SOIL RECLAMATION , CHECKING SUITABILTY

AND STABILITY OF RECLAIMED SOIL

(Soil Stabilization)
A project report submitted

In partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In

Civil Engineering
Under the supervision of

Mr. PRANEET MADHAV

To the

Department of Civil Engineering

ALLENHOUSE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Dr. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,

Lucknow (UP) INDIA

1
 DECLARATION

We, hereby declare that the discussion entitled “Soil reclamation; checking
suitability and stability of reclaimed soil” (Soil Stabilization) being submitted
by us towards the partial fulfillment of the degree of Bachelor of Technology, in
the department of Civil Engineering is a project work carried by us under the
supervision of Mr. Praneet Madhav and have not been submitted anywhere else.

We will be solely responsible if any kind of plagiarism is found.

SR.NO. Name of students Roll number

1. SADHANA 1750500011

2. RAHUL RAJ 1750500021

3. RIYA PAL 1750500025

4. VANDIT SINGH 1750500029

5. SAHIL SINGH 1850500801

2
 CERTIFICATE

This is certified that Rahul Raj, Sadhana, Riya Pal, Vandit Singh Chauhan,
Sahil Singh Parihar has carried out the research work presented in this titled
“SOIL RECLAMATION, CHECKING SUITABILTY AND STABILITY
OF RECLAIMED SOIL” ( Soil Stabilization) for the award of ‘Bachelor of
Technology’ in ‘Civil engineering’ from Dr. A.P.J. Abdul kalam Technical
University, Lucknow under our supervision. This report embodies result of
original work, and studies are carried out by the student himself and the
contents of the report do not from the basis for the any other degree to the
candidate or to anybody ekse from this or any other university/institution.

Mr Praneet Madhav ( HOD)

(Associate professor)
Department of civil engineering
Allenhouse institute of technology
Rooma, Kanpur, U.P. India

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 Acknowledgement
It is with immense pleasure that we are expressing our sincere sense of gratitude
and humble appreciation to Asst Prof. Praneet Madhav for his invaluable
guidance, whole hearted cooperation, constructive critisism and continuous
encouragement in the preparation of this thesis.

We would also like to thanks the management , Allenhouse colleges and the
lab technician sir for providing us the necessary facilities.

We take this opportunity to thank all our scholar friends and family for their
valuable support throughout the preparation of this work and we also thank to
all of them who have directly or indirectly helped us in completion of this
report.

4
 ABSTRACT

Generally Soil is a peculiar material. The Fly Ash use to make the soil to be
stable. It can increase the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Some
expecting properties to be improved are liquidity index, plasticity index,
unconfined compressive strength and specific gravity etc. For any type of
structure, the foundation is very important and it has to be strong to support the
entire structure. In order for the strong foundation the soil around it plays a very
critical role. To work on soils, we need to have proper knowledge about their
properties and factors which affect their behavior. these problems are
manifested through swelling, shrinkage and unequal settlement. In The
stabilized soil materials have a higher strength, lower permeability and lower
compressibility. The Test were conducted on the soils–Fly Ash mixtures
prepared at optimum water content at 9%.A study is carried out to check the
improvements in the properties of expansive soil with fly ash and lime in
varying percentages.The increase of dry density compromises higher strength.
Several methods have been suggested to control this problem.

The most commonly used method is addition of stabilizing agents, such as fly
ash to the expansive soil. One of the most effective and economical method is
addition of stabilizing agents such as lime or fly ash to expansive soil.
Expansive soil was stabilized with various proportion of fly ash i.e.
0%,5%,10%,15%,20% Addition of fly ash to clay reduces the optimum
moisture content but the dry density increases upto fly ash content of 20%,
thereafter, the same decreases with further increases in fly ash content. Soil is
one of the most important and primary media for any construction work. The
strength and durability of any structure depends on the strength properties of
soil. The soil is collected from the Midas ground, Allenhouse colleges, Kanpur,
Uttar Pradesh , India.

Table of contents
5
Topic Pg No.
DECLARATION……………………………………………………………………………… 2
CERTIFICATE………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………………... 4
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………..5
Chapter -1
1.1 Introduction
4. Chapter 2 - Physical, engineering and chemical
properties of the fly ash and soil
2.1 Properties of Ash (Fly Ash )
2.2 chemical properties of soil
2.2.1 Soil pH
2.2.2 Soil Fertility
2.3 Physical properties of Soil
2.3.1 Rock content
2.3.2 soil aggregation
2.4 Soil Stabilization to Improve Soil Strength
5. Chapter 3-Soil Stabilization to Control Shrink Swell and behaviour of organic
soil
3.1 Determining effectiveness of soil reclamation
3.2 Study on Strength Behavior of Organic Soil Stabilized with Fly Ash
3.2.1 Materials and Methods
3.2.1.1. Soils
3.2.1.2 Fly Ashes
3.3.2 Experimental Method

6. Chapter 4 - Mix Design and Specification Requirements , control of material

and site investigation
4.1 Testing to Determine Mix Proportions
4.2 Construction Practices

6
4.3 Cautions
4.4 General Information
4.5 Property
4.6 Accessibility
4.7 Topography, Geology, Hydrology, and Geomancy
7. Chapter 5 - Subsoil Exploration
5.1 Direct Methods
5.1.1 Test Pits
5.1.2 Auger Drilling
5.2 Indirect Methods
5.3 Sampling
7. Chapter 6 - Field Tests
6.1 Field Tests for Foundation Design
6.1.1 Penetration Resistance Test
6.1.2 Cone Penetration Test
6.1.3 Plate Bearing Test
8. Chapter 7 - Classification and Identification and Foundation Design
7.1 Field Identification and Classification
7.1.1 Unified Soil Classification System
7.2 Identification and Description
7.2.1 Water Measurement
7.3 Significance of Test Results
7.4 Dead and Live Load
9. Result
10. Conclusion
11. References

Chapter 1
Introduction
7
Site feasibility study for geotechnical projects is of far most beneficial before a
project can take off. Site survey usually takes place before the design process
begins in order to understand the characteristics of subsoil upon which the
decision on location of the project can be made. The following geotechnical
design criteria have to be considered during site selection. Soil Reclamation is
the process of reclaiming the soil’s quality like lost fertility, minerals, nutrients
and moisture to make it fit for intensive use again. The reclamation of soil, its
nutrients and fertility are done with an objective to increase further land use and
enhance agricultural activities like cropping and irrigation.

A large container terminal is constructed at the port terminal in western coast of

India by reclaiming the sea. The slope stability analyses have been performed
for perimeter bund which is having a length of about 11km. The terminal is
developed over marine clay and the maximum thickness of very soft to soft clay
is around 24 m. The soft marine clay is susceptible to large settlements and
slope failure during temporary & permanent condition.

