Scheduling

What is Scheduling? : A schedule is the conversion of a project action plan into an

operating timetable. As such, it serves as the basis for monitoring and controlling project
activity and, taken together with the plan and budget, is probably the major tool for the
management of projects. In a project environment, the scheduling function is more important
than it would be in an ongoing operation because projects lack the continuity of day-to-day
operations and often present much more complex problems of coordination. Indeed, project
scheduling is so important that a detailed schedule is sometimes a customer-specified
requirement. Not all project activities need to be scheduled at the same level of detail. In fact,
there may be several schedules (e.g., the master schedule, the development and testing
schedule, the assembly schedule). These schedules are typically based on the previously
determined action plan and/or work breakdown structure (WBS).
Definition: Scheduling in project management is the listing of activities, deliverables, and
milestones within a project. A schedule also usually includes the planned start and finish date,
duration, and resources assigned to each activity.  Effective project scheduling is a critical
component of successful time management.
Benefits: The basic approach of all scheduling techniques is to form a network of activity
and event relationships that graphically portrays the sequential relations between the tasks in
a project. Tasks that must precede or follow other tasks are then clearly identified, in time as
well as function. Such a network is a powerful tool for planning and controlling a project, and
has the following benefits are:
• It is a consistent framework for planning, scheduling, monitoring, and controlling the
project.
• It illustrates the interdependence of all tasks, work packages, and work elements.
• It denotes the times when specific individuals and resources must be available for work on a
given task.
• It aids in ensuring that the proper communications take place between departments and
functions.
• It determines an expected project completion date.
• It identifies so-called critical activities that, if delayed, will delay the project completion
time.
• It also identifies activities with slack that can be delayed for specified periods without
penalty, or from which resources may be temporarily borrowed without harm.
• It determines the dates on which tasks may be started—or must be started if the project is to
stay on schedule.
• It illustrates which tasks must be coordinated to avoid resource or timing conflicts.
• It also illustrates which tasks may be run, or must be run, in parallel to achieve the
predetermined project completion date.
• It relieves some interpersonal conflict by clearly showing task dependencies.
• It may, depending on the information used, allow an estimate of the probability of project
completion by various dates, or the date corresponding to a particular a priori probability.
Network Techniques: PERT and CPM
The most common approach to project scheduling is the use of network techniques such as
PERT and CPM. These two techniques are discussed in the below:
PERT (The Program Evaluation and Review Technique):
In project management, the Project Evaluation Review Technique, or PERT, is used to
identify the time it takes to finish a particular task or activity. It is a system that helps in
proper scheduling and coordination of all tasks throughout a project. , PERT has primarily
been used for R&D projects, the type of projects for which it was developed, though its use is
more common on the “development” side of R&D than it is on the “research” side. It also
helps in keeping track of the progress, or lack thereof, of the overall project. In the 1950s, the
Project Evaluation Review Technique was developed by the US Navy to manage the Polaris
submarine missile program of their Special Projects Office. Knowing the time it should take
to execute a project is crucial, as it helps project managers decide on other factors such as the
budget and task delegation. No matter how big or small a project is, estimates can be too
optimistic or pessimistic, but using a PERT chart will help determine realistic estimates.
Creating a PERT Chart: A flowchart is used to depict the Project Evaluation Review
Technique. Nodes represent the events, indicating the start or end of activities or tasks. The
directorial lines indicate the tasks that need to be completed, and the arrows show the
sequence of the activities. There are four definitions of time used to estimate project time
requirements:
 Optimistic time – The least amount of time it can take to complete a task
 Pessimistic time – The maximum amount of time it should take to complete a task
 Most likely time – Assuming there are no problems, the best, or most reasonable,
estimate of how long it should take to complete a task.
 Expected time – Assuming there are problems, the best estimate of how much time
will be required to complete a task.
Here are several terms used in a PERT chart:
Float/Slack – Refers to the amount of time a task can be delayed without resulting in an
overall delay in completion of other tasks or the project
Critical Path – Indicates the longest possible continuous path from the start to the end of a
task or event
Critical Path Activity – Refers to an activity without any slack
Lead Time – Refers to the amount of time needed to finish a task without affecting
subsequent tasks
Lag Time – The earliest time by which a successor event/task can follow a prior event/task
Fast Tracking – Refers to handling tasks or activities in parallel
Crashing Critical Path – Shortening the amount of time to do a critical task
Advantages of PERT:
1. It helps maximize the use of resources.
2. It makes project planning more manageable.
3. It’s useful even if there is little or no previous schedule data.
4. It enables project managers to better estimate or determine a more definite completion
date.
Disadvantages of PERT:
1. In complex projects, many find PERT hard to interpret, so they may also use
a Gantt Chart, another popular method for project management.
2. It can be tedious to update, modify, and maintain the PERT diagram.
3. It entails a subjective time analysis of activities and, for those who are less
experienced or are biased, this may affect the project’s schedule.
CPM (Critical Path Method):
CPM was designed for construction projects and has been generally embraced by the
construction industry. Critical path method is based on mathematical calculations and it is
used for scheduling project activities. This method was first introduced in 1950s as a joint
venture between Remington Rand Corporation and DuPont Corporation. The initial critical
path method was used for managing plant maintenance projects. Although the original
method was developed for construction work, this method can be used for any project where
there are interdependent activities. CPM used deterministic activity time estimates and was
designed to control both the time and cost aspects of a project, in particular, time/cost trade-
offs. In CPM, activities can be “crashed” (expedited) at extra cost to speed up the completion
time.
Key Steps in Critical Path Method: The process of using critical path method in project
planning phase has six steps
Step 1: Activity specification
The Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) can be used to identify the activities involved in the
project. This is the main input for the critical path method. In activity specification, only the
higher-level activities are selected for critical path method. When detailed activities are used,
the critical path method may become too complex to manage and maintain.
Step 2: Activity sequence establishment
In this step, the correct activity sequence is established. For that, there are three questions
need to ask for each task of the list:
 Which tasks should take place before this task happens?
 Which tasks should be completed at the same time as this task?
 Which tasks should happen immediately after this task?
Step 3: Network diagram
Once the activity sequence is correctly identified, the network diagram can be drawn by using
arrows to connect activities based on their dependencies.
Step 4: Estimates for each activity
Estimating how much time will be spent for each action and determine the time needed to
complete the entire project (small projects can be assessed in a few days; more complex ones
require a long evaluation).
Step 5: Identification of the critical path
The activity network will help to create the longest sequence on the path or the critical path
using the following parameters:
 Early Start – the time when all previous tasks are completed.
 Early Finish – the nearest start time and the time required to complete the task.
 Late Finish – all activities are completed without postponing the deadlines.
 Late Start – the last end time minus the time it takes to complete the task.

