are said to be liable to overcrowding and are
assigned Higher Live Loads
 A simple way to assess live loads would be to visualize the number of occupants in a given area and
the furniture associated with these people. Accordingly a Dwelling like a Residential Building would
have the least number of people compared to an Office space compared to a School Building
compared to a Mall.
 Minimum design loadings are usually specified in the building codes.

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Accordingly Buildings have been classified as below as per I.S.875 Part 2

1. Dwellings (Residential) - These shall include any building or Part occupied by members of single/ multi-
family units with independent cooking facilities. These shall also include apartment houses.
2. Office Buildings - The buildings primarily to be used as an office or for office purposes.
3. Business Buildings - These shall include any building or part of a building, which is used for transaction of
business for the keeping of accounts and records for similar purposes; offices, banks, professional
establishments, court houses, and libraries shall be classified in this group so far as principal function of
these is transaction of public business and the keeping of books and records.
4. Educational Buildings – Schools, Colleges, or day-care purposes involving assembly for instruction
education or recreation.
5. Industrial Buildings - Building or a part of a building or structure in which products or materials of various
kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled or processed like assembly plants, power plants, refineries,
gas plants, mills, dairies, factories, workshops, etc.
6. Institutional Buildings - Building or a part of a building which is used for medical or other treatment,
Institutional buildings ordinarily provide sleeping accommodation for the occupants. This category
includes hospitals, sanitoria custodial institutions or penal institutions like jails, prisons and reformatories.
7. Mercantile Buildings - Building or a part of a building which is used as shops, stores, market for display
and sale of merchandise either wholesale or retail
8. Storage Buildings - Building or part of a building used primarily for the storage or sheltering of goods,
wares or merchandize, like warehouses, cold storages, freight depots, transity sheds, store houses,
garages, hangers, truck terminals, grain elevators, barns and stables.
9. Assembly Buildings - Building or part of a building where groups of people congregate or gather for
amusement, recreation, social, religious, patriotic, Civil, travel and similar purposes, for example, theatres,
motion picture houses, assembly halls, city halls, marriage halls, town halls, auditoriums, exhibition halls,
museums, skating rinks, gymnasiums, restaurants etc.
Occupancy Live Load in kN/m²
Stairs Balconies
Classified as Part of Normal Floor Corridors Liable to
Overcrowding
Dwelling Houses All Parts 2 3
Living Rooms / Bedrooms /Baths/ Toilets 2
Office Rooms 2.5
1 Residential Hotels / Hostels / Boarding
Kitchens / Laundaries/ Indoor Games 3 4
Houses / Residential Houses
Dining Room, Cafeterias, Restaurants 4
Boiler Rooms /Plant Rooms Calculated but ≥ 5
BedRooms/ Dressing Rooms 2
Office Rooms 2.5
2 and Educational /
ClassRooms/Lecture Rooms /Dining 4
3 Institutional 3
Rooms / Kitchens
Store Rooms 5
Dressing Rooms /Lounges 2
Office Room/Kitchens 3
Assembly With Fixed Seats/
4
Restaurants/Art Galleries/Gymnasiums
4 Assembly Buildings 4 to 5
Assembly Without Fixed Seats/
5
Projection Rooms Stages
Boiler Rooms /Plant Rooms Including
7.5
Weight of Machinery
Rooms With Separate Storage/Banking
3
Halls/Kitchens/Dining Areas /Cafeterias
Business and Office
5 Rooms Without Separate Storage 4
Buildings 4
/Stationery Stores
Vaults/ Strong Room 5

TOS 3 Unit 2a Loading On Buildings and W.S.M Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
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Occupancy Live Load in kN/m²
BathRooms/Toilets 2
Office Rooms/ Dining Areas/ Cafeterias/
3
Mercantile Kitchens
6 5
Buildings Retail Shops 4
Boil er Rooms/Plant Rooms Calculated but ≥ 5
Whole Sale Shops 6
BathRooms/Toilets 2
Work Area Without Machinery /Dining
3
Areas/Cafeterias
Corridors /Passages 4
To Be Calculated but Not Less
7 Industrial Building Work Areas With Light Duty Machinery 5
Than The Val ue Stipulated 5
/Boiler Rooms /Plant Rooms
Work Areas With Medium Duty
7
Machinery
Work Areas With Heavy Duty Machinery 10

No Imposed Loads On Roofs Live Load in kN/m²

1 Flat, sloping or curved roof with slopes upto 10 degrees
a Access Provided 1.5 kN/m²
b Acess Not Providedexcept for maintenance 0.75 kN/m²
0.75 kN/M² less 0.02 kN/m² for every degree
2 Sloping roof with slopes greater than 10 degrees
increase i n sl ope over 10 degrees