Three topics on the excavation and utilization of soils in Japan are presented in
this paper. First, the current status of the generation and reuse of excavated soils
is presented. Since natural contamination has been a concern in recent years,
several efforts including experimental studies to evaluate the environmental
suitability of these materials have been conducted. Second, traceability in
environmental geotechnics is becoming an important consideration. One joint
project, in which the excavated soils generated from shield tunnel excavation
are utilized as a soil material for reclamation, utilizes the electronic toll
collection (ETC) system to track the soil materials. Third, the utilization of
recovered soils obtained from disaster debris mixtures generated by the 2011
East Japan earthquake and tsunami is required. Several issues on the proper
treatment to obtain the soils from waste mixture and to utilize these soils in
geotechnical applications are discussed.

Through soil stabilization, unbound materials can be stabilized with

cementitious materials (cement, lime, fly ash, bitumen or combination of
these). The stabilized soil materials have a higher strength, lower permeability
and lower compressibility than the native soil. The method can be achieved in
two ways, namely; (1) in situ stabilization and (2) ex-situ stabilization. Note
that, stabilization not necessary a magic wand by which every soil properties
can be improved for better . The decision to technological usage depends on
which soil properties have to be modified. The chief properties of soil which

8
are of interest to engineers are volume stability, strength, compressibility,
permeability and durability . For a successful stabilization, a laboratory tests
followed by field tests may be required in order to determine the engineering
and environmental properties. Laboratory tests although may produce higher
strength than corresponding material from the field, but will help to assess the
effectiveness of stabilized materials in the field.

The management of such excavated soils discharged through construction

works is therefore an important consideration in geotechnical and
geoenvironmental engineering. Reuse of excavated soils either at the generating
sites or at different places has been promoted, because disposal of unusable
soils at landfill sites should be minimized due to the limited capacity of
landfills. Limitation of available natural resources, as well as land spaces for
landfills, has strongly promoted the reuse of materials in Japan. Reuse of
materials in construction works has particularly attracted great attention because
of the large capacity for application as well as the large generation of by-
products including excavated soils.

9
 Chapter 2
Physical, engineering and chemical properties of the ash and soil

2.1 Properties of Ash (Fly Ash)

The physical and engineering properties of fly ash that will determine the
behavior of the embankment are grain-size distribution, moisture-density
relationships, shear strength, compressibility, permeability, capillarity, and frost
susceptibility. Laboratory tests designed for testing soil properties may be
applied to testing fly ash. The chemical characteristics of the fly ash affect the
physical behavior as well as the quality of the leachate produced by the ash. The
utility company or its marketing agent can provide information on the physical,
engineering, and chemical composition of the ash and leachate characteristics.

Class C fly ash and Class F-lime product blends can be used in numerous
geotechnical applications common with highway construction:

 To enhance strength properties

 Stabilize embankments
 To control shrink swell properties of expansive soils
 Drying agent to reduce soil moisture contents to permit compaction
Class C fly ash can be used as a stand-alone material because of its self-
cementitious properties. Class F fly ash can be used in soil stabilization
applications with the addition of a cementitious agent (lime, lime kiln dust,
CKD, and cement). The self-cementitious behavior of fly ashes is determined
by ASTM D 5239. This test provides a standard method for determining the
compressive strength of cubes made with fly ash and water (water/fly ash
weight ratio is 0.35), tested at seven days with standard moist curing. The self-
cementitious characteristics are ranked as shown below:

Very self-cementing > 500 psi (3,400 kPa)

Moderately self-cementing 100 - 500 psi (700 - 3,400 kPa)

Non self-cementing < 100 psi (700 kPa)

It should be noted that the results obtained from ASTM D 5239 only
characterizes the cementitious characteristics of the fly ash-water blends and
does not alone provide a basis to evaluate the potential interactions between the
fly ash and soil or aggregate.

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2.2 Chemical Property of soil
2.2.1 Soil pH
Soil pH is a measure of active soil acidity and is the most commonly used
indicator of mine soil quality. The pH of a given mine soil can change rapidly as
the rock fragments weather and oxidize. Pyritic minerals (FeS2), when present,
oxidized to sulfuric acid and drastically lower the pH, while carbonate
(Ca/MgCO3) bearing minerals and rocks tend to increase the pH as they
weather and dissolve. Unweathered (or unoxidized) mine soils those contain a
significant amount of pyritic-S in excess of their neutralizers (carbonates) will
rapidly drop the pH to a range of 2.2 - 3.5 after exposure to water and oxygen.

11
2.2.2 Soil Fertility
The three major macronutrients, namely nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
are generally found to be deficient in overburden dumps (Coppin and Bradshaw,
1982; Sheoran et al., 2008). All newly created mine soils, and many older ones,
will require significant fertilizer element applications for the establishment and
maintenance of any plant community. Organic matter is the major source of
nutrients such as nitrogen, and available P and K in unfertilized soils (Donahue
et al., 1990). A level of organic carbon greater than 0.75% indicates good
fertility (Ghosh et al., 1983). The level of organic carbon in overburden was
found to be 0.35% to 0.85%. Organic carbon is positively correlated with
available N and K and negatively correlated with Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn (Maiti and
Ghose, 2005). Initial applications of fertilizers have shown to increase the
specific numbers, plants co-density and growth rates of vegetation. Some of the
important metallic micronutrients that are essential for plant growth are Fe, Mn,
Cu, and Zn. These micronutrients are available in the soil due to continuous
weathering of minerals mixed with primary minerals. These metals are more
soluble in acidic solution, and they dissolve to form toxic concentrations that
may actually hinder plant growth (Donahue et al., 1990; Barcelo and
Poshenrieder, 2003; Das and Maiti, 2006). Maiti and Ghose, (2005) while
working on restoration of acidic coal overburden reported that it is essential to
increase the pH and organic matter content for sustainable reclamation of
mining overburdens. During investigation it was found that locally available
drought resistant, fast-growing trees able to grow in acidic nutrient deficient

12
2.3 Physical Properties of soil

2.3.1 Soil Aggregation

Soil aggregation controls soil hydrology, affect soil diffusion and the degree of
nutrient availability to the soil (Lindemann et al., 1984; Heras, 2009), and may
reduce erosion potential (Elkins et al., 1984), and constitutes a pathway of
organic carbon stabilization and long term sequestration(Six et al., 2004).
Aggregate structure breaks down as successive layers of soil are removed and
stockpiled elsewhere on the site when mining begins. The resulting compaction
reduces water holding capacity and aeration. Macro aggregate stability is
largely responsible for macro porosity, which determines soil drainage rate and
aeration; it changes seasonally and is often affected by cultivation and cropping
regime (Kay, 1990). Micro-aggregate stability is more resilient than macro-
aggregate stability as the organic matters responsible for binding the soil
particles together reside in pores too small for microorganisms to occupy
(Gregorich et al., 1989). Micro-aggregates are less sensitive to cropping
practices than macro-aggregates (Dexter, 1988) and are responsible for crumb
porosity which controls the amount of available water for vegetation and
construction.