The float time for an activity is the time between the earliest (ES) and the latest (LS) start
time or between the earliest (EF) and latest (LF) finish times. During the float time, an
activity can be delayed without delaying the project finish date.
The critical path is the longest path of the network diagram. The activities in the critical path
have an effect on the deadline of the project. If an activity of this path is delayed, the project
will be delayed.
In case if the project management needs to accelerate the project, the times for critical path
activities should be reduced.
Step 6: Critical path diagram to show project progresses
Critical path diagram is a live artefact. Therefore, this diagram should be updated with actual
values once the task is completed.
This gives more realistic figure for the deadline and the project management can know
whether they are on track regarding the deliverables.
Advantages of Critical Path Method:
  The method visualizes projects in a clear graphical form.
 It defines the most important tasks.
 Saves time and helps in the management of deadlines.
 Helps to compare the planned with the real status.
 Identifies all critical activities that need attention.
 Makes dependencies clear and transparent.
Difference between PERT and CPM:

BASIS FOR
PERT CPM
COMPARISON

Meaning PERT is a project management CPM is a statistical technique of

technique, used to manage project management that manages
uncertain activities of a project. well defined activities of a
project.

What is it? A technique of planning and A method to control cost and

control of time. time.

Orientation Event-oriented Activity-oriented

Evolution Evolved as Research & Evolved as Construction project

Development project

Model Probabilistic Model Deterministic Model

Focuses on Time Time-cost trade-off

Estimates Three time estimates One time estimate

Appropriate for High precision time estimate Reasonable time estimate

Management of Unpredictable Activities Predictable activities

Nature of jobs Non-repetitive nature Repetitive nature

Critical and Non- No differentiation Differentiated

critical activities

Suitable for Research and Development Non-research projects like civil

 BASIS FOR
PERT CPM
COMPARISON

Project construction, ship building etc.