Live Load as per I.S. 875

Corriodors/Balconies/St
Normal airs Occupancy
1 2.0 kN/m² 3.0 kN/m² Residential Living Rooms, Kitchens, Bedrooms, Baths @ Toil ets
Hostel Bedrooms, Dressing Rooms, Baths @Toilets
Educational Bedrooms, Dressing Rooms
Assembly Bui ldings Dressing Rooms /Lounges.
All Buildings Baths @ Toilets
2 2.5 kN/m² Residential, Hostel and Educational Office Rooms
3 3.0 kN/m² 4.0 kN/m² Hostel Kitchens / Laundaries/ Indoor Games
Educational ClassRooms/Lecture Rooms /Dining Rooms / Kitchens
Assembly Bui ldings Office Room/Ki tchens
Business Buildings- Rooms With Separate Storage/Banki ng
Halls/Kitchens/Dining Areas /Cafeterias
Mercantile Office Rooms/ Dining Areas/ Cafeterias/ Kitchens
Industrial Work Area Without Machinery /Dining Areas/Cafeterias
4 4.0 kN/m² 5.0 kN/m² Hostel Dining Room, Cafeterias, Restaurants
Assembly Bui ldings - Assembly With Fixed Seats/ Restaurants/Art
Galleries/Gymnasiums
Business Rooms Without Separate Storage /Stationery Stores
Mercantile Retail Shops
5 5.0 kN/m² 6.0 kN/m² Assembly Without Fixed Seats/ Projection Rooms Stages
Business Vaults/ Strong Room
Industrial Work Areas With Light Duty Machinery /Boiler Rooms /Plant
Rooms
Boiler Rooms Plant Rooms of all Types to be actually calculated but should
not be lesser than 5
Educational Store Rooms
6 6.0 kN/m² Mercantile Whole Sale Shops

TOS 3 Unit 2a Loading On Buildings and W.S.M Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
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The loads discussed after this are done so with a view that we must understand them to a certain
degree only and their study is limited to theory only
2.a.4 Wind Loads (Notes Compiled by Ar. Jyoti Jain)
 Wind load is primarily a horizontal load caused by the movement of air relative to earth.
 Wind load is required to be considered in design especially
when the height of the building exceeds two times the
dimensions transverse to the exposed wind surface.
 On an inclined roof truss surface greater the angle of
inclination lesser the live load, greater the wind load and vice
versa
 For low rise building say up to four to five storeys, the wind
load is not critical because the moment of resistance provided
by the continuity of floor system to column connection and
walls provided between columns are sufficient to accommodate
the effect of these force
The amount of wind load is dependent on the following:
 Geographical location
 The height of structure
 Type of surrounding physical environment
 The shape of structure
 Size of the building.
Wind pressure can be presented by the equation p = K (1/2 ṗV²) where K is a constant depending on the shape
and size of obstruction and direction of wind, ṗ is density of air and V is velocity of wind (density of air at sea
3
level is taken as 12.25 N/m ).
Reversal of Stresses: Unless the roof slope is too high, Wind load on the roof trusses, would be usually uplift
force perpendicular to the roof, due to suction effect of the wind blowing over the roof. Hence the wind load
on roof truss usually acts opposite to the gravity load, and its magnitude can be larger than gravity loads,
causing reversal of forces in truss members.

2.a.5 Seismic Loads: (Notes Compiled by Er. Mrudula). These are caused due to earth quakes.
Structure is loaded when base is shaken. Response of structure is dependent on the frequency of
motion Earthquake loads are horizontal loads caused by the earthquake and shall be computed in
accordance with IS 1893. For monolithic reinforced concrete structures located in the seismic zone 2,
and 3 not more than 5 storey high and importance factor less than 1, the seismic forces are not
critical. The Seismic Stresses happen at contact surfaces of a structure either with the ground, or with
adjacent structures, or with gravity waves from tsunami. The latest version of seismic zoning map of

TOS 3 Unit 2a Loading On Buildings and W.S.M Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
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India given in the earthquake resistant design code of India [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002] assigns four levels
of seismicity for India in terms of zone factors.

In other words, the

earthquake zoning
map of India divides
India into 4 seismic
zones (Zone 2, 3, 4 and
5) unlike its previous
version, which
consisted of five or six
zones for the country.
According to the
present zoning map,
Zone 5 expects the
highest level of
seismicity whereas
Zone 2 is associated
with the lowest level of seismicity.
Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers earthquakes of intensity MSK (Medvedev–
Sponheuer–Karnik) scale IX or greater. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The region of
Kashmir, the western and central Himalayas, North and Middle Bihar, the North-East Indian region and the
Rann of Kutch fall in this zone.
Zone 2: This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone.
Most parts of Pune would lie in Zone 3.