2.4 Soil Stabilization to Improve Soil Strength

Fly ash has been used successfully in many projects to improve the strength
characteristics of soils. Fly ash can be used to stabilize bases or subgrades, to
stabilize backfill to reduce lateral earth pressures and to stabilize embankments
to improve slope stability. Typical stabilized soil depths are 15 to 46
centimeters (6 to 18 inches). The primary reason fly ash is used in soil
stabilization applications is to improve the compressive and shearing strength of
soils. The compressive strength of fly ash treated soils is dependent on:

In-place soil properties

Delay time

Moisture content at time of compaction

Fly ash addition ratio

13
 Figure 7-1: Mixing and shaping of fly ash stabilized soil

Delay time. Delay time is the elapsed time measured between when the fly ash
first comes into contact with water and final compaction of the soil, fly ash and
water mixture. Compressive strength is highly dependent upon delay time. Both
densities and strength are reduced with increasing delay to final compaction.
Delay time is critical due to the rapid nature of the tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
reaction that occurs when Class C fly ash is mixed with water. Densities and
strengths are reduced because a portion of the compactive energy must be used
to overcome the bonding of the soil particle by cementation and because a
portion of the cementation potential is lost. Maximum strength in soil-fly ash
mixtures is attained at no delay. Typically, a one-hour compaction delay is
specified for construction purposes.

14
 Figure 7-2: Compaction of fly ash stabilized soil.

Addition Ratios. Typical fly ash addition rates are 8 percent to 16 percent based
on dry weight of soil. The addition rate depends on the nature of the soil, the
characteristics of the fly ash and the strength desired. The addition rate must be
determined by laboratory mix design testing. In general the higher the addition
rate the higher the realized compressive strength.

15
Chapter 3

Soil Stabilization to Control Shrink Swell and behaviour of organic

soil

3.1Determining effectiveness of soil reclamation

3.2 Study on Strength Behavior of Organic Soil Stabilized with Fly Ash

3.2.1 Materials and Methods

3.2.1.1. Soils

3.2.1.2 Fly Ashes

3.3.2 Experimental Method

3.3.3 Results and Discussions

In the Soil stabilization process, soil properties are improves the engineering
performance of the soils. The properties are mostly density, water content,
plasticity and strength. Changes in the soil properties is the temporary
enhancement of sub grade stability. Stabilization can be used to treat a wide
range of sub-grade materials from expansive clays to granular materials. The
main advantages of soil stabilization process have higher resistance, reduces in
plasticity, lower permeability, and reduction of pavement thickness.
Stabilization of expansive soils its controls the potential of the soils for changes
in volume, and improves the strength. In the field of geotechnical engineering.
Expansive soils are known as shrink swell or swelling soils.

Many clay soils (plastic soils) undergo extensive volumetric changes when
subjected to fluctuating moisture contents. These volumetric changes if not
controlled can lead to movements in structures and impose loads which can
cause premature failure.

The plasticity of soils has historically been quantified by the plasticity index, as
determined by ASTM D 4318. Typically specifications limit the plasticity index
of a soil to no more than 10-12 to ensure a stable material. In general terms, the

16
higher the plasticity index, the higher the potential to shrink or swell as the soil
undergoes moisture content fluctuations.

Figure 7-3: Mixing and compaction of fly ash into a plastic soil.

Historically, plastic soils have been treated with quick lime (CaO) or hydrated
lime [Ca (OH)2] to lower their plasticity. The lime chemically reacts with the
soil particles, effectively changing the soil grains from clay size (less than 0.002
mm) to silt size (0.05 to 0.002 mm). The determination of the plasticity index is
geared towards measuring this chemical change in the soil.

Fly ash reduces the potential of a plastic soil to undergo volumetric expansion
by a physical cementing mechanism, which cannot be evaluated by the

17
plasticity index. Fly ash controls shrink-swell by cementing the soil grains
together much like a portland cement bonds aggregates together to make
concrete. By bonding the soil grains together, soil particle movements are
restricted. Typical addition rates based on dry weight of soil are 12 to 15
percent.

3.1 DETERMINING EFFECTIVENESS OF SOIL RECLAMATION

Some assessment should be made to determine once the reclamation plan is
complete and vegetation has established. It is to determine how closely the
reclaimed site functions, in comparison to similar undisturbed sites, as an
ecosystem. Reclamation of abandoned mine land is a very complex process.
Most researchers agree that reclamation success must be measured by more than
the presence of vegetation on the site. Several parameters must be considered in
order to determine the state and functionality of the soil system since no
individual parameter provides sufficient information for ecosystem reclamation.
Both the activation of basic soil biological processes and the rearrangement of
soil particles into stable aggregates are key factors related to the soil
functionality.
soil moisture content, type of ecosystem, restored versus undisturbed site, they
found that using the selected three-dimensional system allowed distinction of
different habitats. The results can then be used in conjunction with reference
databases of undisturbed sites to evaluate success of restoration.

Soils must be compacted to their maximum practical density to provide a firm

base for overlying structures. For soils to be compacted the moisture content
must be controlled because of the relationship between soil density and
moisture content. If the soil to be compacted is either to wet or too dry, the
moisture content must be adjusted to near optimum to achieve maximum
density. If a soil is too dry, moisture is simply added. If a soil is too wet, the
moisture content of the soil must be lowered. Class C fly ash and other high
lime fly ash have been found to be very effective drying agents, capable of
reducing soil moisture content by 30 percent or more.

The fly ash dries the soil by two basic mechanisms, chemical reactions that
consume moisture in the soil and by simple dilution. Class C fly ashes contain
tricalcium aluminate (C3A), which is highly reactive with water. C3A is the
chemical compound present in ordinary portland cement which is responsible
for early strength. The C3A present in fly ash reacts with the water, lowering
the overall moisture content of the soil. The drying effect of fly ash in wet soil

18
is very rapid and immediate, permitting the contractor to quickly proceed with
construction. In addition to the speeding up of the construction process the use
of fly ash provides several other benefits, such as making the soil more resistant
to additional water infiltration, provides additional support for traffic, creates a
more stable work platform and reduces dusting from construction traffic.

3.2 STUDY ON STRENGTH BEHAVIOR OF ORGANIC SOIL STABILIZED WITH FLY

ASH
Soil is one of the most important and primary media for any construction work.
The strength and durability of any structure depends on the strength
properties of soil. It has been found from several studies that, due to the
detrimental characteristics of organic soil, the shear strength and bearing
capacity of this soil are very low, while the compressibility is very high. In
recent years, subgrades of roadways are generally constructed by replacing the
underneath organic soil with granular soil named “cut and replace” or
preloading to improve the engineering properties of soil, which requires a huge
investment cost and effort. This cost of using granular soil can be minimized by
blending and mixing the existing soil with a cementing admixture, known as
chemical stabilization process.

Fly ash is the combustion product of subbituminous coal in electric power

plants and requires to be landfilled. However, many countries have promoted
the reuse of these types of wastes in the interest of sustainable construction.
Therefore, the use of fly ash as a binding admixture not only improves the
engineering properties of soil but also reduces the use of energy and
greenhouse gases. Fly ash disperses the soil cement clusters into smaller
clusters, thereby increasing the reactive surface for hydration and pozzolanic
reactions . Due to these pozzolanic characteristics, the shear strength and
bearing capacity of the organic soil can be increased by stabilizing it with fly
ash.

3.2.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.2.1.1. SOILS
The soft organic soil having organic content of 36.9% was collected from Beel
Dakatia, Shiromoni, Khulna. Samples were collected within a depth of about

19
1.5 m from the existing ground surface. The collected soil was kept in a large
polythene bag and dried in air for about 7 days.

3.2.1.2 FLY ASHES

Fly ash is a very fine powdery material, composed mostly of silica which is a
product of burning finely ground coal in a boiler to produce electricity. Two
types of fly ash were collected from locally available cement industries in the
southern part of Khulna. The chemical composition and physical composition
of Type I and Type II are summarized in Table 2. According to ASTM C 618,
Type I fly ashes classify as Class C ash and Type II fly ashes classify as Class F. It
is found that Class C fly ashes are finer compared to Class F fly ashes, while the
other physical properties remained the same. Moreover, the CaO and
CaO/SiO2 content of Class F fly ashes is lower than that of the Class C fly ashes.
Therefore, Class C fly ashes offer a more economical alternative as a soil
stabilizing agent because of their pozzolanic characteristics. This type of fly ash
provides the opportunity for applications where other activators would not be
required .

3.3.2 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

Standard Proctor compaction tests were carried out to determine the optimum
moisture content and maximum dry density of all fly ash-soil mixtures
according to ASTM D698-12e2 [22]. Cylindrical samples having a diameter of
38 mm and height of 76 mm, used in the UCS test, were prepared at their
corresponding optimum moisture content and maximum dry density by static
compaction. For curing, the samples were closely wrapped in a polythene bag
and placed above water in a desiccator kept in a room. The unconfined
compressive strength of the samples was assessed according to ASTM D5102-
09 [23]. The index properties of the organic soil and fly ash treated soil were
determined according to ASTM D2976-15.

3.3.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Atterberg limit is very important for the characterization of soil within a broad
category. The variations of liquid limit and plastic limit with varying
percentages of fly ash are shown in Figures 1 and 2. It is seen that both the
liquid limit and the plastic limit increase with the increase of both types of fly
ash content. For example, for the Type I fly ash, the liquid limit ranged from 85

20
to 94% and the plastic limit ranged from 62 to 87%, thus resulting in a decrease
of plasticity index values ranging from 22 to 7%, while in the case of Type II
fly ash, the liquid limit ranged from 85 to 92%, plastic limit ranged from 62 to
83%, and plasticity index ranged from 22 to 9. Tastan et al. [25] showed similar
results and explained that these beneficial changes in engineering properties are
mainly attributed to cation exchange, flocculation of the clay, agglomeration,
and pozzolanic reactions. For example, rapid and immediate changes in
plasticity occurred due to the cation exchange and flocculation of clay.

Figure :- Variation of liquid limit with fly ash content.

21
Figure :- Variation of plastic limit with fly ash content

22
Chapter 4

Mix Design and Specification Requirements , control of material and site

investigation

4.1 Testing to Determine Mix Proportions

4.2 Construction Practices

4.3 Cautions

4.4 General Information

4.5 Property

4.6 Accessibility

4.7 Topography, Geology, Hydrology

design. The stabilization of aggregate road bases with fly ash has a long and
successful history. This application, termed pozzolanic-stabilized mixture
(PSM) uses several materials and material combinations to construct stabilized
aggregate bases. Class C fly ash can be used as a stand-alone material. Class F
fly ash can be used when blended with lime, portland cement or cement kiln
dust (CKD). Typical proportions for the Class F fly ash lime blends are two to
eight percent lime blended with 10 to 15 percent Class F fly ash. Also, 0.5 to 1.5
percent Type I portland cement can be blended with Class F fly ash to produce
the stabilizing agent. The stabilization of aggregate bases provides several
advantages:

Adds significant strength and durability

Allows the use of marginal or low quality aggregates

Permits better use of open graded base courses

Reduces project cost

Strength. Closely controlled curing conditions are important as both time and
temperature significantly affect strength. Use standard proctor-sized specimens;
normal curing for lime/fly ash/aggregate mixtures is at plus 38 degrees C (100
degrees F) for 7 days. Some states use different curing times and temperatures.

23
Durability. It is important to ensure that adequate resistance to freeze-thaw
cycling is achieved before the onset of colder months. The vacuum saturation
test is normally used per ASTM C 593.

4.1 TESTING TO DETERMINE MIX PROPORTIONS

The following steps summarize the procedures for a laboratory determination of
mix proportions:

Obtain a representative sample of aggregate. Determine the particle size

distribution of the aggregate. Screen the aggregate through a three-quarter-inch
sieve, and use the portion passing the three-quarter-inch sieve for testing.

Use proctor-size molds for all test samples. Add fly ash to the aggregate in five
different proportions, starting at the lower limit (10 percent for coarse
aggregate) and proceed in convenient increments to the upper limit (20 percent
for coarse aggregate). Mold one test specimen at each fly ash content in
accordance with ASTM C 593 compaction procedures at an estimated optimum
moisture content.

Determine the molded dry density of each aggregate-fly ash blend. Plot the test
results to identify a peak value or maximum dry density.

Select an optimum matrix content at least two percent above the matrix content
found at the maximum dry density. Then determine the optimum moisture
content and maximum dry density for that blend.

Test three specimens for compressive strength and test the other three
specimens for durability at the end of the seven-day curing period, as described
in ASTM C 593. Some agencies utilize the ASTM D 560 freezing and thawing
test, which incorporates a brushing procedure and related performance criteria
developed by the Portland Cement Association for soil-cement mixtures. In
areas with virtually no freezing and thawing, durability testing may be waived
in accordance with local practices.

Plot a curve of compressive strength as a function of activator percentage for

each of the five activator-to-fly ash combinations. Only test mixtures with a
seven-day compressive strength exceeding 2,760 kPa (400 psi) and acceptable
durability should be considered as a potential PSM for field use.

Select the most economical (lowest percentage activator) mixture that exceeds
the compressive strength and durability requirements. The PSM actually used in
the field should contain a higher percentage of activator (a 0.5 percent increase

24
for lime or portland cement; and a one percent increase for lime kiln dust or
cement kiln dust) than the most economical mixture identified in the laboratory.
This assures an adequate factor of safety for placement techniques available in
the field

Lime. Hydrated lime is the most popular form used, although quick lime and
other products containing lime (kiln dust, etc.) can be used successfully with
appropriate precautions. Type 1 portland cement has also been used
successfully as a reactant when higher early strength requirements or reactant
market conditions dictate. Determine actual lime content from samples using
approved titration methods (ASTM D 2901, AASHTO T 232).

Fly ash. Unconditioned (dry) or conditioned (water added) fly ash can be used
successfully. Check the reactivity of fly ash with cement in accordance with
ASTM C 593 and for comparison and mix design results. Reactivity and
fineness are the fly ash characteristics that most directly affect PSM quality.

Aggregates. Aggregates must be sound and resist deterioration from

environmental elements. They may include sands, gravels, or crushed stones.
Gradation should be such that the final mixture is mechanically stable and
highly compactable.

4.2 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

Blending of materials. Central plant mixing provides the best quality, although
in-place mixing has also been successful. Most plants use a continuous pugmill,
but central mix concrete plants also work well. When unconditioned (dry) fly
ash is used, a silo and surge bin are needed for lime or cement and fly ash.
When belt feeding, drop dry fly ash on top of the aggregate to keep it from
rolling down the belt during pugmill loading. Conditioned Class F fly ash can
be routinely added through an aggregate.