Crashing concept Not Applicable Applicable

Terminology: Some terms used in discussion of networks

Activity: A specific task or set of tasks that are required by the project, use up resources, and
take time to complete.
Event: The result of completing one or more activities. An identifiable end state that occurs
at a particular time. Events use no resources.
Network: The arrangement of all activities (and, in some cases, events) in a project arrayed
in their logical sequence and represented by arcs and nodes. This arrangement (network)
defines the project and the activity precedence relationships. Networks are usually drawn
starting on the left and proceeding to the right.
Path: The series of connected activities (or intermediate events) between any two events in a
network.
Critical: Activities, events, or paths which, if delayed, will delay the completion of the
project. A project’s critical path is understood to mean that sequence of critical activities (and
critical events) that connects the project’s start event to its fi nish event and which cannot be
delayed without delaying the project.
To transform a project plan into a network, one must know what activities comprise the
project and, for each activity, what its predecessors (or successors) are. An activity can be in
any of these conditions:
(1) it may have a successor(s) but no predecessor(s)
(2) it may have a predecessor(s) but no successor(s); and
(3) it may have both predecessor(s) and successor(s).

Type 1 Type 3 Type 2 Figure: 1.1

“Start” “Continue “End”
”

The first of these is an activity that starts a network. The second ends a network. The third is
in the middle. Figure: 1.1 shows each of the three types of activities. Activities are
represented here by rectangles (one form of what in a network are called “nodes”) with
arrows to show the precedence relationships. When there are multiple activities with no
predecessors, it is usual to show them all emanating from a single node called “START.”
When multiple activities have no successors, it is usual to show them connected to a node
called “END.”
Network Format: AOA (Activity-on-arrow):
It is a network diagramming technique in which activities are represented by arrows. The
start and end of each node or event is connected to an arrow. Between the two nodes lies an
arrow that represents the activity.

Figure: 1.2: Activity network, AOA format

Network Format: AON (Activity-on-node):
Activity-on-node is a precedence diagramming method which uses boxes to denote schedule
activities. These various boxes or “nodes” are connected from beginning to end with arrows
to depict a logical progression of the dependencies between the schedule activities. Each node
is coded with a letter or number that correlates to an activity on the project schedule.
Typically, an activity-on-node diagram will be designed to show which activities must be
completed in order for other activities to commence. This is referred to as “finish-to-start”
precedence – meaning one activity must be finished before the next one can start.
Figure: 1.3: Activity network, AON format
Constructing the network, AON version:

2
a
a
Start 1
Start
b
b 3

(A) (B)
Figure:1.4: Sample of network construction

a c
Start
(A)
b d

c
2 4
a
Start 1 (B)
5
b d
3
e
6
Figure:1.5: Sample of network construction

a c
Start f End
b d

(A) e

c
a 2 4 f End
Start 1 d 5
b 3 e
(B)

Figure:1.6: Sample of network construction

We begin with the node called “START.” Activities a and b have no predecessors, so we
draw arrows out of START to each of them (Figure: 1.4 A). As explained above, the
arrowheads show the direction of precedence. Activity c follows a, activity d follows b, and
activity e also follows b. Let’s add these to our network in Figure: 1.5 A. Now, activity f
follows both c and d. The action plan does not indicate any further activity is required to
complete the task, so we have reached the end of this particular plan. We thus draw arrows
from activities e and f to the node END, as shown in Figure: 1.6 A. Many of the project
management software packages will generate these networks on request.
Constructing the network, AOA version:
We begin with a node (event) called “START.” Activities a and b have no predecessors, so
we draw arrows labeled “a” and “b” from START and terminating in circle-shaped nodes
numbered “1” and “2” for easy identification (Figure: 1.4: B). Activity c follows a, activity d
follows b, and activity e also follows b. Let’s add these arrows to our AOA network, labeling
the arrows and nodes sequentially as we go (Figure: 1.5: B).
Note that activity f must follow both c and d, but any given activity must have its source in
one and only one node. Therefore, c and d must terminate at the same node. Erase activity d
and its node and redraw d to end at the same node that terminates c. We now add activity e
following b, and f following c and d. Because e and f have no successors, they will terminate
at the END node (Figure: 1.6 B).
The choice between AOA and AON representation is largely a matter of personal preference.
AON is typically used in the most popular PC-based commercially available computer
software, and AON networks are easier to draw. AOA networks are slightly harder to draw
because they sometimes require the use of dummy activities to aid in indicating a particular
precedence, via a dashed arc. A dummy activity has no duration and uses no resources. Its
sole purpose is to indicate a technological relationship.