For Less important and small structures design is not done as given in the code but certain constructional
details like diagonal bracing in vertical panels of framed structures, strengthening of openings in walls, jambs,
corners of returns of walls, and provisions of continuous band at lintel level are provided
For important structures and tall structures and structures in Zone 5 dynamic analysis is attempted
Some salient features of an Earthquake resistant structure by I.S. 4326 – 1977 are given below

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1. Lightness of Dead Load: Since earthquake force is proportional to the mass of a structure, the
building shall be as light as possible. (Bringing up the idea that structural elements should not be
oversized in our anxiety for higher F.O.S as this is not good design for seismic forces)
2. Ties: As far as possible the parts of a building should be tied together so that the whole building acts
as one unit
3. Symmetry: Building should have a symmetrical rectangular shape in plan both for mass and rigidity
and the centers of mass and rigidity should coincide to avoid torsional forces.
4. Cantilever Projections: There should be no projection as far as possible
5. Connections: There should be proper connections between non-structural parts to structural framing
to avoid any damage to the non-structural elements due to deformations of the structural elements.

2.a.6 Snow Loads:

The amount of snow load on a roof structure is dependent on a variety of factors:
• Roof geometry,
• Size of the structure,
• Insulation of the structure,
• Wind frequency,
• Snow duration,
• Geographical location of the structure.
The magnitude of the
snow load will depend
upon the latitude and
altitude of the site. In
the lower latitudes no
snow would be
expected while in the
high latitudes snow
could last for six months or more. In such locations buildings have to be designed to withstand the appropriate
amount of snow. The shape of the roof also plays an important part in the magnitude of the snow load.
 The steeper the pitch, smaller is the Snow load.
 The snow falling on a flat roof will continue to build up and the load will continue to increase, but on a
pitched roof a point is reached when the snow will slide off.
Snow load is not to be considered for slopes greater than 50 degrees. In case of no information snow load
value can be taken as 0.25 kN/m² per10mm depth of snow.

2.a.7 Working Stress Method (W.S.M)

2a.7.A. Introduction to Design: The structural design of a building consists of proportioning various
elements of the building such that the loads acting on it are transferred safely to the ground and at
the same time unnecessary excess material is not used.
The aim of design is to decide shape, size, and connection details of the members so that the structure being
designed will perform satisfactorily during its intended life.
The Structure should accordingly
1. Sustain all loads expected on it
2. Sustain deformations during and after construction
3. Be adequately durable
4. Adequately resist misuse and fire
5. Be stable and have alternate load paths to prevent overall collapse under accidental load conditions.
Design consists of idealizing the structure, quantifying expected loads, carry out analysis to find member
forces, and sizing the members based on failure criteria. Accordingly various Design Philosophies evolved.

TOS 3 Unit 2a Loading On Buildings and W.S.M Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
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2a.7.B. Design Philosophies:

A Design philosophy is a set of assumptions and procedures which are used to meet the conditions of
serviceability, safety, economy and functionality of the structure. Several design philosophies have been
introduced from different parts of the world.
Some of the design philosophies that have been used by engineers are

 Working Stress Method(WSM)/Allowable Stress Design (ASD) – Allowance for Stress

 Ultimate Load Method (ULM) – Allowance for Load
 Limit State Method(LSM)

Imagine that you had to suspend a load of 1000kN from a Cable. What should be size and shape of the cable?
Let us say we decide the shape to be circular. To decide the diameter we shall use our basic equation of stress
i.e. Area = Load / Stress. Let us now decide we want to use steel whose yield strength is 250N/mm².
Let diameter of cable = d
πd²/4 = 1000kN x 1000/ 250 Hence d = 71.38mm

Now if I provide a cable of this diameter then it will not fail till the load reaches 1000kN assuming that the
quality of steel assumed is the same one that has been provided to me. However quality of material could be
wrongly assumed and maybe some error in calculations of load may be made. So whether we allow allowance
for load or for stress is what decides the Design Method.
 The earliest one is Working Stress Method (WSM), which was introduced in 20th century. This is
based on Linear Elastic Theory. This method was used in IS 456 till revision IS 456:2000. The Stress is
made an allowance for and Factors of Safety are applied to the Yield Stress Value
 In 1950s Ultimate Load Method (ULM) was introduced which is based on the Ultimate Load which
can be carried out by Material. Its acceptance can be seen in ACI code in 1956 and British codes in
1957 and Indian codes in 1964.
 The most recently accepted code of practice is based on Limit State Method (LSM). This is used in IS
456 from revision IS 456:2000, British code CP 110(1973) (now BS 8110(1997)) and ACI 318-71 (now
ACI 318-95).