In-place mixing. In-place mixing involves the use of portable pulverizing and
mixing equipment to blend granular soil or aggregate materials with PSM
reagent material and water in pre-determined proportions at the project site.
Class F fly ash is usually added in conditioned form, although it may also be
added dry. The reagent materials (lime and/or portland cement) are usually
added after the fly ash and are most often introduced in a dry form, although
they may be added in a slurry form in order to minimize dusting. Water is
usually sprayed on the mixture as needed just prior to in-place mixing.

Full depth reclamation. When deteriorated asphalt pavements are recycled in

place, a technique known as full-depth reclamation can be used. The flexible

25
pavement and a pre-determined portion of the underlying base material are
milled and pulverized to a depth that can range from 150 to 300 mm (6 to 12
inches) or more. The pulverized material is mixed within the reclaiming
machine while stabilization reagents (such as lime or portland cement and fly
ash) and water are introduced and blended with the pulverized recycled paving
aggregate. The reclaimer is then followed by grading, spreading, and
compaction equipment working in the same manner and sequence as if plant-
mixed PSM material were delivered and placed at the project site.

4.3 CAUTIONS
Some state or local environmental agencies may require a leaching test of the
ash prior to use.

Ash quality. Fly ashes, which contain sulfur in excess of 5.0 percent as SO3 or
contain scrubber residues, should be carefully evaluated with specific project
soils to evaluate the expansion potential of the materials combination.

Seasonal limitations. PSMs often require several weeks of warmer weather to

develop adequate strength to resist freeze-thaw cycling of the first winter. If late
season placements are necessary, add portland cement in lieu of some of the
lime to increase early strength.

The stability and performance of a structure founded on soil depend on the

subsoilconditions, ground surface features, type of construction, and sometimes
the mete-orological changes. Subsoil conditions can be explored by drilling and
sampling,seismic surveying, excavation of test pits, and by the study of existing
data.

Elaborate site investigation oftentimes cannot be conducted due to a limited

assigned budget. For very favorable sites, such investigation may not be
warranted. However, if the area is suspected of having deep fill, a high water
table, or swelling soil problems, extensive soil investigation will be necessary
even for minor struc- tures. The soil engineers should not accept jobs in
problem areas without thorough investigation. Bear in mind that in court of law,
limited budgets or limited time frames are not excuses for inadequate
investigation. Differing site conditions are a favorite tool of the contractors.
They are used as the basis for extra claims on theircontracts.

26
4.4 GENERAL INFORMATION
The content of this chapter has very little to do with soil engineering. However,
asa consultant, site investigation is probably one of the most important parts of
thetotal inquiry or the report. Average owners know very little about
engineering, butthey do know a great deal about the property they own.
Misrepresentation of theobservations can often cause a great deal of trouble. For
instance, describing theproperty as located in a low-lying area may devalue the
property. Pointing out thecracks in the building owned by someone else in the
neighborhood may induce thebuyer to decrease the offer and in extreme cases
may result in litigation.Valuable information about the presence of fills and
knowledge of any difficultiesencountered during the building of other nearby
structures may be obtained fromtalking to older residents of the area.
Generally, it is a small building with inadequate funding, poor planning, and
alow-bidding contractor that presents the most trouble. The owner of such a
projectgenerally considers soil investigation as a requirement fulfillment rather
than aprotection against foundation failure. Geotechnical engineers should ask
for moredetails regarding the site condition and proposed construction before
accepting such.

4.5 PROPERTY
In most cases, the owner’s property is well defined. However, one often comes
acrossproperty that is not surveyed and not clearly marked. It is quite possible
that thefield man located his test hole outside of the property line. There would
be a greatdeal of argument on the liability of such an incident. It is not unusual
that theengineering company has to pay for the damage. There are cases when
the upperportion of the retaining wall is within the property line, but the base of
the wallextends to the neighboring property. There are cases when the
surveyor’s monumentis intentionally moved for the benefit of the owner. If the
owner is on good termswith his neighbor, nothing will happen. Otherwise, the
case may wind up in court,and the engineers may be involved.
Errors in property lines may lie undetected long after the project is
completedand forgotten. The mistake may involve the demolition of the existing
structure.

4.6 ACCESSIBILITY

27
Not all properties are accessible to drilling equipment. Oftentimes, the site is
coveredwith crops. It is a sad sight to see crops ruined by a drilling vehicle. The
engineeringcompany, not the owner, will wind up paying for the damage.In
mountain sites, access usually presents a problem. Before sending the
drillingequipment to the site, a general survey of the route to enter the site
should be made.Sometimes, trespassing on the neighboring properties cannot be
avoided. In suchcases, permission should be obtained.
If the property is fenced, permission should be obtained to open the gate.
Bevery sure that the gates are properly closed after entering or leaving. The loss
ofcattle or prize horses certainly can add to the liability bill. In the eyes of the
attorney,anything lost is not replaceable.In soft ground,as at the time of spring
thaw or after continuous rain, it is a losteffort to move the drilling equipment to
the site. In order to avoid loss of time orthe cost of towing, it is always
advisable to evaluate the accessibility

first. An allterrain drill rig is able to move into places where conventional drill
rigs cannot gainaccess. In this case, the client should agree to pay for the
additional cost or waituntil the ground has dried up.

4.7 TOPOGRAPHY , GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY

Topography, geology, and hydrology should be treated as an integral part of

soilengineering. No soil engineer can be considered knowledgeable if he
lacksinformation on these subjects. No soil report can be considered complete
withouttouching on these subjects. No investigation can be considered
satisfactory withouthaving such subjects in mind.
Such information can be obtained by reviewing available data, studying
existingmaps, or making a reconnaissance survey. Care must be taken as to the
accuracy ofsuch information. Oftentimes, site grading can completely alter the
topography, anddevelopment in the neighborhood can alter the hydraulic
balance

28
 Chapter 5

Subsoil Exploration

5.1 Direct Methods

5.1.1 Test Pits
5.1.2 Auger Drilling
5.2 Indirect Methods
5.3 Sampling

Subsoil exploration is the first step in the designing of a foundation system. It

consistsessentially of drilling and sampling. The process of subsoil exploration
took placelong before soil mechanics was born. Present-day engineering
requires thousandsof exploratory test borings to build a structure like the Great
Wall of China. Thewall actually winds around the mountains, avoiding problem
soil areas. Somehowits ancientbuilders had a sense in selecting the good
foundation soils.
Chinese legend tells the story of a commandeered laborer who died
whilebuilding the Great Wall. His wife’s lament at the foot of the wall was so
movingthat the wall collapsed. We suspect now if the story is true, the wall
collapsed dueto foundation failure.
Experienced engineers use soil mechanics to confirm their conclusions
ratherthan to reach their conclusions. Many factors affect the choice of a subsoil
exploration program; the judgment of the engineer is deemed necessary.

5.1 DIRECT METHODS

The most suitable method to perform subsoil exploration depends on the type
ofsoil in the general area; type of equipment available; ground water condition;
typeof proposed structure; and the amount of money allocated for the
exploration.Direct methods of exploration include the digging of test pits and
the use ofauger drilling or rotary drilling. Each method has its merits and its
drawbacks. Theengineer must use his or her judgment based on experience and
the evaluation of the site conditions to opt the best method.

5.1.1 TEST PITS

Probably the most accurate subsoil investigation method is the opening of test
pits.In a test pit, the engineer can examine in detail the subsoil strata,

29
stratification, layerand lens, as well as take samples at the desired location.
However, the use of testpits is limited by the following:

When the depth of the test is limited to the reach of a backhoe, generally 12
ft.When the investigation involves basement construction thatextends belowthe
ground levelWhen the water table is high, which prevents excavationWhen the
soil is unstable and has the tendency to collapse, this prevents theengineer from
entering the pit. Entering a test pit can involve certain risksand the regulations
of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA) should be
observedWhen the standard penetration resistance test is requiredIn locations
where subsoil consists essentially of large boulders and cobbles, theuse of test
pit investigation is most favorable. Auger drilling through boulders andcobbles
is difficult. The cost of rotary drilling may not be warranted for small
projects.The layman’s conception of subsoil investigation generally assumes
that drillingto a great depth constitutes the main portion of the cost. After
drilling, the laymanthinks the remaining task of the engineer, such as testing and
preparation of thereport, is of minor importance. Consequently, when no drill
rig shows up at theproject site, the client feels that he has been cheated and the
money paid for theinvestigation is not justified. With such a philosophy, the
engineering companyusually attempts to drill each project when possible
instead of resorting to the useof a backhoe.

5.1.2 AUGER DRILLING

In auger drilling, the hole is advanced by rotating a soil auger while pressing it
intothe soil, and later withdrawing and emptying the soil-laden auger. A series
of augers

30
FIGURE 2.1 Caisson rig with a rock bit.

and a special drilling machine for their operation have been developed by many
specialized soil exploration equipment companies. A series of augers, or a
continuous flight helical auger (Figure 2.2), are used for drilling holes with
diameters of 4 to 8 in. to a depth of 100 ft. An auger boring is made by turning
the auger the desired distance into the soil, withdrawing it, and removing the
soil for examination and sampling. As the depth increases, new auger sections
are added. It is difficult to determine the depth from which the soil dis-charged
from the auger is excavated. Consequently, in order to obtain a representative
sample or an undisturbed sample, it will be necessary to stop the drilling and
replace the auger with a sampler. The sampler can then be pushed or driven into
the soil at the desired depth.
Auger drilling can be successfully conducted in almost all types of soils and in
shale bedrock. For hard bedock such as limestone, sandstone, and granite, rotary
drilling is necessary.
6 .2 INDIRECT METHODS
The geophysical method of exploration is the main indirect method of
subsoilexploration.In subsoil investigation, the seismic method is most
frequently used. Seismicmethods are based on the variation of the wave velocity
in different earth materials.The method involves generating a sound wave in the
rock or soil, using a sledge-hammer, a falling weight, or a small explosive
charge, and then recording its reception at a series of geophones located at

31
various distances from the shot point, The timat a series of geophones located
at various distances from the shot point.

5.3 SAMPLING
The purpose of drilling test holes is not only for the observation of the subsoil
conditions but also for obtaining representative samples. Both disturbed and
undisturbed samples are valuable to geotechnical engineers. The undisturbed
samples can be used for the determination of the stress strain characteristics
of the material. Certain amounts of disturbance during sampling must be
regarded as inevitable.After accepting the foundation investigation assignment
the geotechnical consultant should draft a program of field investigation for
the field engineer to follow. The instruction should consist of the frequency
and spacing of the test holes, the depth of the test holes, the field test
required, etc. The field engineer should use his or her own judgment to
determine whether the instruction should be modified. It is important that the
field engineer not leave the site until all the information is gathered. The
consultant cannot usually afford to investigate the site twice. Unlike some
government projects where cost overruns can be tolerated, the consulting
business is highly competitive; undue expense generally results in financial
loss.

Chapter 6

Field Tests

6.1 Field Tests for Foundation Design

6.1.1 Penetration Resistance Test
6.1.2 Cone Penetration Test
6.1.3 Plate Bearing Test
EFERENCES

32
Pavement and runway tests rely more on samples from core cutters, the
California bearing ratio test, and others. In recent years, unsaturated soils,
including swelling and collapsing soils, have received a great deal of attention
from geotechnical engineers. The performances of such soils are covered by
specialized books and will be discussed only briefly in the following chapter.

6.1 FIELD TESTS FOR FOUNDATION DESIGN

Field investigation for foundation recommendations involves numerous tests.
In situ testing includes the core cutter test, sand replacement test, standard
penetration test, cone penetration test, vane shear test, plate bearing test,
pressuremeter test, and many others. It is obvious that for a certain project
not all tests are necessary. For shallow foundations, in situ testing is relatively
easy, but for deep foundations such as piles and piers, field tests are often
expensive and not always reliable.

6.1.1 PENETRATION RESISTANCE TEST

Probably the oldest method of testing soil is the “Penetration Resistance Test.”
In performing the Penetration Resistance Test, the split spoon sampler used to
take soil samples is utilized.

1. Depth Factor — The value of N in cohesionless soils is influenced to some

extent by the depth at which the test is made. This is because of the greater
confinement caused by the increasing overburden pressure. In the design of
spread footings on sand, a correction of penetration resis-tance value is not
explicitly required. In other problems, particularly those concerned with the
liquefaction of sand, however, a correction is necessary.
2. Water Table — When penetration is carried out below the water table in
fine sands or silty sands, the pore pressure tends to be reduced in the vicinity
of the sampler, resulting in a transient decrease in N value.
3. Driving Condition — The most significant factor affecting the penetration
resistance value is the driving condition. It is essential that the driving
condition should not be abused. The standard penetration barrel should not be
packed by overdriving since, at this force, the soil acts against the sides of the
barrel and causes incorrect readings. An increase in blow count by as much as
50% can sometimes be caused by a packed barrel.
4. Cobble Effect — The barrel will bounce when driving on cobbles; hence, no
useful value can be obtained. Sometimes, a small piece of gravel will jam the

33
barrel, thereby preventing the entrance of soil into the barrel, thus
substantially increasing the blow count.
5. California Sampler — Considerable economy can be achieved by combining
the penetration test with sampling as described under “undisturbed sample.”
Field tests have been conducted comparing the results of the penetration
resistance of the California sampler with those of standard penetration tests.

6.1.3 CONE PENETRATION TEST

The cone penetration test (Figure 3.4) is a static penetration test in which the
cone is pushed rather than driven into the soil. The cone has an apex angle of
60° with a base area of 10 cm2 attached to the bottom of a rod and protected
by a casing. The cone is pushed by the rod at the rate of two cm/sec. The cone
resistance is the force required to advance the cone, divided by the base area.
The arrangement is known as the “Dutch Cone.”When the tip incorporates a
friction sleeve, the base has an area of 15 cm2. The local side friction is then
measured as the frictional resistance per unit area on the friction sleeve.
The results of cone penetration tests appear to be most reliable for sand and
silt that are not completely saturated. The application of the cone penetration
test on stiff clay is limited.

34
Fig 2.3 Cone penetrometers ( after sower)

6.1.4 PLATE BEARING TEST

The object of the plate bearing test is to obtain a load/settlement curve
(Figures 2.4 to 2.5). For soil with relatively high bearing capacity, the load
required to complete the curve is often exceedingly high, and the cost of such
testing is often unjustified. However, under certain circumstances where other
test procedures are difficult to apply, such a test may be justified; for example,
on weathered rocks, chalk, or hard core fills.

Fig 2.4 arrangement for plate load test

The plate bearing test assures the client that the geotechnical engineer has
taken the project seriously, and the recommendations presented are without
errors. If the client is willing to pay for such a test just for assurance that
nothing will go wrong, then the geotechnical engineer should be happy to
comply with the client’s wish, although the test results will not alter the
recommendations in the report. A pit is excavated to the required depth, the
bottom leveled, and a steel plate set firmly on the soil. A static load is then
applied to the plate in a series of increments, and the amount and rate of
settlement measured. Loading continued until the soil under the plate yields.
A number of tests will be required using different plate diameters at different
depths.

35
FIGURE 2.5 Results of standard load tests on loess deposit (after Peck).

36
Chapter 7

Classification and Identification and Foundation Design

7.1 Field Identification and Classification

7.1.1 Unified Soil Classification System

7.2 Identification and Description

7.2.1 Water Measurement

7.3 Significance of Test Results

7.3.1 Unconfined Compression Tests

7.3.2 Consolidation Tests

7.4 Dead and Live Load

7.1 FIELD IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

The earliest soil classification system is the “Texture System.” This system is
based on soil grain size alone. It is still used in the agricultural field, though
geotechnical engineers have long abandoned the system. The FAA system
initiated by the Federal Aviation Administration was the first to be developed
by the engineers. The only systems in use by the geotechnical engineers at
present are the AASHTO System and the Unified Soil Classification system. The
latter has gradually replaced all others.

7.1.1 UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

The system was adopted in 1952 by the Bureau of Reclamation and the Corps
of Engineers, with Professor A. Casagrande as consultant. Soils are categorized
in groups, each of which has distinct engineering properties. The criteria for
classification are

1. Percentage of gravel, sand, and fines in accordance with grain size

2. Shape of grain size curve for coarse grain soils
3. Plasticity and compressibility characteristics for fine grained soils and
organic soils. The letter symbols are as follows:

37
G Gravel and gravelly soils
S Sand and sandy soils

M Silt
C Clay
O Organic soils
Pt Peat
W Well graded
P Poorly graded
H High Plasticity
L Low Plasticity

In borderline cases, a combination of symbols is used. The Unified Soil

Classification System is a milestone in soil mechanics.

7.2 IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION

Accurate and precise description of the subsoil conditions in the field by the
field engineers is not easy. A freshman field engineer tends to over-log the
subsoil strata revealed in the bore hole. As the soil comes out of the auger,
there are some differences in each foot of the material. Consequently, the
inexperienced engineer tends to log the hole with such frequent changes of
stratum that the draftsman has a difficult time plotting the data. At the same
time, drill logs without any descriptions are often seen.
Logging of test holes is an art. It takes a great deal of practice and experience
before the field engineer or a technician is able to master such a skill. Bearing
in mind that subsoils are never uniform, the field engineer logs the holes for
engineering purposes, not for research. Inconsistency is to be expected.
However, if the field log fell into the hands of an attorney, the engineer can at
once smell trouble. It is sometimes better to destroy the field log after
completion of the project.

7.2.1 WATER MEASUREMENT

Moisture content of soils as they are taken from the ground should be
recorded. They are generally designated as dry, moist, or wet. These terms are
relative depending on the type of soil. For fairly clean sands, a moisture
content of about 12% is considered as wet, while for clay this moisture content
is considered to be moist. It is essential that the field engineer record the

38
water level found in the bore holes. In the case of sandy soils, when the augers
are removed rapidly from the bore hole, an upward hydraulic gradient is
created in the sand beneath the drill hole. Consequently, the sand may
become “quick” and the relative density may be greatly reduced. The
penetration resistance value will accordingly be much lower than that
corresponding to the relative density of the undisturbed sand. Care is required
to ensure that the water level in the drill hole is always maintained at or
slightly above that corresponding to the piezometric level at the bottom of the
hole. The importance of water in geotechnical engineering will be discussed
further in later chapters.

7.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF TEST RESULTS

The significance of laboratory testing is to justify the recommendations given
by the consultants in their report to the client. Too many soil reports include a
large number of test data that have no bearing on the body of the soil report.
To a layman, the consultant probably will be praised for taking his project
seriously by including so many tests. To an experienced engineer, the report
indicates that the writer still needs to understand the significance of laboratory
testing. With the exception of the classification test, the main purposes of the
laboratory test are to determine the values of “shear” and “consolidation.”
Sixty years after Terzaghi, enough papers and books have been written on the
two subjects to fill many drawers in the filing cabinet. Still, to the many
thousands of geotechnical consultants in the world, the significance of shear
tests and consolidation tests is not fully realized.

7.3.1 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TESTS

Unconfined compression tests can be performed with a hand-operated
compressor or a more refined speed-controlled mechanical compressor. Both
undisturbed and remolded samples can be tested. With undisturbed samples
extruded from the brass thin-wall liners can be placed directly on the compre
or without trimming. The operation is considered the simplest test in the
geotechnical laboratory. However, it is amazing to find the wide range of
figures derived from the test results. The consultants wonder what they are
going to do with all the test results put in front of them by the laboratory
technician. The value of unconfined compression tests is still controversial.
Some claim that the use of such tests is limited to special problems and the
results are considered to represent index properties rather than engineering

39
properties. By accumulating hundreds of unconfined compressive strength
data results with their corresponding penetration resistance as shown in Figure
6.1 a meaningful relationship can be found. Figure 6.1 indicates the upper, the
lower, and the average values. In most consultants’ offices, there is a great
deal of information on the relationships between penetration resistance and
unconfined compressive strength value. With such values in a predominately
clay soil area, similar curves as shown can be established. By using such a
curve, a quantitative unconfined compressive value can be established. Since
unconfined compressive strength is really a special case oftriaxial compression
carried out at zero cell pressure, the established value can be used for
foundation design.

Without establishing the curve shown in Figure 2.6, the correlation of the
unconfined compressive strength value with penetration resistance can be
generally xpressed as follows. For average projects, the consistency of clay can
be determined by the unconfined compressive strength tests. The reliability of
using unconfined compressive strength value for the computation of allowable
soil pressure depends on the soil classification. In practice, most clays contain a
considerable amount of coarse material with a defined friction angle. Such
materials have a higher bearing pressure than plastic clays and at the same
time the unconfined compressive strength can be relatively low.

40
FIGURE 2.6 Approximate relation between penetration resistance and unconfined compres- sive
strength, based on accumulated data in the test.

7.3.2 CONSOLIDATION TESTS

The compressibility characteristics of a soil relating to both the amount and rate
ofsettlement are usually determined from the one-dimensional consolidation test
or the oedometer test. In a classic theory of consolidation developed by
Terzaghi in 1919, a layer of clay was sandwiched between free draining
granular soils. Such conditions seldom or never exist in reality.

41
FIGURE 2.7 Consolidation curve for medium stiff sandy clay.

7.4 DEAD AND LIVE LOAD

Dead load refers to the portion of load permanently attached to the structure.
Such load essentially is the weight of the structure, including floor finish, walls,
ceiling, building frame, and interior finishing. Sometimes, the weights of the
footings are not included in the total dead load, on the assumption that the
weight of the soil removed during foundation excavation will offset the weight
of the footings. Also included in the dead load calculation is the weight of the
earth fill. For instance, the earth cover of a buried tank should be included,
although such load can be removed. The weight of water in a water tank
sometimes can be considered as dead load, since only in rare cases will the
tank be empty. Earth pressure acting permanently against the portion of
structure below the ground surface should be considered as dead load,
although some structural engineers consider earth pressure only in their
stability analysis.dead load evaluation is especially important in the design of
piers in an expansive soil area. Dead load is the only element acting on the pier
that is not affected by a change of conditions. Live load includes all loads that
are not a permanent part of the structure but are expected to be
superimposed on the structure during a part or all of its useful life. For all

42
practical purposes, live load includes human occupancy, furniture, warehouse
goods, etc. Also included are snow load, wind load, and seismic load.

Figure2.8 Flow of soil excavation and utilization (data from Japanese Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism 2014).

The applications include road base and embankment, river dyke, backfill,
elevated land construction, reclamation, etc. Soil improvement technologies
making higher class soils have also been developed by many institutions. Some
of the muddy soils may be categorized into waste, while the excavated soils are
not categorized as waste, as mentioned above.

RESULT

Calculations
Dry Density of Soil by Core Cutter Method Cylindrical core cutters of 130mm
long and 100mm diameter are used for testing the in-situ compaction of
cohesive and clay soils placed as fill. By using core cutter method, bulk density
of soil can be quickly calculated and by determining the moisture content of
the soil the dry density of the fill can be calculated and hence the voids
percentage. A high percentage of voids indicates poor compaction of soil.

43
A cylindrical core cutter is a seamless steel tube. For determination of the dry
density of the soil, the cutter is pressed into the soil mass so that it is filled with
the soil without disturbing the core contents. The cutter filled with the soil is
lifted up. The mass of the soil in the cutter is determined. The dry density is
obtained as

Where,

M= mass of the wet soil in the cutter

V= internal volume of the cutter

w= water content.

Bulk Density (Yt ) = (W 2 – W 1 ) / V

Where,

W 1 = Weight of cutter

W 2 = Weight of the soil + cutter

W 2 – W 1 = Weight of soil

V = Volume of the cutter

44
OBSERVATION TABLE OF SOIL BEFORE ADDING FLY ASH :

45
We added fly ash in different proportions and tabulated the required values .

OBSERVATION AFTER REPLACING SOIL BY 5%, 10%, 15% AND 20%

WITH FLY ASH.

46
 % Of Fly Specific Optimum Dry
Ash gravity moisture density of
(g/cc) content soil (g/cc)
(OMC)
5 2.6 9 2.07
10 2.8 8.2 2.31
15 2.7 10.2 2.35
20 2.7 9.3 2.21

Specific gravity curve for soil with fly ash

47
OMC curve for fly ash

Maximum dry density curve for fly ash

48
CONCLUSION:
It is conclude that, the test has been conducted in the clayee soil. The soil
stabilization using flyash is a very effective process for strengthening of soil.
When fly ash are mixed together with the expansive soil then the liquid limit is
first decreased for addition of fly ash 5% with the soil, later adding 10% of fly
ash then gradually increases the value in the liquid limit. The plastic limit is
decreased for addition of fly ash in the ratio of 5% with the soil. By the standard
proctor compaction test the maximum dry density value is rapidly decreased
with the addition of fly ash 5% & 10% and later slowly decreases with the soil.
In the specific gravity is first decreased for addition of fly ash in the ratio of 5%
and later it has been increases with the addition of fly ash 15%. By the
unconfined compression test, the unconfined compressive stress value is
gradually increased by addition of fly ash in the ratio of 5%. Thus the addition
of fly ash with the soil improves all the Engineering properties of the soil. An
important component of any stabilization project is proper design and testing.
This project testing will create proper design criteria by determining the proper
additive and admixture rate that are to be used to achieve the desired
engineering properties. In Soil Stabilization work, having a Geotechnical
Engineer is one of the most important components of a successful project.

49
Reclamation is an essential part in developing mineral resources in accordance
with the principles of ecologically sustainable development. The goal of surface
mine reclamation is to restore the ecological integrity of disturbed areas.
Revegetation constitutes the most widely accepted and useful way of
reclamation of mine spoils to reduce erosion and protect soils against
degradation. The revegetation must be carried out with the plants selected on
the basis of their ability to survive and regenerate in the local environment,
and on their ability to stabilize the soil structure. Revegetation facilitates the
development of N-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal association, which are
fundamental for maintaining the soil quality by mediating the processes of
organic matter turnover and nutrient cycling.
Reclamation of overburden dumps can be managed effectively once the
chemical, physical and biological properties of soil have been correctly
determined. Compaction, low water holding capacity, bulk density, deficiency
of micro and macro nutrients and associated rooting restrictions are the major
factors limiting the productivity of mine soils. High level of potential acidity
(low pH) severely restricts the productivity of some mine soils but this problem
is much more limited in extent than mine soil compaction. Stockpiling of top
soil not only decreases the microbial activity but also disturbs the structure of
soil. Top soil is an essential component for land reclamation in mining areas.
Stockpiling should systematically handle and store the top soil so that its
physical and biological characteristics can be protected. Productive topsoil
substitutes can be generated from hard rock overburden of fresh soil, but care
must be taken in selection and placement. Productivity of soil can also be
increased by adding various amendments such as hay, saw dust, bark mulch,
wood chips, wood residues, sewage sludge, animal manures as they stimulate
the microbial activity (bacteria and mycorrhiza), which provides the nutrients
(N, P) and organic carbon to soil. Acidic dumps can be restored by planting the
metal tolerant plants, which can grow in nutrient deficient soil with elevated
metal content. Planting of different grass, trees species, rotating with legumes
and native species because of their adaptation to deficiency of nutrients and
fast growing traits, shall be able to restore the soil fertility and accelerate
ecological succession. Once the abandoned mine lands have vegetation
growing on the surface, the regeneration of these areas for productive use will
begin and offsite damages will be minimized. In addition, establishment of
vegetation also improves the aesthetics of the area.

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Reclamation must go beyond planting a new landscape by considering the land
as an integrated system that function above and below the ground.
Researchers have demonstrated techniques that appear successful over
periods of several years and have indicated that there is much more to learn
about their long-range effects.

REFERENCES
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quarries and open-pit non-metal mines. Mining Journal Books, London, 112 p.

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