2a.7.C. Working Stress Method (W.S.M)

A simplistic way of defining WSM would be to say that when the design philosophy makes allowances for the
quality of material, the Design Philosophy is Working Stress Method.
Working stress method is used for the Design of Reinforced concrete, Steel and Timber structures. Nowadays
Design of both Steel and R.C.C has shifted to L.S.M.
 The main assumption in the WSM is that the
behavior of structural material is restricted with in linear-
elastic region and the safety of it is ensured by restricting
the stresses coming on the members by working loads.
 These allowable stresses will come in the linear
portion (i.e., initial phase) of the stress-strain curve. Thus
a factor of safety was introduced to the design.
 The entire Design Procedure follows Hooke’s Law
that stress is directly proportional to strain.
 “Factor of safety is the ratio of strength of
material to the permissible stress”
 Permissible or Allowable Stress = Yield
Stress/ Factor of Safety

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2a.7.D. Factors of Safety: Factors of safety to be applied depend on

I. Material
II. Situational Intricacies
Material: For a material like concrete which is mostly in-situ (made on site and may expect lower quality than
promised) a higher factor of safety is used compared to a material like steel (factory made and hence better
quality control)for which a lower factor of safety is used.
f.o.s for Permissible Stresses in
Yield Strength Reasons for higher or
Material Bending Bending Compression
in N/mm² lower f.o.s
Compression in N/mm²
Concrete Grade In-situ material hence
M20 20 3 7 Quality control Difficult
Factory Made Material
Steel E250 or FE
Hence better quality
410
250 1.5 165 control

Situational Intricacies: When a structural member is in direct compression like a Column or Strut the entire
section and the entire length of the member is subjected to the said stress. While for a member in bending
which has max stresses at top and bottom linearly reducing to Zero towards the Neutral Axis (hence only a part
of the section is exposed to maximum stresses). Also a member in Bending is exposed to max Bending stress
only along part of its span
Yield Permissible
Steel FE 410 Strength in f.o.s Stresses in Reasons for higher or lower f.o.s
N/mm² N/mm²
Only part of the section and part of
the span is exposed to Maximum
Bending Tension 250 1.5 165 Stresses
Full Section and Full Length of the
compression Member exposed to
Direct Tension 250 1.66 150 Maximum Stresses

2a.7.E. Advantages and Limitations of W.S.M over other Philosophies.

Limitations:
 The failure load of a member is the factor of safety times the working load. Actually it is much more as
a material can resist the load even after yield appears at a fiber. Redistribution of moments gives rise
to additional load bearing capacity.

 WSM gives uneconomical sections

Advantages:
 This Method is Simple. Deflection requirement even in other methods is calculated by WSM

 It is reasonably reliable

 As working stresses are low, service-ability requirements (deformations within limits) are satisfied
automatically.

 Pure elastic approach for analysis of structures under working loads. Yielding or buckling never occurs
at working loads and hence structures are always safe

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Let us now do the earlier problem using the WSM

 Area = Load / Permissible Stress.
 (Let us now decide that being a factory made product the f.o.s. for steel in tension=1.67)
 Permissible Stress in Steel in Tension = 250/1.67 = 150N/mm²
 (Let diameter of cable = d)
 πd²/4 = 1000 x 1000/ 150 Hence d = 92.155mm .
We are now having a surety that the member will not fail. (f.o.s. = 1.67)

Small problem to understand W.S.M

Design a short square p.c.c. column in M20 Grade Concrete to take a load of 400kN.
Working Stress in Concrete M20 grade = 7N/mm². Let Side of column be b
Stress = Load / Area, Hence Area = Load /Stress
b² = 400 x 10³/ 7. Hence b = 239.04mm ≈ 240.
So Size of Column could be 240 x 240

Suggested Theory Questions: TOS 3 Unit 2a Loading on Buildings and W.S.M

1. Make a list of various loads acting on a Building, explaining each in one line.

2. Write Short Notes on each of the following

a. Dead Load and Provision to be made when Partition Wall Layout is not Known

b. Live Load and Live Loads For Various Categories of Buildings

c. Various Categories of Buildings as Classified By I.S.875 Part 2 for Live Loads

d. Wind Loads and Factors affecting Wind Loads

e. Reversal of Stresses

f. Seismic Load

g. Some Measure to be taken to make a Structure an Earthquake Resistant Structure

h. Snow Load

3. List the various building types under which live loads are given in the IS Code

4. Explain why for staircases and Balconies higher Live Load is prescribed.

5. List the various Design Philosophies

6. Explain The Working Stress Method of Design in Brief

7. Explain the term “Factor of Safety”

8. Explain the Limitations of Working Stress Method for Structural Design

9. Explain the Advantages of Working Stress Method for Structural Design

TOS 3 Unit 2a Loading On Buildings and W.S.M Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho