Master thesis in Sustainable Development 2018/30

Examensarbete i Hållbar utveckling

Urban Policy Implications on the

Electric Vehicle Transition
in Berlin and Washington, DC

Tina Sänger

DE PA R TM E N T OF
EA R TH S CI E N CE S
INSTITUTIONEN FÖR
GEOVETENSKAPER
Master thesis in Sustainable Development 2018/30
Examensarbete i Hållbar utveckling

Urban Policy Implications on the

Electric Vehicle Transition
in Berlin and Washington, DC

Tina Sänger

Supervisor: Cecilia Mark- Herbert

Evaluator: Peter Söderbaum
Copyright © Tina Sänger Published at Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University
(www.geo.uu.se), Uppsala, 2018
Urban Policy Implications on the Electric Vehicle Transition in
Berlin and Washington, DC

SÄNGER, TINA

Sänger, T., 2018: Urban Policy Implications on the Electric Vehicle Transition in Berlin and Washington, DC.
Master thesis in Sustainable Development at Uppsala University, No. 2018/30, 80 pp 76, 30 ECTS/hp

Abstract: This thesis argues for an approach which goes beyond the conventional urban climate governance
view. With engagement in social-technical practices, a more sustainable and inclusive way of transforming the
city can be accomplished. One way of doing so is with the offering of the urban living lab as a playground for
real-life experiments. With a purposive intervention in an urban socio-technical system, the three- dimensional
concept of urban environmental governance, socio-technical experiments and strategic experiments with
designed policies can create a more sustainable urban transition. The urban electric vehicle transition is just
one example of how these three concepts can be applied. In order to demonstrate the interaction of a
sustainable urban transition, an empirical case study was conducted.

This thesis makes a conceptual contribution by engaging with current under standing of urban sustainability
transition, using the urban electric vehicle transition as a reference point. The insights of this study extend the
theories of the socio-technical system and argue that it is not only about social and technological innovation
but how multiple innovations are experimented with and combined in an existing urban context. In addition,
the research addresses how this transition is governed on a municipality level and is achieved through a
multiple case study approach, analysed through the lens of environmental governance and offers an empirical
exploration and develops the theoretical and conceptual framework of the socio-technical system further.

Keywords: Electric Vehicle, Environmental Governance, Sociotechnical transition, Sustainable Development,

Urban Development, Urban Policy

Tina Sänger, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, SE- 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden

ii
Urban Policy Implications on the Electric Vehicle Transition in
Berlin and Washington, DC

TINA SÄNGER

Sänger, T, 2018: Urban Policy Implications on the Electric Vehicle Transition in Berlin and Washington, DC.
Master thesis in Sustainable Development at Uppsala University, No. 2018/30, 80 pp 76, 30 ECTS/hp

Summary: The need for a sustainable urban transition is recognised by international, national and regional
authorities and included as an aim in the Paris Agreement and the Sustainable Development Goals. Yet, the
implementation varies from city to city since every case is unique and offers different challenges, approaches
and opportunities. Aspects such as the replacement of the conventional fossil fuel driven car with the electric
vehicle are one way of approaching a sustainable urban transition. Although urban areas and case studies are
unique, hindering aspects are common and identified as high purchase price, deployment of charging
infrastructure and communication to the public. This thesis aims to examine the development of the electric
vehicle transition in Berlin and Washington, DC. The analysis of this study applies the methodology of a
qualitative case study and uses a conceptual framework focusing on a socio -technical system. Moreover,
interviews through semi-structured interviews are collected and analysed through the lens of environmental
governance. Finally, from the examination of the developing process of the electric vehicle transition in each
city, a comparison will be made that helps to understand how individual actions can form a sustainable
transition.

Keywords: Electric Vehicle, Environmental Governance, Sociotechnical transition, Sustainable Development,

Urban Development, Urban Policy

Tina Sänger, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, SE- 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden

iii
Content

1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Aim and research questions .............................................................................................. 4
2. Method .................................................................................................................................. 5
2.1. Research design ............................................................................................................... 5
2.2. Literature review .............................................................................................................. 5
2.3. Case study ....................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.1. Choice of case study ................................................................................................. 7
2.3.2. Case study research in the urban living lab ................................................................ 7
2.3.3. Interviews ................................................................................................................. 8
2.3.4. Quality assurance .................................................................................................... 10
2.3.5. Ethical consideration ............................................................................................... 12
2.3.6. Data analysis .......................................................................................................... 12
2.4. Delimitations ................................................................................................................. 12
3. A Theoretical framework: Urban environmental governance ............................................ 13
3.1. Governance .................................................................................................................... 13
3.2. Environmental governance ............................................................................................. 14
3.3. Urban environmental governance.................................................................................... 14
3.4. A conceptual framework ................................................................................................ 15
3.4.1. Transition ............................................................................................................... 16
3.4.2. The socio-technical system ...................................................................................... 17
3.4.3. Social innovation within the socio-technical system ................................................. 21
3.4.4. Conceptualizing the socio-technical transition ......................................................... 22
3.4.5. Urban socio-technical transition .............................................................................. 23
4. Empirical Background ........................................................................................................ 25
4.1. Background on electric vehicle history ........................................................................... 25
4.2. Background on electric vehicle technology ..................................................................... 25
4.2.1. Charging station, plugs and availability ................................................................... 26
4.2.2. Consumer awareness ............................................................................................... 27
4.3. Issues for cities in the electric vehicle transition ............................................................. 27
4.3.1. Electricity supply .................................................................................................... 27
4.3.2. Range ..................................................................................................................... 27
4.3.3. Charging time ......................................................................................................... 28
4.3.4. Cost ........................................................................................................................ 28
4.4. Political aspects ............................................................................................................. 29
4.5. Urban case study Los Angeles and Oslo .......................................................................... 33
4.5.1. Los Angeles (California, USA) ................................................................................ 33
4.5.2. Oslo (Norway) ........................................................................................................ 34

iv
5. Empirical results ................................................................................................................. 35
5.1. Washington, DC (USA) .................................................................................................. 35
5.1.1. Policy ..................................................................................................................... 36
5.1.2. Commitment of the Washington, DC municipality ................................................... 37
5.1.3. Charging infrastructure ........................................................................................... 37
5.1.4. Electricity supply .................................................................................................... 38
5.1.5. Signage and visibility .............................................................................................. 39
5.1.6. Consumer awareness ............................................................................................... 39
5.2. Berlin (Germany) ........................................................................................................... 40
5.2.1. Commitment of Berlins municipality ....................................................................... 40
5.2.2. Local policy ............................................................................................................ 41
5.2.3. Charging infrastructure ........................................................................................... 42
5.2.4. Electricity supply .................................................................................................... 45
5.2.5. Signage and visibility .............................................................................................. 45
5.2.6. Consumer awareness ............................................................................................... 46
6. Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 47
6.1. Reconfiguration of a system in an urban transition .......................................................... 47
6.2. The character of an urban electric vehicle transition ........................................................ 48
6.3. Vision ............................................................................................................................ 48
6.4. Communication .............................................................................................................. 49
6.5. Network......................................................................................................................... 50
6.6. Knowledge .................................................................................................................... 52
6.7. Changing focus towards the practical application ............................................................ 52
7. Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 55
7.1. Challenges and opportunities for the EV transition identified in the literature .................. 55
7.2. Challenges for cities to achieve an EV transition ............................................................. 55
7.3. Milestones and obstacles identified in the EV transition in Berlin and Washington, DC ... 56
7.3.1. Milestones .............................................................................................................. 56
7.3.2. Obstacles ................................................................................................................ 57
8. Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 58
8.1. Methodological reflection and future research ................................................................. 58
9. Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................... 59
10. References ........................................................................................................................ 60

v
List of Figures
Figure 1. Global electric vehicle sales between 2010 and 2017 by country . ..................................... 2
Figure 2. Factors of good governance ........................................................................................... 13
Figure 3. Four phases of the socio- technical transition ................................................................. 16
Figure 4. Socio- technical change from a multi- level perspective .................................................. 19
Figure 5. The socio- technical system for land- based transportation .............................................. 20
Figure 6. Overview of charging plugs in Europe and USA ............................................................. 26
Figure 7. Electric vehicle charging hierarchy ................................................................................ 26
Figure 8. Washington, DC area surrounded by the states Maryland and Virginia. ........................... 35
Figure 9. Map of registered charging stations Washington, DC. ..................................................... 38
Figure 10. Car park entrance which offers charging stations but has no signage installed. .............. 39
Figure 11. Map of Berlin and Brandenburg ................................................................................... 40
Figure 12. Berlin map with charging stations. ............................................................................... 44
Figure 13. Charging station at street light. .................................................................................... 44
Figure 14. Signage related to electric vehicle parking or charging.................................................. 45
Figure 15. Car registration plate with the E indicating this is a registered electric vehicle. ............. 46
Figure 16. Four key aspects of the reconfiguration of a system transition ....................................... 53
Figure 17. Socio- technical system altered to urban case study results. ........................................... 54

List of Tables
Table 1. List of policy commitments, financial incentives and electric vehicle market share in
selected countries ........................................................................................................................... 3
Table 2. List of empirical and theoretical search terms. ................................................................... 6
Table 3. Overview of interviews and conferences attended. ............................................................. 9
Table 4. Techniques for establishing validation and reliability in case study research ..................... 11
Table 5. Summary of Socio- technical system ............................................................................... 18
Table 6. Summary of barriers in the EV adoption in the academic literature ................................... 30
Table 7. Overview of promotion for electric vehicles in Los Angeles Metropolitan area ................. 33
Table 8. Summary of electric vehicle support actions in the Oslo Metropolitan area ....................... 34
Table 9 Overview of national and state incentives and industry initiatives ..................................... 36
Table 10. Incentive programs by national and local authorities in Germany ................................... 42
Table 11. Overview of charging prices with the three largest charging stations supplier in Berlin. .. 43
Table 12. Overview of local policies to enhance the electric vehicle transition in Berlin and
Washington, DC ........................................................................................................................... 49
Table 13 Overview of communication initiatives to enhance the electric vehicle transition in Berlin
and Washington, DC .................................................................................................................... 50
Table 14 Overview of initiatives related to network building in the electric vehicle transition in
Berlin and Washington, DC ......................................................................................................... 51
Table 15. Berlin and Washington, DC electric vehicle transition in numbers .................................. 57

vi
List of Abbreviations
CARB Californian Air Resource Board
eMO Berliner Agentur fur Elektromobilität
EPA US Environmental Protection Agency
EV Electric Vehicle
EVSE Electric vehicle supply equipment
GHG Greenhouse Gas
HOV Lane High Occupied Vehicle Lane
ICEV Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles
ICCT International Council on Clean Transportation
MLP Multi Level Perspective
NGO Non- Governmental- Organisation
PEPCO Potomac Electric Power Company
PHEV Plug- in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
SD Sustainable Development
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
UN United Nations

vii
 1. Introduction
Transportation is one of the fastest growing sectors in the world, heavily dependent on fossil fuels
and creates sustainability issues related to social, economic and environmental concerns. The
Internal Combust Engine Vehicle (ICEV) (Çağatay Bayindir, Gözüküçük and Teke, 2011; Lefevre and
Enriquez, 2014). In addition, according to the United Nations (UN) cities account for 60 till 80 per
cent of energy consumption and 75 per cent of carbon emissions (www.un.org, 2015) and are a
significant contributor to climate change. Furthermore, urban areas are expected to grow by 40 till
50 per cent of the global population until 2030 which results in increasing demand for energy and
brings challenges policymakers to create a sustainable urban agenda (www.wcr.unhabitat.org, 2017).
One part of a modern planning agenda will be urban transportation. Especially Western cities were
built to occupy the most desired form of transportation, the car. As a result, streets became crowded
and highly polluted.

With the Paris Agreement nations committed themselves to reduce emissions and work actively on
the decarbonization of urban transport to deliver on climate targets. The commitment on a national
level to a more decarbonised transport system varies (www.unfccc.int, 2016). Whereby Germany is
highly involved in the Paris Agreement. It has high carbon emission reduction targets and tries to
reduce its CO2 emissions by 40 per cent compared to the emissions caused in 1994 by 2020.
However, recent calculation estimates, Germany it will only achieve 32.5 per cent. The German
federal government includes several stakeholders such as the Association of Cities and
Communities as well as institutions with a focus on zero emission mobility management
(www.bmub.bund.de, 2017).

Currently, most cars are ICEV and are powered by diesel or petrol which causes different emissions.
Some of them are CO 2 which contributes directly to climate change and NOx which cause
significant harm to public health. Other health issues in urban areas related to transport, is the noise
pollution also caused by ICEV (www.mdr.de, 2018).

In order to address global issues such as climate change, the UN adopted 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015. Goal 11 is dedicated to the creation of sustainable cities; in
particular, the target 11.2 aims to achieve sustainable transport systems and the related
environmental impact in urban areas by 2030. It also promotes the accessibility and affordability
aspects of transportation (www.undp.org, 2017).

The correlation between urban development and decarbonised transport was also highlighted at
COP23 in Bonn 2017 (www.unfccc.int, 2017). Political leaders think tanks and Non- Governmental-
Organisations (NGOs) worked on recommendations on how to make cities more resilient, clean and
accessible for the future. The main massages and agreements related to transportation are
(www.ppmc-transport.org, 2017):
 Decarbonization of all modes of transport by 2050 is possible
 Action on low carbon transport supports eight of the SDGs
 Investments in sustainable low carbon transport offer great value for money
 Innovative solutions have the potential to transform current transport systems into efficient,
low carbon people-orientated solutions
 The global transport community stands ready to support countries, cities and companies’ action
on climate change and development

Next, to international governmental commitments, the national governments receive pressure from
citizens. The diesel scandal started in September 2015 when the US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) issued a violation notice to Volkswagen. The violation notice based on the
discoveries by the California Air Resource Board (CARB). Manipulation software was programmed
to present low NOx emissions during laboratory testing. However, real-life testing showed up to 40
times higher NOx emissions. Moreover, in 2016 the CARB discovered the unlawful changing of
CO2 emissions which contribute to global warming and climate change.

1
The car manufacturing industry experienced a severe image loss and governments are looking for
alternatives and solutions to offer to their citizens.

One solution and a way of achieving an environmentally friendly urban transition is the expansion
of electric vehicles (EV). This technology has the benefit of having zero emission while driving and
is therefore environmentally friendly transport method. With electricity produced from the
renewable energy the transition to an EV dominated market can also lead to the independence from
fossil fuels. Moreover, the EV transition creates new employment opportunities and opens new
research fields (Le Petit, 2017). Another positive side effect is the minimal noise which resolves
another urban issue, noise pollution (Anonymous, 2009).

From an industry perspective, the EV transition became important when a niche car manufacturer
called Tesla announced a car battery capacity of 240 miles in 2011. In the beginning, the new hype
was mostly for wealthier people and considered as an image product. However, leading automakers
recognise the future potential, the competitiveness, and started issuing the market with their models
(Thompson, 2017). Yet, the market share is still less than 2 per cent in Germany and the US (Kwan
et al., 2016; Field, 2017). The slow uptake is due to the high purchase costs, limited charging
infrastructure deployment and restrained consumer awareness (Hildermeier, 2017).

Other countries have been more active in integrating the EVs in their policy framework, with high
incentive policies and signals to ban ICEV. These political commitments send strong signals to their
citizens and car manufacturers. Table 1 shows which countries announced an ICEV ban , gives an
overview of EV market share in the country and highlight some national policies. Figure 1 shows
how the EV sales developed during the year 2010 and 2017 globally and in selected countries.

Figure 1. Global electric vehicle sales between 2010 and 2017 by country (Lutsey, 2017a).

2
Table 1. List of policy commitments, financial incentives and electric vehicle market share in selected countries
Country Ban begins Incentive EV market share
in % 2016
(Nelson, 2017;
www.ACEA.be,
2017)
China “in the near future”  Purchase incentive of $4765 since 1.31
(Agence France-Presse, 2017) 2016, but gradually declining until
2020 incentive is phased out
 Up to 30% subsidy for installation
of charging infrastructure (Lu,
2018)

France 2040  exemption from the registration tax 1.5

(Chrisafis and Vaughan, 2017) (total or 50%)
 Under a bonus-malus system, n up
to 30% premium is granted for the
purchase of a new electric vehicle
 €10,000 to electric vehicle buyers
when they scrap an ICEV
(www.ACEA.be, 2017)
Germany 2030  exempt from the annual circulation 0.7
(Böll, 2016) tax for a period of ten years from
the date of their first registration
 Environmental bonus of €4,000
when EV purchased
(www.ACEA.be, 2017)
Netherlands 2030  exempt from the registration tax 6.4
(Lambert, 2017)  As of 1 January 2017, passenger
cars with zero CO2 emissions are
exempt from motor vehicle tax up
to 2020
 discounted income tax (4%) is
levied on fuel-efficient cars
(www.ACEA.be, 2017)
Norway 2025  No purchase taxes (extremely high 29
(Staufenberg, 2016) for ordinary cars)
 Exemption from 25% VAT on
purchase
 No charges on toll roads
 Free municipal parking
 Free access to bus lanes
(Valoen, 2012)
United 2040  exempt from the annual circulation 1.4
Kingdom (Agence France-Presse, 2017) tax and company car tax
 up to 35% of purchase price
subsidy
(Gordon-Bloomfield, 2015)
USA No target  Tax credit up to $7500 0.9
(www.fueleconomy.gov, 2018)

3
Both illustrations (Figure 1 and Table 1) demonstrate a constant trend to an EV adoption. The
outlined policies are all on a national level and mostly focusing on making the first - time purchase
for the EV as affordable as possible. In addition, those countries expanded the needed charging
infrastructure and consumer awareness education programs (Lutsey, 2017a).

Despite the historical, technological and first political developments , there is still an insufficient
transition to an EV penetrated market.
The analysis of EV adoption on an urban level finds very limited focus on the academic literature.
Although the topic of EV is relatively new, the academic research in that field emerged quickly.
There is already evidence on the impact of EVs, technical analysis and future outlook. It lacks,
however, specific urban case studies (Geels, 2002). National policy frameworks are analysed,
general consumer awareness and response, and industry opinions addressed but the difficulty urban
leaders are facing to transform their city into EV leading streets has not given much attention in the
academic field.

It is necessary to assess cities, specifically with small economic resources because they are often
overlooked in their efforts, but their results can be even more important. The response and adaption
observing of an EV transition in a less financial benefited area make conclusions valuable because it
has the potential to be duplicated in rich cities or cities with the similar economic situation.

1.1. Aim and research questions

This thesis aims to explain factors that determine a transition to electric vehicles in Berlin and
Washington, DC. The project includes the context of stakeholder participation within a socio-
technical system. In particular, it is going to examine the role of policy approaches and its value on
the urban electric vehicle transition.
The study also focuses on challenges to get a brief overview of how and in what policy field the
transition can be improved.

Given the political commitments towards an environmentally friendly city, Berlin and Washington,
DC are good case studies for analysing the challenging process of assessing policies that are aiming
to foster the transition towards an EV market penetration.

To achieve the aim, the following research questions are framed:

 What challenges and opportunities for the chosen cities EV transition are identified in the
literature?

 What are the challenges for the cities to achieve a transition to an EV dominate d market?

 What milestone and obstacles can be identified in the transition to EV market in Berlin and
Washington, DC?

4
 2. Method
This thesis aims to analyse the transition to an urban EV dominated market and concerning
stakeholder participation and the provisioning of policies. It is also responding to challenges and
existing developments in that field. To achieve the aim a combination of a case study and literature
review is conducted for an empirical study. In addition, semi-structured interviews via phone and in
person will be conducted to develop a case study related outcome. Choices melted to these parts of
the project are planned below.

2.1. Research design

This study is analysing a complex transition in an unexplored phenomenon of the electric vehicle
transition in an urban context. The transition is influenced by multiple stakeholders including
policymakers, the industry and citizens.

The research focuses on real-life data and sees the urban case study as an urban lab experiment
which offers results on an individual sphere but provides insights and best or worse practise
examples. Real life research can be a challenge for a researcher and defining a particular fixed
research framework and tools beforehand can be a complicated process (Robson, 2011).
Maintaining certain design flexibility can allow reconsidering applied framework and tools, which
then can lead to novel findings.

Good quality research depends on the researcher’s interpretation and is confronted with the threat of
missing out some interpretation of data. The abductive approach is a technique to avoid this risk by
moving back and forth between, empirics, analysis and theory (Dubois and Gadde, 2002; Yin,
2013). That way, multiple sources of open data and the trustworthiness of the research increases.
Moreover, this strategy helps to identify new variables and relationships. To close the gap between
the identified problem and the socio-technical system, this project will build on an abductive
approach consisting of a comprehensive case study and a literature review.

2.2. Literature review

Research should be based on previous scientific knowledge (Thiel, Sage and Conroy, 2015). To gain
insights and overviews on the existing research on EV transition in urban areas, policy approaches
and stakeholder participation and a literature review was conducted.

A literature review involves the identification, location and analysis of documents containing
information related to the research aim. Those articles are to be found in academic journals,
journalistic publications, social media and municipality homepages. The literature review will
expose gaps in the knowledge on the topic and helps to identify patterns to findings, conflicting
findings and helps to define the topic in more depth (Robson and McCartan, 2015).

A relevant construct for this research was a set of interdisciplinary literature in the field of public
policy analysis related to EV transition. In addition, publications and communication material from
Berlin and Washington, DC council will be used to have the most recent local developments in the
field of the EV transition. Databases used are Uppsala University online library, google scholar and
generic google search. Although the research is focusing on two specific cities, the research will
look at similar developments on an US and EU context.

5
Search results were limited to the timeframe 2008 till today; there were no particular journals
considered to keep the research field as brought as possible, and search words were presented in
table 2:
Table 2. List of empirical and theoretical search terms.
Empirical search terms Theoretical search terms
Urban mobility transition Stakeholder engagement
Charging infrastructure deployment Innovation transition
Berlin/ Washington, DC policy, electric vehicle Environmental governance
Electric vehicle development Socio- technical transition
Electric vehicle policy Urban policy development
Electric vehicle incentives Multi- Level Perspective
National electric vehicle policy Case Studies in Urban Planning

In sum, the literature review ensures the quality of this research and will be analysed through the
lens of the theoretical framework of Environmental Governance.

2.3. Case study

Case study research is a methodology applied to real-world issues and outcomes in relevant
structures. According to Patton and Appelbaum (2003) and Yin (2003) case study research can be
used for developing a new theory through observations, for testing, evaluating or improving existing
theories through their implementation in practice.
According to Yin (2013) "case study method is an empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon
and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used".
More specifically, a multiple case study is suitable when an established conceptual framework
already exists, but a closer look at an empirical phenomenon can contribute to deepening it further.
Moreover, a case study method allows to look at different actors and simultaneously avoids a single
analysis by considering individual and group level constructs (Bhattacherjee et al., 2012). This can
be useful when looking at an urban mobility transition involving different levels of actors.

Moreover, Bakogiannis et al. (2014) state that urban and mobility research is usually conducted by
analysing existing environments, secondary data, and surveys (2014, p. 42). This analysis can be a
supporting case and could enhance, in a similar environment, the understanding of a needed
transformation or can inform about potential shortages in implementation (ibid, p.42). In addition,
observation in urban planning and mobility transitions allow insights on applied policies and
approaches.

To execute and write a case study three steps are to be followed (Creswell, 2009):
 Research phase with academic research and searching for relevant interview partners
 The analysis phase includes the collection and analysis of all applicable data
 A solid analysis of the case

In addition, it is recommended to use visual materials such as pictures and photographs in order to
make the research more communicative to the reader (Bakogiannis et al., 2014, p. 45). Moreover,
reporting on case studies exposes the researcher to a broad spectrum of urban studies and
sustainable mobility projects (Bakogiannis et al., 2014, p. 46).

At the same time a case study can become a premature conclusion (Eisenhardt, 1989), may have a
poor choice of a suitable framework (Dubois and Gadde, 2002) and can include subjective bias
(Yin, 2013). Those flaws can be avoided with a flexible and abductive research design and constant
coming back to the research questions and theoretical framework and by modifying the interaction
between empirical and theoretical results (Dubois and Gadde, 2002). Lastly, to minimise potential
biases, the researcher needs to keep assessment trail with for example a case study protocol
(Robson, 2011; Yin, 2013).
6
2.3.1. Choice of case study
In this project, two cities are studied, so that the challenges, policy approaches, developments and
results can be compared and analysed. A multi-case study will give a more scientific knowledge to
fill the gap of urban transition to EVs. It also will make it possible for scholars and urban
policymakers to identify their own capacities and challenges as well as learning and get ideas from
these case studies. The chosen cities Berlin and Washington, DC are good examples due to their
political importance as being the capital city. At the same time, both cities have a weak economy
and limited resources regarding limited political influence on the EV manufacturing industry. They
are dependent on the products the market is providing and need to adapt accordingly with no
possibility to be influential on upcoming developments in the EV market. However, cities are highly
interested in enhancing the adaptation of the EV transition since the environmental and public
health harm in the city needs to be tackled with urgency.

The thesis aims to investigate how the EV transition in the chosen cities are conducted with policy
approaches and stakeholder participation. Case studies are well suited to open questions of how and
why when the focus of the study is on a contemporary phenomenon within a real -life context
(Sporrong and Kadefors, 2014). It is generally used to probe deeply and intensively to gain insights
and understanding of new phenomena and an appropriate choice to identify why decisions are made
and with which result (Travers, 2001). Moreover, case studies do not require any particular methods
for data collection or analysis (Merriam, 1991). Due to the open-ended and exploratory nature of the
research questions in the thesis, a case study is ideal.

A qualitative case study is a research approach which enables the “exploration of a phenomenon
within its context using a variety of data sources.” ensuring that problems are investigated of only
through one lens “but rather a variety of lenses which allows for multiple facets of the phenomenon
to be relevant and understood” (Baxter and Jack, 2008, p. 544). In addition, a case study approach
is selected, if the study aims to answer how and why questions (Yin, 2013). The case study method
used to analyse the case studies Berlin and Washington, DC uses a literature review to gather its
secondary data which will be reviewed in the English and German language.

Choosing the conceptual framework socio-technical system as a foundation of analysis, it bears

consequences for the research method and brings practices in focus (Reckwitz, 2002). To put it in
other words, the practical research becomes a new unit of analysis, and the focus lies on what
different actors do and how they engage with a changing landscape of urban development and new
policy implications. Nevertheless, perspectives from all levels of actors (e.g. businesses, political
leaders, research institutions and others) can still be collected to develop a deeper unde rstanding of
how practices change and form (Shove and Pantzar, 2005).
For this research, an extensive analysis of simultaneous and complementary developments to the
urban EV transition was considered. This includes, for example, technical developments in charging
infrastructure and policy approaches in Berlin and Washington, DC.

2.3.2. Case study research in the urban living lab

Case studies are a practise- based discipline and are looking at ongoing or finished projects which
foster either private or public decision- making process. During that research process, the urban
environment becomes an urban living lab and is the arena of many techniques which helps to
analyse comparative projects and draw lines between different developments in cities. As a result,
case study research yields significant outcome and influences practice and ongoing research.

The application of case study research in urban planning resolves in the uncovering of phenomena
and is often used to formulate urban public policy, outlines a decision - making process or provides
examples on what is considered as best practice (Bulkeley, 2006).
Furthermore, case studies are employed by urban planning scholars as a tool to translate knowledge
into action. It also allows taking the role of an observer, participant or dispassionate analyst. In
addition, case studies are valued in urban planning research since they are “telling stories—
innovative efforts at moving cities and urban neighbourhoods in the direction of sustainability, at

7
finding ways to build economy, reconnect to place and environment, and at once to enhance the
quality of life and reduce ecological footprints.” (Beatley, 2000).

However, it is to consider that case study research in urban planning often becomes evident after
time. This evidence is displayed in either the transition of new knowledge into practice or
stimulated new research and continues to observe, analyse and recommends as cities are in constant
change. The importance of the continuous research in urban planning was early identified by Hall.
With changes and variations in urban management (economically or political) and geographical
location (Europe or America) he found that “in every city […] growth brings problems, but those
problems may vary in intensity according especially to the internal disposition of functions and land
uses within metropolitan regions” (Hall, 1966, p. 234).

The urban living lab can help cities to achieve sustainability goals and are a forum “ for innovation,
applied to the development of new products, systems, services and processes, employing working
methods to integrate people into the entire development process as users and co -creators, to
explore, examine, experiment, test and evaluate new ideas, scenarios, processes, systems, concepts
and creative solutions in complex and real contexts.” (Menny, Palgan and McCormick, 2018, p. 68)
For urban policymakers and researchers, this means the urban living lab is to trial simple or more
complex social, economic or technical developments with the broader goal of sustainability. It aims
to bring together multiple actors who all seek the intervention for a contemporary urban challenge
and fostering learning through forms of open engagement.

If the urban lab research has a focus on knowledge and learning, changes can be successfully
achieved even if the process has fallbacks, delays or is not reaching the anticipated aim.
In particular, the empowerment of multiple stakeholders on an experimental approach can go
beyond the traditional dialogue and creates a mode of a participatory communication between
politics, business, science and society (Bulkeley et al., 2017).

The urban lab has its placed based focus which can be a transformative improvement across the
urban society or transport to energy systems. The learning in real time at a specific place allows
responding to a particular economic, environmental or societal issue in an urban area. The urban lab
is a wider experiment of politics through the governance of urban environmental governance, and
urban sustainability is increasingly implemented.

Development of niches and experiments can foster empowerment which leads to stretch and reform
existing regimes such as the transition from ICEV to EVs (Smith and Raven, 2012). This means
urban areas with their transformative potentials can gain momentum and contribute to an
understanding of new processes.

This thesis project focuses on Berlin and Washington, DC. A comprehensive case study analysis
tries to explore and understand the slow EV transition, describe the differences and similarities in
the phenomena of new technology the EV and investigates the relationships between policy
approaches and niche developments.

2.3.3. Interviews
Preliminary data has been collected through interviews in the field of academic, businesses, non-
profit sector and employees in the political sector to obtain the data for qualitative analysis.
A detailed list can be found in Table 3.

8
Table 3. Overview of interviews and conferences attended.

Name Company/Organisation & Position Date Type of

Interview

Washington, DC

Nick Nigro CEO & Founder Atlas Public Policy 23.10.2017 in person

Matthew Goetz Georgetown Climate Center 25.10.2017 in person

Andrew Managing Director 23.01.2018 in person

Matthews Sustainability Sector at NSI

Sarah Olexsak Energy Efficient Mobility Systems 24.01.2018 Telephone

Deployment Manager Interview
(no direct quotes requested)

Genevieve President at Electric Drive 26.01.2018 Telephone

Cullen Transportation Association (EDTA) Interview
(no direct quotes requested)

Eric Campbell Energy Program Specialist, Department 26.01.2018 in person

of Energy & Environment
Government of the District of Columbia

Berlin

Johanna Projektmanagerin Innovation, Berliner 08.03.2018 in person

Reinhardt Agentur für Elektromobilität (eMO)
(Project Manager for Innovation at the
Agency for Electro Mobility Berlin)

Christian Lang Founder Chargery 07.03.2018 Telephone

Dr Peter Mock Managing Director ICCT Europe 16.07.2018 Telephone

Conferences attended

BBSR und IKM: Metropolregionen gestalten die Mobilität von morgen

(Creating mobility in metropolitan regions of tomorrow)

Panel discussion with Berlin's Senator for Environment, Traffic and Climate Change
Regine Günther on “Berlin's mobility transition.”

The interviewees were chosen by their professional background in the field of EV. To cover as
many areas of expertise as possible, various sectors were considered including research institutions,
governmental bodies, NGOs and business representatives. Due to the lacking response in Berlin, the
research path needed to be altered and urban mobility themed conferences became a part of the
primary data collection.

Interviews are one of the most important sources when it comes to case study research (Yin, 2013).
Collecting details, information, and an explanation of a problem is enhanced through interviews.
Especially, semi-structured interviews use open-ended questions to obtain the views and opinions of
the answering participant (Creswell, 2009). Structured interviews would “only allow for limited
responses and are, therefore, of little use if ´depth´ is required”, and unstructured interviews “are
9
usually very time- consuming and can be difficult to manage and to participate in, as the lack of
predetermined interview questions provides little guidance on what to talk about ” (Gill et al., 2008,
p. 291). Semi-structured interviews are the best choice for this project, since they have a certain
flexibility and allow for “the discovery or elaboration of information that is important to
participants but may not have previously been thought of as pertinent by the research team” (Gill et
al., 2008, p. 292). The focus of the interviews lies in the views and experiences towards the EV
transition in the country the interviewee is based, with a particular focus on experiences on
stakeholder participation and challenges or opportunities with related policies. Furthermore, views
and opinions of involved and affected parties are collected to find out which attitudes on the EV
transition exist in the local context.

The interviews were conducted in the local language in person or via phone calls. Limitations with
telephone interviews are that they might take away some inhibitions in the interviewee since it is
not a face- to- face situation, where some people might feel additional pressure. The phone call s
were not recorded. To avoid misunderstandings around the wording of the questions, questions were
formulated shortly and concisely and avoided negative or leading language by recommendations
from Robson and McCartan (2015).

In sum, case study research is a prevalent and valued methodology to analyse urban behaviour in a
political arena. Case study research has been done for more than 50 years and ranges from a single
case to multiple case analysis. The multiple case study brings the possibility to show repeated
patterns, variations or exceptional examples. With developing a hypothesis about the chosen
subject, a combination of observation, research, interviews and experience can be conducted and
enhance the results.

2.3.4. Quality assurance

In order to achieve a credible outcome of the research, a determination of quality is needed. A
combination of an extensive literature review of the problem was conducted with aims to offer a
comprehensive set of tools which can ensure validity and reliability in case study research (Riege,
2003). In addition, this can be achieved by fulfilling the following criteria (Yin, 2003, p. 36;
Zaborek, 2009, p. 14,15):

1. Construct validation – Establishment of correct operational measures in order to reduce the risk
of bias
2. Internal Validation – consistency with the establishment of clear relationships
3. External Validation – establishing a domain to generalise findings
4. Reliability – demonstrates the operations of the study, predominantly the data coll ection
process

Relating those recommendations to the thesis the following measures and techniques were applied.
Table 4 summarises the techniques for establishment validation and reliability on case study
research.

10
Table 4. Techniques for establishing validation and reliability in case study research (based on Riege, 2003, pp. 78–
79; Yin, 2003, p. 36)
Case study Examples of relevant
design test techniques
Use of multiple sources of
evidence during data
collection
Construct validity Establish chain of evidence
Third- party review of draft
case study report
Use diagrams, maps or
statistics in data analysis to
Internal Validity support explanation
Ensure concepts and findings
are systematically related
Define boundaries and scope
in research design
External Validity Compare evidence with
existing literature in data
analysis
Give full attention of theories
and ideas
Assure congruence between
research problem and features
on study design
Reliability Record and photograph
observations and actions as
concrete as possible
Develop case study database
Assure meaningful parallelism
of findings across multiple
data sources
Applied in this research project
Triangulation via interview methods,
data sources and perspectives
Transcribed interviews and
secondary data documented
Follow-ups and transcripts sent to
interviewees with direct oral
validation
Graphics from literature review and
theoretical framework used for
analysis
Frameworks are used consistently to
all sources of data
To be found in chapters 2.3.1, 2.3.2
and 2.4 for analytical generalisation
Abductive approach is applied,
analysis is built on conceptual
framework
Done and demonstrated throughout
the thesis
Done throughout chapter 2
Interviews were taped, pictures were
taken, and notes made during
observations
Done through organised collected
data
Same logic/ framework used in all
interviews and documents

In order to obtain a high construct validity, the technique called triangulation was used. The term is
defined as “a combination of methods used to study the interrelated phenomena from multiple and
different angles of perspectives” (Given, 2008, p. 892).

Triangulation can be further categorised into four categories (Stake, 1995; Zaborek, 2009, p. 16):

 Triangulation of methods of data collection – the use of different research methods (e.g.
interviews, document analysis, observations)
 Investigator triangulation – investigators collect and analyse data independently and try to
solve an identical research problem
 Theory triangulation – data examination through different theoretical perspectives (e.g.
sociology, economics) to see if they can provide a coherent explanation
 Triangulation of data sources – drawing evidence from a diversity of data sets and trying to
verify the same findings. The sources can include different individuals who are firmly involved
in the phenomena

11
In this research, multiple sources of evidence were used such as personal and phone interviews,
secondary data and perspectives from various actors. Personal interviews were transcribed, and
phone interviews summarised. The transcripts were sent to the interviewees, and a follow-up phone
call gave direct oral validation. Finally, reliability was ensured through various techniques, for
example assuring congruence between case study design and the problem, using a case study
protocol and database, using the same framework across all data sources, and resorting to peer
review (see appendix 1). These actions provide a solid scientific quality in case study research
(Riege, 2003).

2.3.5. Ethical consideration

Another critical element in research is the ethical consideration (Guillemin and Gillam, 2004).
There are four key factors to reflect on which are (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2008):
 Informed consent
 Confidentiality
 Consequences
 Role of the researcher

All interviewees were informed about the study before their participation. They also received an
interview guide (see Appendix 2) before the interview as Robson (2011) suggests. Since some of the
interviewees were in a sensitive political position, direct quotes were avoided. However, key
messages were paraphrased in their interest, but anonymity was not offered. This was one measure
to minimise the risk for the interviewee and avoided negative consequences from superiors. The
participation was on a voluntary basis, and no compensation was offered. Moreover, the research
was conducted indecently in searching for answers.
2.3.6. Data analysis
According to Yin (2003, p. 109) “the analysis of case study evidence is one of the least developed
and most difficult aspects of doing case studies”. The analytical process is further described as a
process containing three steps: (1) description, (2) systematisation and categorisation, and (3)
combination (e.g. interpreting data) (Hamad et al., 2016). Interview questions were based on the
conceptual framework, and the results were categorised accordingly. This categorisation leads,
according to (Harrison et al., 2017), to an examination of relationships, condense and display data
for further analysis. However, during the research process, it is possible that the interviews drift
away from the interview guide. If new categories or topics arise during this departed interview
process, it can be used as new categories in the analysis. Furthermore, by analysing the collected
data, the answers of interviewees can be transferred in different categories which correspond to the
themes of the conceptual framework. A way to put case study evidence in order is with organising
data into matrices structures (Yin, 2003).

2.4. Delimitations
The scope of this research is within an urban context and excludes the rural or suburban arena. This
specification will help to create a narrowed analysis and limits the research agenda to a
geographical area. There was a disproportionate number of interviews conducted. Although 20
interview requests were sent out to relevant actors in Berlin, only three agreed to participate. To
compensate for the lack of primary data, I attended two EV related conferences (more information
in chapter 2.3.5) were included. Participants from Washington, DC asked not to be directly quoted
due to their sensitive political position. In addition, it was not possible to conduct an interview with
a representative of an environmental NGO or a civil society group representing consum er interests.
The consumer's voice is reflected by using existing academic research, and the environmental
perspective is seen as addressed since the aim of the EV transition results positively on the
reduction of emissions. Since this research is focusing on the individual consumer, initiatives
related to fleet and business EV transition will be excluded. Other issues such as traffic jams, long
distance travels, sharing programs and public transport alternatives are also excluded from this
research. Moreover, aspects of material source and availability, life cycle of the EV or carbon
footprint during production were also excluded from the research scope.
12
 3. A Theoretical framework: Urban environmental
governance
The theoretical framework will be the theoretical foundation of the thesis and provides a rationale
for predictions about the relationships among variables of this research project. Moreover, it is
used as a guide to identify the relationship between variables systematically. The chapter will first
briefly explain the term governance, moves on to deepen into environmental governance and
simultaneously identifies stakeholder participation, narrows it then down to urban environmental
governance with the aspect of the urban laboratory. Finally, the relation between urban
environmental governance and transition in transport will be addressed.
3.1. Governance
The term governance has no uniform definition but can be identified as “the coexistence of
collective regulations via cooperation’s, between the public and private actors on the level of
sovereign government decision making.” (Mayntz, 2004). Appendix 3 is offering a table with an
overview of interpretations of governance, environmental governance, multi-stakeholder
engagement in context of sustainability transition and urban development. In order to establish
successful governance on climate change issues, a variety of stakeholders need to be involved,
including NGOs, industry representatives, civil society and different levels of government
(international, national, subnational, regional). Furthermore, the role of governance is to address
existing regulation and learning gaps between private, public and non -profit stakeholders
(Bäckstrand, 2006a). Whereas the government is formally ruling, governance is highlighting the
vital role of arrangements in the political economy and policy making. Moreover, governance is
understood as a mode of social coordination which is for example to guide, control or manage
society (Kooiman, 1993).

Good Governance in action can happen through the following key factors (figure 2):

Enablement

Transparency Provisioning

Governacne

Regulation Partnerships

Self-
Governance

Figure 2. Factors of good governance based on (www.gdrc.org, 1997) modified by author

Governing through provisioning, for example, infrastructure services, can shape behavioural choices and
restructure markets. This could be the provision of renewable energy (solar roofs) which creates green
energy and can be used to provide private or public charging infrastructure for EVs. A way to enable the
transition, the provision of information, rewards and public recognition through municipality governments
can create actions by the private sector. The engagement with the private sector can create partnerships
which bring another layer of climate change mitigation.
Self- governance of a municipality can be observed in the transportation sector. For example, the
replacement of their vehicle fleets to EVs. One of the most prominent and most used tools to reduce
carbon emission in the transport sector are regulations (Sperling et al., 2009). The provisioning plays a
crucial role in efficient policy implementation. With incentive programs the enablement of governing a
transport transition is possible. The adaptation of public campaigns creates public awareness and
knowledge of cleaner transportation. Furthermore, it is the interaction or self- regulation of deliberation
which can add a stakeholder as a participating actor and leads to a collective decision- making process.
13
Therefore, effective execution of power happens with stakeholder participation and can bridge global
sustainability issues with local actions in fields such as sustainable transitions (Bäckstrand, 2006b).

The actual definition of stakeholders varies in the literature. For the purpose of this research,
stakeholders are defined as: stakeholders are those who are affected by the outcome of those who
can affect the outcome of a proposed development […] (www.worldbank.org, 1996). In addition, it
is important to include the interdisciplinary skill and knowledge set of stakeholders because it
creates a sustainable decision- making process (Kaatz et al., 2006). Moreover, the inclusion of
interdisciplinary knowledge groups is important to cover a larger interest which can be related to
climate change or urban development. Further, the importance of stakeholder participation in SD
has been defined by Van Huijstee, Francken and Leroy (2007, p. 77) as a “collaborative
arrangement in which actors from two or more spheres of society (state, market and civil society)
are involved in a non- hierarchical process, and through which these actors strive for a
sustainability goal”. This definition is a good example how the transition to the urban EV market
can be governed, through the provisioning of collective good and the link to a public policy
objective (Waddock and Bannister, 1991; Schäferhoff, Campe and Kaan, 2009).

3.2. Environmental governance

Narrowing the concept of governance down to environmental governance the definition can be
specified to: Environmental Governance is the continuing process of interactive decision - making in
environmental matters. It includes institutions and organisations as well as binding agreements,
policy instruments and procedures that regulate environmental protection at the international,
national or local level. (United Nations Environment Programme, 2017).
Environmental governance on local, national, and global level scale is associated with the rise of
less hierarchical and more collaborative governance arrangements with the aim of sustainability and
environmental protection (Koenig-Archibugi and Zürn, 2006; Smismans, 2006). Stakeholder
dialogue, citizen juries, network governance, public-private partnerships and voluntary standards
are some examples of the deliberative, participatory and market-oriented strategies that have gained
ground in policy areas such as climate change mitigation (Bäckstrand, 2012). Since t he environment
has no voice to be heard, governmental bodies are under pressure of providing environmental
protection policy. As long as the environment is depending on state actions, the state must remain as
a strong advocate for environmental policy.

3.3. Urban environmental governance

Urban policymakers act within their own boundaries and have limited capacities to govern a sustainable
transition. This is due to the limited accessibility to funding, geographical circumstances or lack of
national political commitment. To act on both challenges national governments are emphasizing on local
level policy approaches. It is the empowerment of local administrations and a bottom-up perspective to
respond to a higher- level policy initiative (Ward, 1996). Moreover, a real-life challenge for municipalities
is to achieve their own sustainability targets, and often large-scale transitions are beyond their core
competencies. Nevertheless, urban policymakers take up on their responsibility and are now searching for
creative or alternative ways of governing a sustainable transition based on a case- by- case approach and
own initiatives (Sanchez-Rodriguez et al., 2005).
In addition, it is important to observe and learn from interactions in a city and rethink how the involvement
of stakeholders can help to create effective urban climate policy (Lindley et al., 2006). Moreover, the
adaptation of a specific challenged makes urban environmental governance and planning a complex
process. In particular with the new urban transition to an EV dominated streets and the required
infrastructure development and the lack of experience or professional expertise can hinder the transition or
lead to a bad decision- making process. According to Bulkeley (2011), there is a lack in scientific
assessment to what extent social, economic and scientific research can measure different actions of urban
environmental governance (Qi et al., 2008; Satterthwaite, 2008).

Initiatives enhanced by urban policies can facilitate, enable, and empower non- governmental actors to
take responsibility and participate in tackling climate or environmental related issues (van Welie and

14
Romijn, 2018). A practical implementation of governance are policy instruments such as tax or incentives
regulations. However, western governance decision making processes is still dominated by market- based
factors. The challenge remains to what extent the tax or incentive program reflects an accurate price which
includes the social and ecological costs (www.sustainabledevelopment.un.org, 2012).

Kemp and Parto (Kemp, Parto and Gibson, 2005, p. 22) argue that sustainability can be obtained with the
immediate use of modern technologies. They argue further that a system innovation is needed to achieve
long-term sustainability. That argument leads to the conclusion that governance for sustainability needs
frameworks in policymaking which actively coordinate the transition to sustainable technological changes.
However, technological innovation can only be provided to the society. Therefore, related initiatives need
to be accompanied by societal processes. Policymakers should communicate visions to the public and the
importance of sustainability with learning and information programs. With the improvement of knowledge
and practices system innovation can offer environmental benefits such as renewable energy and emission-
free mobility including EVs.

The Rotmans- Kemp model conceptualizes the challenge for a successful policy change in a transition
process (Rotmans, Kemp and van Asselt, 2001). Three of the basic rules are:
 Embedded transition policy into existing decision- making frameworks and legitimise transition
management: means the transition management is a politically accepted and joined effort for
policy makers and society. Policy should focus on long-term goals with respect to short-term
concerns.
 Take the long view of a dynamic mechanism of change: If negative results occur during the
transition, the process should not stop but rather reflected and adopted to the unforeseen
circumstances. The learning experience is important for future policy creation.
 Engage in multi-level coordination: Top- down policies with a bottom-up initiative (with a
combination of vertical and horizontal coordination) and local experiments should be informative
for national policies. It is important to coordinate top-level policy with local policy.

Cities with self- governance and enabling modes are dominating the urban response to climate change.
Partnerships, provisions and, regulations play a key role to manage transitions. This applies in particular to
the urban transportation sector. Leadership though political campaigns have been identified as important
for driving initiatives forward. That way, municipalities can become global leaders on the issue of climate
change and environmental protection (Bulkeley, 2011). Instead of a centralised state-imposed regulation,
the local government is the new empowered deliverer for environmental initiatives. This includes the
involvement of stakeholders such as environmental groups, community organisations or local businesses.
With the rising engagement of local actors, the policy-making process becomes more socially and
politically inclusive (Gibbs and Jonas, 2000).

3.4. A conceptual framework

The conceptual framework for the socio-technical transition with a multi- level perspective.
The following sub chapters will (1) describe the meaning and role of a conceptual framework,
moves on to (2) identify the term transition and (3) explain the socio-technical transition
framework.

Next to the theoretical framework of environmental governance, there is the need to apply a
conceptual framework. It will serve as a map and will guide the research to answer the research
questions. It is used to make conceptual distinctions and organize ideas. The conceptual frameworks
capture something real, in a way that is easy to recollect and apply. By organising empirical
research with deductive, empirical and individual case study research, conceptual frameworks are
particularly helpful (Shields and Rangarajan, 2013).

In addition, it represents the researcher’s path on how to explain a phenomenon. This includes the
literature review, which is supposed to highlight the existing knowledge in the field, and the own
observations conducted during the research process. That way it is possi ble to highlight how
different variables interact with each other. “Setting the stage” for the presentation of the chosen

15
research question and what drives the study which is reported as a problem statement (McGaghie,
Bordage and Shea, 2001).

This research attempts to operationalise the conceptual framework and show its helpfulness by
applying to an urban case study. Especially, the aim of this thesis is to examine the EV transition
and discuss the experiences made with local polices to analyse how EVs ca n foster in an urban
environment.

3.4.1. Transition
There are different ways of defining the term transition, such as “[…] transition is a gradual
process of societal change in which society or an important subsystem of society structurally
changes” (Rotmans, Kemp and van Asselt, 2001, p. 19). Furthermore “it is a result of the interplay
of developments that sustain and reinforce each other” (Kemp and Loorbach, 2003, p. 7).

Narrowing it further down to a context with the socio-technical concept, transition is defined as
“change from one sociotechnical regime to another” (Geels and Schot, 2007, p. 399) whereby the
traditional ICEV is identified as the existing regime and is going to be replaced with the new niche
the EV.

Transition is processed and goes through stages which typically takes between 25- 50 years until its
full adaption (Kemp and Loorbach, 2003, p. 8). The transition stages are:

 Pre-development: has very little visible change but goes through experimentation
 Take off: the change is ongoing, and system shift begins
 Acceleration: structural change becomes visible through accumulation of socio-cultural,
ecological, institutional and economic changes which react with each other. Simultaneously,
there is a learning and embedding process (also known as acceleration phase
 Stabilisation: speed of societal change decreases and new dynamic equilibrium is reached
(Rotmans, Kemp and van Asselt, 2001)

The described phases are visualised in figure 3. The state of the EV transition in the case study
environment is identified in-between take- off and breakthrough (highlighted with a star).

Figure 3. Four phases of the socio-technical transition (Binder, Mühlemeier and Wyss, 2017, p. 2).

Kemp and Loorbach (2003, p. 9) argue further that a transition is a result of exogenous and
endogenous developments. The interaction between technical change and social or cultural changes
are a cause for transition but remain an abstract model and are difficult to adopt for policymakers.
16
To overcome this barrier a multi-level perspective (MLP) is needed. The MLP is a key component
of the socio-technical transition and will be further addressed in the following sub chapter.

3.4.2. The socio-technical system

After understating what environmental governance and transition means and how it develops over
time, the conceptual framework will now relate to the research. This sub- chapter will first
introduce the concept of socio-technical system and highlights the importance to the research field,
moves on to explain how the concept is going to be applied and finally explains the link to an urban
case study research.

There is an increasing interest in how policy initiatives are supporting transitions. The academic
world has a consensus understanding that governments play a key role in bringing transition
forward. However, the challenge for policymakers is to transform a socio-technical system into a
more sustainable arrangement (Smith, Stirling and Berkhout, 2005). What has less developed is how
policymakers can support these initiatives and which policy tools are most promising. Especially,
how to govern transitions is a less developed research field (Smith, Voß and Grin, 2010).

The socio-technical system is based on the technological trajectories and argues that policymakers,
users and other interest groups are contributing to the modelling of technological development
(Bijker, 1997). The socio-technical system takes it further and argues that existing trajectories are
stabilised in many ways which include but is not limited to sunk investment in infrastructure or
lifestyle and technical systems (Anderson and Tushman, 1990; Christensen, 1997).

A socio-technical transition, with the aim to achieve sustainability, is a difficult process because
existing structures in the field of infrastructure or transport are established systems and have
mechanism related to sunk investment, behaviour patterns or favourable subsidies and regulations
(Unruh, 2000). In order to understand a sustainability transition, the framework of MLP provides an
overall idea of the multidimensional complexity of changes within a socio-technical system (Rip
and Kemp, 1998; Geels, 2002, 2010; Geels and Schot, 2007).

The MLP differentiates between three analytical levels:

 Landscape
 Regimes – locked in and stabilized on several dimensions
 Niches – harbour for radical innovations (Geels, 2010, p. 495)

The first level is the landscape reflects the constant factor of a system over a long period of time.
The landscape concept has three distinctions: (1) factors which do not change or slowly such as
climate, (2) long-term changes (e.g. the German industrialisation in the late 19 th century) and (3)
external shocks (e.g. wars or price fluctuations in oil) (H. Driel and Schot, 2005, p. 54).
All of those factors can be summarised as a landscape because they come from an external context
that actors cannot influence on a short run (Geels and Schot, 2007, p. 403).

The following level is the regime. Regimes are institutional factors which change over time and are
often affected by landscape developments. These factors are dominated by certain technologies,
institutions, user practices, regulatory framework or scientific knowledge. Regimes are relatively
stable configurations (Rip and Kemp, 1998). The stability has a downside though, it is seen as
“locked- in “ (Unruh, 2000) or “entrapments” (Walker, 2000).

The last level is the niche. It often refers to technological or innovative change within a system and
has a single or some actors, which influence the landscape and regime layer. However, niche
innovations need to be fully developed in order to take advantage of a disruptive landscape
development. Niche innovations have a competitive nature and try to replace the regime. But they
also can develop a symbiotic relationship to regimes, if they can resolve a problem and improve
existing performance (Geels and Schot, 2007, p. 406). This project focused on niche level
development whereby the regime and landscape levels provided context to the analysis.

17
Table 5 provides a summary on how shocks to the landscape layer react with each other. Those
shocks can occur on an economic, socioeconomic, political or cultural level and affect the regime
and niche layer accordingly.
Table 5. Summary of Sociotechnical system (based on Geels and Schot, 2007; Shackley and Green, 2007; Verbong
and Geels, 2007; Kern, 2012)
Landscape Macroeconomic Socioeconomic Macro- political Cultural patterns
trends trends developments e.g. trend
E.g. climate change, e.g. financial crisis e.g. “philosophy” towards more
oil crisis behind policy individualization
making
Regime Changes in rules Changes in Changes in social
e.g. belief systems, technology networks
problem agenda e.g. in case of EV: e.g. new market
behavioural resources, entrants gain in
standards, knowledge, battery importance
regulations, laws and charging compared to
technology incumbents
Niche Learning processes Price performance Support from Established
e.g. learning process e.g. price- powerful groups market niches
has stabilised in a performance e.g. powerful e.g. innovation is
dominant design improved to a stage actors have joined used in market
where it is believed support network niches
to continue to
improve

The interaction between these three levels in a transition is also called regime shift (Geels, 2010, p.
495). A radical regime shift occurs in niches, here dominating actors encourage “configuration that
works” on multiple dimensions (Rip and Kemp, 1998, p. 330). Those niche innovations have the
potential to change external landscapes and can take place on multiple levels such as infrastructure,
regulation or markets (see figure 4).

18
Figure 4. Socio-technical change from a multi-level perspective (Geels and Schot, 2007, p. 401).
The foundation of the socio-technical transition within sustainability is related to the rational choice
of the causal agent. The causal agent acts in self- interest and given that the agent has full access to
information and access to an alternative, the decision can be based on a cost-benefit calculation and
therefore, rational the best alternative (ibid. p. 496). In particular, customers defining their decisions
based on budget, whereas producers are focusing on profit maximisation and efficient resource
allocation (ibid. p. 497). A transition with a sustainable route can be addressed by governments with
policy tools and such as environmental taxes or subsidises (ibid. p. 497). These governmental
initiatives have the potential to facilitate and initiate a transition because the industry is shifting its
capital investment, and R&D catches momentum focusing on new technological developments.
Rugman and Verbeke (1998) observed that companies’ investments are often postponed because of
uncertain regulations and the degree of willingness of the consumer to pay more for green products.

Moreover, a transition caused by innovations can come through niches and entrepreneurship
(Cattani, 2006). It might be a small change at the beginning but can put pressure on the established
system (Levinthal, 1998; Geels and Schot, 2007). The dynamics of a transition is often a shift in a
system which influences consumer preference and create pressure on policymakers and demand
stricter regulations (Geels and Schot, 2007, p. 499). Furthermore, a hindering aspect of a
sustainability transition in a socio-technical system is the lack of a shared vision. This is due to the
different interpretations of sustainability. Although SD aims to balance environmental, social, and
economic aspects, actors see priorities of those three factors differently and prioritise developments
one over the other (ibid. p. 500). In order to achieve a sustainable transition, policymakers should
set environmental goals such as the SDGs and the Paris Agreement (ibid. p. 501). The mismatch of
sustainable factors prioritisation makes it difficult for niche actors to lobby for their ideas because
politics is dependent on larger companies to provide employment and economic stability. However,
niche developers can increase their possibility to enable change through the outlook for an
economical alternative with the benefit of addressing the other two sustainability aspects, social and
19
environment. In addition, the public opinion may demand a change, and voting power creates a
pressure point for politicians (ibid. p. 502).

The conceptualisation of a regime change has similar attributes of the MLP which demonstrates the
interaction between both theories. Both see two dimension of adoption which is (1) the availability
of resources (knowledge, resources) and (2) the degree of management of resource deployment
(Geels and Schot, 2007, p. 401). Another challenge for a niche- innovation is the uncertainty of
legislation and financial support, whereas regimes act in a stable and well- framed environment
(ibid. p. 402).

Since the car became the dominant source of transport and an important economic source, the
technology and relevant sub- systems (e.g. roads, petrol stations and others) developed an
interdependency on the social, technological and institutional level. This can be called a socio-
technical regime. The interactions are demonstrated in figure 5, whereby the socio-technical system
is conceptualised with a cluster of aligned elements (Kern, 2012, p. 299).

Figure 5. The socio-technical system for land-based transportation (Geels, 2005, p. 682).
The ICEV is dominating the regime, and other technologies will find it difficult to compete since
habits of users, policies and the built environment changes slowly. Society is now locked into that
trajectory, and it requires a radical event, a so-called shock to the system or regime, to change it.
Those shocks occur from either the internal or external factors, and a response comes from regime
actors with the use of internal resources (Smith, Stirling and Berkhout, 2005). This transition,
however, becomes coordinated at some point. The alignment of visions by different actors and
groups helps to converge achievements that emerge during the transition process (Geels and Schot,
2007, p. 402).

The landscape started to shift with increasing concerns from society on topics like climate change,
oil price peaks and dependency on other countries resources. As a result, a window for innovative
technology is now opened and offers alternative solutions room to develop. Policymakers react to
their citizen's demand and look out for technological alternatives and are willing to adjust policies
in order to manage landscape disruptions. Additionally, the opened windows for so-called
technological niches create a destabilisation of the regime. Technological niches have often a
protected space within the regime. If the niche develops fast and in a mature way , it has the
potential to replace the current regime. So, if the EV and its complementary systems (e.g. battery
technology and charging infrastructure) reach a point of affordability, accessibility and mass
production, the regime can be replaced, and the EV becomes the new regime.

Within the EV transition, sub- regime tries to compete with the provisioning of an alternative power
source for cars and develops complementary technology such as battery production. With the
provisioning of electricity, produced through renewable energy, and the provisioning of charging
infrastructure, the transition creates a complementary and competing regime.

The niche level is the specific development of a technology or innovation. The advanced EV
20
technology as such started the transition. At the same time, innovations like new business models
with developing charging infrastructure, mobile applications to all ocate the charging station but also
the possibility to use a car share vehicle arise. These niche level developments are not limited to an
urban environment. As outlined in the introduction chapter, international and national governments
became interested in the EV transition as one solution to climate change mitigation.

Although the socio-technical system is mostly applied to national research, the EV transition is
observed on an urban scale, and through the lens of environmental governance, the living urban lab
will make the socio-technical system adaptable for urban case study research.

Cities are a place where different groups come together such as citizens, businesses, politics and
others. Therefore, it is viewed and observed from different perspectives. Economists see the
economic potential in a city, citizens as a social system (Hodson, Geels and McMeekin, 2017).
However, it can also be seen as a complex socio-technical system. The interaction of different
groups, also known as stakeholders, make urban development a complex phenomenon. In particular,
urban infrastructure development enables collective living and working. The expansion of
infrastructure has significant effects on people’s life. It can enhance or hinder the access to services
or the workplace. At the same time, the political and social life determines where development
occurs and expands. This often leads to a targeted investment and economic activities in specific
areas. In addition, depending on the political decision- making processes the specific development
of selective urban areas can be enhanced and other areas left out of a transition process. These
implications can influence the management and governance of a city. Since all groups to some
extent interact with each other, the social dimension interacts with the technical dimension , and the
technical dimension interacts with the economic dimension and so forth. Decisions made on one
dimension can have a significant impact on another dimension. This means a well- informed
decision process is needed in an emerging topic such as the urban EV transition.

Smith (2007) argues, in order to manage and govern a transition in a socio-technical system three
main components need to be considered:
1. Holistic approach
2. Long-term perspective
3. Flexibility

Having the complexity of an urban transition in mind and considering the recommended
governance approaches by Smith (2007) will now discuss how the socio-technical system can be
conceptualized.

3.4.3. Social innovation within the socio-technical system

The socio-technical system is mostly focused on how a niche innovation, mostly an advanced or
new technical invention, is implemented in the market with policy approaches and industry
reactions. However, another aspect which comes to the transition process is the social innovation
component. The term social innovation is defined as “innovative activities and services that are
motivated by the goal of meeting a social need” (Mulgan, 2006). This includes lifestyle and
behaviour change, energy savings through new forms of governance and business and users utilizing
new technical solutions (Bergman et al., 2010). A social innovation, also known as bottom-up
innovation, emerges through the interaction of less powerful actors and need to overcome regulatory
and resource barriers. Consequently, bottom-up social innovations are often overlooked and their
potential to contribute to climate change mitigation not well enough addressed in the academic
literature as well as governance initiatives. In fact, an innovation process always entails a social
component. Therefore, any technical innovation involves a social process and needs to be included
and considered in the transition phase (Bergman et al., 2010).

Another reason why social innovation is often overlooked in the socio-technical system is the
definition of innovation. The term is mostly associated with new technologies but should be seen as
a new practice, new service or changing social structures. After all, innovation raises from a social,
creative process (MacKenzie and Wajcman, 1999). Moreover, through social innovations, the
21
sustainability aspects are more respected since new technologies can help the city to transform into
a less polluted and carbon reduced space. However, the innovation needs to spread beyond its origin
in order to have a significant impact on climate change issues.
Yet policies are often designed to support technical innovations with a commercial aim and leave
out the social goal. A downside of bottom-up innovations is the missing measurable component.
Quantifying the outcome of social innovation or a related policy is difficult because the transition
process is still developing to a standardised outcome. The social innovation also leaves room for a
creative mind to lead the way towards a new regime and show established industries how much a
vision can create sustainable change.

The phases of social innovation are identified by (Mulgan, 2006) as:

1. Coupling of ideas with a need that is not met
2. Developing a promising idea and test in practice
3. Scaling up, replication, adapting and if necessary diffusing of an idea that has been proven
in practice
4. Learning and adapting ideas into forms which may be different from the original

The conventional scholars in the socio-technical system can link their theories to the small
subcategory of social innovation.
Henderson (1996) sees the social innovation as a critique of established technology and highlights
the social and environmental benefit of bottom up innovations. This approach matches broadly with
the first two identified phases by Mulgan (2006).

Further, Phills et al. (2008) see three critical instruments of social innovation:
1. Exchange of ideas and values between actors and engaging with different motivations and
values to the innovation (E.g. government, businesses or community groups)
2. Shifts in roles and relationships between different actors
3. Integration of private capital and public support

These stages are in line with Mulgan´s (2006) the four stages.

In sum, bottom-up social innovation has the potential to play a significant role in combating climate
change. Experiments on technologies and forms of social organisations together can support the
stakeholder collaboration (Hegger et al., 2007). With appropriate policy instruments, the social
innovation process can become influential on a national but also regional level. Moreover, a joined
approach of the social, cultural, environmental and economic benefit, the social innovation can
become a guiding tool for future governance framework.

3.4.4. Conceptualizing the socio-technical transition

After addressing the theory of socio-technical regime and first applications to the EV transition, it
is needed to explain how the framework can be applied and conceptualised in this thesis.

Since transport systems are applied nationally and subdivided into the urban area with public
transport, bike lanes and parking spaces, the analyst needs to divide the empirical level of the
research and then operationalise the MLP (Geels and Schot, 2007, p. 402). The identification of
different levels is not always clear but for the purpose of this research are defined as actors who are:
industry, society, policy makers, independent organisations such as NGOs or research institutions.
These actors are assumed to act self- interested and strategically (Geels and Schot, 2007, p. 403).
This multidimensional model of actors is also identified as a rule influencer and user (Giddens,
2014). Those groups also have different problem definitions, which can lead to a hindering solution
finding process or can enhance a creative solution finding path. With building a shared cognitive
frame, it is possible to work towards an outcome all groups can be satisfied with. However,
beforehand it is necessary to identify common “goals, key problems, problem- solving strategies,
requirements, testing procedures, design methods and criteria” (Bijker, 1997, p. 123).

The adoption of a fully developed niche innovation will be accepted when the following conditions
22
outlined by Geels and Schot (2007, p.405) are met:
1. The learning process has stabilised in a dominant design
2. Powerful actors have joined the support network
3. Price/ performance improvements have improved and are strong expectations of further
improvements (e.g. learning curves)
4. Innovation is used in market niches, which have a market share of at least five per cent
(Rogers, 2010)

3.4.5. Urban socio-technical transition

Within the theories of the MLP and socio-technical system, there is a lack of a special
identification. The leading scholar Geels identified the lack of research which applied the theories
on an urban case study (Hodson and Marvin, 2010, p. 480; Hodson, Geels and McMeekin, 2017).

Cities in their capacity of being shaped by a national transition have a role which needs to be
understood in the socio-technical system, especially in an MLP perspective (Bache and Flinders,
2004). It is not possible to reduce the examination to solely local authorities or local economic
actors. All urban actions are somehow influenced by actors at national and supranational levels who
affect the action and outcome of a transition (Brenner, 2004). The different levels and power
relations of governance can leave urban areas within a critical phase of transition initiatives. With a
contemporary landscape pressure of responding to climate change and local pollution issues, cities
consider for strategies and as outlined in the introduction chapter alternative infrastructure
solutions.

The urban socio-technical infrastructure system is organised through local authorities and involves
local actors and attracts external stakeholders. This is also due to the nature of territorial
governance influence and control over local infrastructure or energy systems. In order to manage
the urban transition a vision is a key communicator and participation tool to engage , inspire, and
mobilise social actors (Rotmans, Kemp and van Asselt, 2001; Kemp and Loorbach, 2003). The
vision is a signal to actors and groups such as utility supplier, citizens and business which also lead
to a network building process beyond transitional industry boarders (Russell and Williams, 2002). A
vision can be altered during the transition and finds a clearer definition through the learning
process. However, the message is key to ensure the socio-technical regime change is a continuous
transition. One could even argue the vision is the reason why a niche innovation reaches momentum
and can progress in a relatively stable and firm environment as urban governance is experiencing
the same attributes (Hodson and Marvin, 2010, p. 482).

This research is aiming to partially fill the gap in the literature (Hodson, Geels and McMeekin,
2017, pp. 1, 3). Consequently, is it difficult to identify where the transition takes place. To
overcome this missing knowledge the national scale transition can be considered as a starting point.
Hereby, the national context in terms of policies, historical developments and social discourse will
be taken into account. The role of an individual city is still unclear but using two specific case study
examples the research will be conducted in a closed analytical approach. The conclusion might be
limited to the closed urban system; however, lessons can be taken further and be an inspiration for
other cities with a similar aspiration of transforming to an EV market penetration and become and
mediator for national transition. The socio-technical system is used as a tool which can be adopted
within the environmental governance framework and helps to underline the transition characteristics
in the urban EV transition.

23
All outlined aspects will guide the research and The Rotmans- Kemp model will be used to frame
interview questions. The Rotmans- Kemp model conceptualizes the challenge for a successful
policy change in a transition process (Kemp, Parto and Gibson, 2005, p. 24). Three of the basic
rules are:

 Embedded transition policy into existing decision- making frameworks and legitimise transition
management: means the transition management is a politically accepted and joined effort for
policymakers and society.

 Policy should focus on long-term goals with respect to short-term concerns.

Take the long view of a dynamic mechanism of change: If negative results occur during the
transition the process should not stop but rather be reflected and adapted to the unforeseen
circumstances. The learning experience is important for future policy cr eation.

 Engage in multi-level coordination: Top- down policies with a bottom-up initiatives and local
experiments should be informative for national policies. It is important to coordinate top-level
policy with local policy.

Finally, the research tries to expand the socio-technical system and adds a new perspective, the
urban/ small-scale development, to the discourse.

24
 4. Empirical Background
This chapter sets the stage for the case study research. First, it will give a brief overview of the
history of EVs, what technologies are already in place with an overview of how this creates
challenges and opportunities for cities. It then will delve deeper into the policy approaches the
cities are providing and will address how successful or hindering they are.

4.1. Background on electric vehicle history

The oil crisis made industry and government leaders aware how high the dependency from imported
oil is and started looking into alternatives. Other important motivators were the awareness of
climate change and air pollution caused by car emissions. The California Air Resources Board
(CARB) was the first authority in the world releasing a public policy on focusing to steadily
implement the emission-free car as the only available car. This pressure on automakers leads to the
intensive research in the field of a car battery, charging equipment and model variation. After
various developments mostly from German and US automakers and different research projects, the
first long-distance EV was introduced by Tesla. The Tesla Roadster had a range of 200 mile/ 350
km and became available as the first mass-manufactured EV in 2008. International automakers were
now facing a new and advanced competitor. The interest in EV is now a global phenomenon.
International competing automakers are heavily investing in its EV technology and somewhat
forced to do so as a result of pressure from policymakers. Leaders try to react quickly with policy
initiatives. For example, the German federal government issued a 1 billion Euro fund to finance
even more research and the deployment of charging infrastructure. The US has also issued more
policies such as the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. By purchasing an EV tax
credit between $2,500 and $7,500 per vehicle (depending on the battery capacity) is applicable. The
enhanced public discourse on eco-innovation, economic potentials and environmental protection is
now focusing on alternative transportation, including EVs.

4.2. Background on electric vehicle technology

With growing cities in terms of population, economic activities, there is a simultaneous need for
local and regional transportation. The car has been the prioritised form of transport since the 1920s
(Moss, 2015) and causes heavy pollution in urban areas and ultimately contributes to climate
change. As a result, the demand for cleaner and low emission transport technology experienced a
continuing demand. Where ICEV became more efficient the research in alternative motorisation did
not stop. In 2011 the niche car manufacturer Tesla presented a fully on battery driving vehicle with
a range of 200 miles/ 320 km (Gene, 2017). Until this point Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
(PHEV) was the most common alternative car because it has two motors, electric and a combust
engine motor. But with the development of a long-range Tesla the path for a mobility transition was
opened. The high- density level of people living in cities and the proximity of connected
infrastructure makes the transformation to an EV penetrated market attractive. Charging
infrastructure equipment is a crucial and new development element of the EV. The mos t common
way of recharging the battery is at the charging station.

25
4.2.1. Charging station, plugs and availability
There are three standard charging levels. All cars can be charged at a Level 1 (8 to 15 hours) and
Level 2 station (3 to 8 hours) (Guinn, 2017). However, Level 3 (30 min to 1 hour), also known as
fast charger or Direct Current (DC), is only usable by some EVs. Fast chargers are considered the
most practical and efficient method to reduce long charging durations. However, they are also the
most expensive type of charger in terms of installation (Agenbroad and Holland, 2014).

In Germany and the US are

four different plugs for
charging, which is depending
on the car manufacturer (see
figure 5). In case the plug at
the car does not match the
slot at the charging stations,
adapters are available but
need to be purchased
separately
(www.autoscout24.de, 2018).
figure 6 demonstrates which
charging plugs are most
common in the US and
Germany.

Figure 6. Overview of charging plugs in Europe and USA (Zehle, 2014).

Moreover, the deployment of charging

infrastructure created a preference of where to
charge. As demonstrated in figure 7, the
hierarchy of charging is at home, work and
publicly. Charging at home is considered as the
most convenient way of charging. The EV is
plugged in, in the evening and fully charged
through the home electricity system in the
morning. Similar is the workplace charging
behaviour. Employers offer charging stations, and
while the car is standing for most of the time, it
can easily recharge. Public charging
infrastructure is installed in the street, semi-
public charging infrastructure at shopping centres
or private car parks. At those charging places, the
charging time plays a crucial role. Fast charging
can offer a full refill within 30 minutes and Level
2 charger within a couple of hours.

Figure 7. Electric vehicle charging hierarchy (Tuttle and Baldick, 2015, p. 35).

26
But due to the generally limited availability in cities, the fear of not being able to reach the
destination hinders a lot of interested consumers on changing to an EV.
Although charging at home and work seems to be the most logical solution to deploy charging
infrastructure since this is the place where the car is parked most time of its life, it als o creates high
dependency on home/ work charging and leaves out availability. This is particularly relevant for
urban areas. The different dwelling (single or multi-dwelling residential buildings) and limited
access to work and public charging facilities make it important to spread the deployment evenly
throughout the city (Neubauer and Wood, 2014). Chapter 5.3 will explain the challenges cities are
facing within the EV transition in more detail.

4.2.2. Consumer awareness

In order to create a transition towards a sustainable technology adoption, the consumer needs to be
convinced about the benefits. Creating awareness of a new product such as the EV is therefore key
(Rezvani, Jansson and Bodin, 2015; Adnan et al., 2017).

The variation of plugs is identified as a hindering factor of the adoption to EVs. Drivers are used to
petrol stations with one way of refilling the car and the refilling times takes only a view minute.
With differences in plugs and recharge time, the consumer needs to adapt and plan to charge ahead.
In addition, to identify a suitable charging station in advance the use of a smartphone/ online
application is needed. This creates another dependency on online tools and makes it difficult for
people who do not use smartphone apps or do not have access to the internet (Steinhilber, Wells and
Thankappan, 2013).

An extensive literature review was conducted by the ICCT (Jin and Slowik, 2017, pp. 19–20) and
analysed consumer awareness and outreach activities in different countries including the US and
Europe.

Based on their research, the following key recommendations were given:

 Active communication with radio/ television commercials, celebrity ambassad ors, test drive
experience sharing, social media use, competitions and challenges
 Stakeholder collaboration, especially government in cooperation with the auto industry with
campaigns which create more consumer awareness and provide partial funding, form
partnerships with other stakeholders
 Sustained programs that utilize outreach with well- designed, comprehensive programs to
maximise consumers´ exposure to EVs. It also needs consumer-friendly access to information
 Governments should communicate and deliver key messages to potential consumers and the
market to build confidence in the transition

4.3. Issues for cities in the electric vehicle transition

After an introduction of historical, technological and environmental aspects related to EVs, the
thesis will now continue to address specific issues cities are facing within the desired transition.

4.3.1. Electricity supply

The accurate and efficient way of energy supply is still an uncertainty. A utility provider need to
understand, and the observation of electricity use by EV at home or businesses can fill the gap.
Whereby the limited offer on reduced electricity rates has only a small attraction to the potential
consumer, the incentive for a residential installation of an EVSE is very attractive. In particular, the
reach to larger dwellings and property developer can create a larger incentive and has an additional
service to local residence (Nigro and Frades, 2014).

4.3.2. Range
The range of an EV varies between 81 miles/ 130 km (BMW i3) and 237 miles/ 380 km (Chevrolet
Bolt), depending on the manufacturer and model (Zach, 2017). Potential consumers are afraid of
driving an EV on longer trips and run out of power with no option to recharge. This is known as
27
range anxiety and was identified in 1997 (www.wordspy.com, 2010). An even earlier identification
of range anxiety was identified as a psychological stress phenomenon and described as “ a stressful
experience of a present or anticipated range situation, whereby the range resource and personal
resources available to effectively manage the situation are perceived to be insufficient. ” (Rauh,
Franke and Krems, 2015).

However, numerous research was able to (statistically) prove the range within an urban area is more
than sufficient, even with the currently limited access of charging infrastructure (Pearre et al., 2011;
Franke et al., 2012; Rauh, Franke and Krems, 2015).
The number of hours and km/ miles driven per day with a car varies depending on the country and
source. On average the car is used two to three times a day for a time range between 60 and 80
minutes and a distance between 38 and 45 km (Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt, 2016, WELT, 2017). For
example, in Berlin, the average amount of trips is three, and it takes 70 minutes and 6.9 km per way
(Senatsverwaltung fur Umwelt, Verkehr und Klimaschutz, 2013). This leaves the car usage to about
80 per cent of its lifetime. Therefore, the issue of the range and charging availability in an urban
environment is less important than it seems to the consumer (Forschungscampus3, 2015). There are
several factors why the range anxiety is still existing. For example, the limited knowledge on EVs,
the limited accessibility or visibility of charging infrastructure or the missing awareness of
alternative ways of accessing charging facilities at work or home (Eisel, Schmidt and Kolbe, 2014;
Coffman, Bernstein and Wee, 2017).

4.3.3. Charging time

The so-called Charging Time Trauma is related to EV customers who experienced the limited
availability of charging stations (Taub, 2017). If the EV needs to be charged elsewhere than at home
or work, the search and need for a vacant charging station can be another stressful experience. The
nearest station is either occupied, out of service or not compatible. Another factor is the frustration
of long charging time (Take Charge and Go, 2014; Rauh, Franke and Krems, 2015;
www.chargepoint.com, 2018). Even if a charging station is found, the driver has long waiting times
until the battery is recharged. This is often seen as a disadvantage compared to ICEV which are
refilled at petrol stations within minutes.

Most cities are witnessing the misuse of car parking places at charging places. Responses are
parking tickets or the actual wrecking service. However, this approach has only limited success
since police controls are unregulaly and drivers are willing to take that risks (Bonges and Lusk,
2016).

4.3.4. Cost
The first- time purchase is a significant factor for car buyers. That is not just limited to individuals
but also commercial cars such as taxis or fleets. The high price is mostly due to the expensive
battery technology and high production costs. The fixed cost of 30.000 $/ 32.000 € for a Nissan
LEAF (200 km range) is for many people still too high for a one- time investment considering the
range which is considered as limited (www.adac.de, 2018; www.cars.usnews.com, 2018). Currently,
EVs lack in cost competitiveness and lacks in an attractive market of used EVs. The used car market
is in particular important for people with smaller incomes. Until the price drops and the issue of
affordability not managed, the EV remains a luxury product.

Urban policymakers are dependent on national legislative and budget decisions. The national
incentive program can be complemented with a regional/ urban subsidy, but it is a financial burden.
However, the variable costs, for example, charging prices, registration fees or local tax are an urban
policy tool whereby the dimension can be adjusted (Langbroek, Franklin and Susilo, 2016; Yang et
al., 2016).

28
4.4. Political aspects
After the chapter that introduced information on historical, technological and consumer
perspectives it will move on with presenting background information from the academic research
field. The following articles are very specific reflections on how the EV transition developed in the
US, European and urban context. That way a solid foundation of the understanding of the EV
transition is set. In order to answer the first research question, this chapter reviews the challenges
and opportunities for the EV adoption in the urban environment in the scholarly literature.

In their research Policy option to support the adoption of electric vehicles in the urban environment
by Bakker and Trip (2013) work with urban policymakers during a workshop to reflect and discuss
ongoing policies on their effectiveness, efficiency and feasibility (ibid. p. 18). Their research was
conducted through interviews with urban policy representatives from the UK, Netherlands,
Belgium, Denmark and Norway who were invited to share their experiences.
The exchange brought some common challenges and barriers to light. For example, policy leaders
fear that an increasing purchase subsidy could risk that car manufacturers are inflating the price
accordingly with the subsidy. Moreover, all attendees agreed that the deployment of charging
infrastructure is necessary to facilitate the introduction of EVs. Here was highlighted, that the urban
authorities have large responsibility and power to make the infrastructure EV ready. Investing in
public charging infrastructure equipment creates public-private- partnerships with service providers
and other businesses. In addition, businesses, shops or individual EV owners could receive a
financial incentive to invest in a charging station on private properties with the idea of public usage
(ibid p. 19, 20). At the same time, cities could install charging stations close to public places such
as train stations or public parking facilities. The participants raised the concern that a business
model for public recharging brings a low profit margin. Especially, in the pre-development phase
where the EV driver relies on low charging costs to offset the initial investment.
Another challenge is the strategic installation of charging infrastructure. Cities only install when a
stakeholder asks for it. However, “spatial research should result in a strategic plan of where
charging points should be implemented in the future. In practice when it comes to installing them,
here are not so many locations where it is practical to do so that it is possible to locate them
strategically. Where a partner says they want to install a charge point, we agree - there is no
decision about whether this fits with the overall infrastructure location strategy.” (ibid. p. 20).
A benefit on public charging infrastructure is the visibility factor to the citizen and key to reduce
the psychological barrier for people to buy an EV. Other regulatory measures could be the
exemption of fees on toll- roads or congestion charge schemes. However, those initiatives are costly
and should be only available until the market shifted to a certain EV market share. Another more
top-down policy could be the obligation to include charging infrastructure in all new property
developments (ibid. p. 20).
There was a broad consensus that the experience of driving an EV is important in convincing people
that EVs are a fun and proper way to drive. At the moment most citizens are still unfamiliar with
EV and have not had the chance to gain that experience. The general lack of technical knowledge,
such as range, charging equipment or cost of ownership also discourage s the transition to an EV
dominated market. Cities could approach that challenge with providing such information on the
city´s website or attend all types of events and present the benefits of an EV. It is also
recommended to install a physical or virtual office which can be accessed by the public. The “See,
try, feel” concept is an effective way of convincing people to switch to an EV. The study also
identified and confirmed a specific urban benefit of EVs. The reduction of local pollution in
particular CO 2 and NOx emissions are an aim most urban leaders have in order to ensure public
health (ibid. p. 21).

The study Assessing the impact of policy interventions on the adoption of plug-in electric vehicles:
An agent-based model by (Silvia and Krause, 2016) analyses the implementation of selected public
policy and affects the patterns of adoption of EVs by residential urban consumers in the US ( ibid. p.
105). The barriers to adopting EVs are very similar in the US compared to EU. The high purchase
costs, limited range, limited charging infrastructure and missing knowledge are the main factors
(ibid. p. 105). Other studies confirming these results are presented in table 6 below.

29
Table 6. Summary of barriers in the EV adoption in the academic literature
Barriers & Measures Context for the study Author/ year
High purchase cost Municipalities have limited possibilities (Gibbs and Jonas, 2000;
to reduce purchase costs and need to Bakker and Jacob Trip, 2013;
find creative solutions such as reducing Langbroek, Franklin and
registration fees, offer temporarily Susilo, 2016; Li et al., 2017)
additional tax rebates
Limited range of Municipalities need to work with the (Krutko, Moon and Finkle,
battery capacity (range current available technology and only 2013; Gass, Schmidt and
anxiety) have limited availability on supporting Schmidt, 2014; Rezvani,
R&D Jansson and Bodin, 2015)
Limited access to The communication between (Jin, Tang and Ghosh, 2013;
charging infrastructure municipality and charging station He, Yin and Zhou, 2015;
providers is a key issue and needs to be Giménez-Gaydou et al.,
enhanced 2016; Silvia and Krause,
2016)
Missing knowledge Understanding costs and environmental All interviews confirmed the
benefits of the EV lack of knowledge as a
barrier, (Knowles, Scott and
Baglee, 2012; Langbroek,
Franklin and Susilo, 2016;
Adnan et al., 2017)

Range anxiety as a typical and widely spread US American phenomena , even though an average US
driver travels less than 40 miles per day (Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2017). The
“individualistic and open road mentality held in much of the United States ” is one explanation for
the range anxiety phenomena (ibid. p. 107). Moreover, the amount of time spent for recharging and
the currently limited availability of charging infrastructure is in correlation with range anxiety.
Policies offering incentives to reduce the purchase price are available for all types of low emission
vehicles. Non- financial incentives such as High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lanes and free parking
have been identified as an insignificant policy (Potoglou and Kanaroglou, 2007). Another reason for
the slow uptake of EVs is the missing visibility of an EV. The car is easy to see, but the EV is
difficult to recognize for the average consumer (ibid. p. 107, p.116).
The article concludes that the EV in an American context is offering not enough private advantages
to the ICEV. In addition, the article highlights how difficult the experi ments are in an urban and
legislative context. It is difficult to manage costs, simultaneously offer a better understanding of
their citizens and develop the transition in a fast and sustainable way. Real life research on a case to
case basis is therefore needed to observe and evaluate policy approaches. In order to achieve
reliable results, a city needs to lead the way ahead.

After looking at cultural and national scientific findings, it will narrow the research down to the
common challenges and policy approaches. In Addressing electric vehicle sales and range anxiety
through parking layout, policy and regulation the authors Bonges and Lusk (2016) are looking at
the adoption of EV through consumer perspectives and evaluates existing policies.
The first identification why the uptake on EVs is so slow has to with the limited availability of
charging stations. At the same time, the consumer is highly concerned about the limited range of an
EV (ibid. p.63). The paper is referring to a survey with the aim to find out which barrier is the
largest for the consumer. It concluded that 71. 7 per cent would more incline to purchase an EV if
the charging station were located at either their place of work or their trip destination (Krupa, 2014,
p. 20). Plenty of incentives are already available in nation states and cities. Programs such as
purchase rebates, free parking, even free charging, and incentives of installing public or private
charging stations are seen as efficient policy approaches (Bakker and Trip, 2013).
Yet the uptake is still slow, and it is now to identify why. The lack of publicly available charging
stations which are compatible with the EV limits the motivation to purchase an EV in particular if
the driver is a long-distance traveller (ibid. p.64, Schröder and Traber, 2012).
The paper is also addressing a rare topic in the field of recharging. Currently, it is not possible to
30
connect one EV to the other and charging plugs vary depending on the model and station. This is a
significant barrier because it is one of the key differences to an ICEV.
In order to have secured access to charging EV drivers with a house install their own charging
station which costs around $1000 (Agenbroad and Holland, 2014). Most public chargers are Level 2
chargers which require a maximum recharge time between three and six hours. For most people, this
is too long since ICEV only need a few minutes to be refilled (Robinson et al., 2013). Other issues
are that the driver finds an EV charging station but is occupied by another EV or an ICEV blocking
the spot. There is also a lack of information if one EV driver could unplug the recharged EV. In
fact, there is no known legislation which governs the condition under which an EV can be
unplugged (ibid. p.65). The paper has three recommendations on how and where to deploy charging
infrastructure:
1. the easiest and fastest way to deploy charging infrastructure is on parking areas. Charging
stations often have two or more charging slots so that one installed station can serve several
cars at the same time.
2. free parking at work or close to shops. Although it is an appealing idea for EV drivers it also
results in overcrowded parking areas and negative customer experience.
3. etiquette and practices demand that “only charging when necessary, and only as much as
needed […]” (ibid. p.67) (Bonges and Lusk, 2016, p. 67)

Their suggestion is charging station should display when an EV is fully charged, and the next EV
driver should be allowed to unplug in order to access the charging slot. If the charging station is
technically not able to display the charging status, drivers could leave an etiquette card which
indicates when the EV was plugged in and for how long the charge is needed.
Another issue is the wrongful parking by ICEV drivers. Often the EV slots have a prime location
and others may feel disadvantaged and occupy without considering the need of the EV driver. A
way to ensure the parking slot s rightfully occupied and only for the duration needed would be by
enforced etiquette. This could be with a parking ticket. The authors offer another solution to the
etiquette dilemma which is the redesign of the charging station. Increase the number of slots to
eight rather than two. With that new octopus charging station, charging should happen on a first
comes first serves basis. The EV plugged in first will receive the load, the second with a delay and
so on. This would be in particular beneficial for overnight charging where no rush is a long waiting
time no issue (ibid. p. 68) and legislation governing EV charging is not yet established on state or
urban level. As a result, EVs “occupy the charging location for any period of time, as long as it is
plugged in.” (ibid. p.69). The study suggests that in order to increase EV sales and extend the
ownership of EVs, charges in proximity to prime charging locations is needed. It further stresses
that the deployment should not just focus on the quantitative and qualitative measure. The
installation of charging stations is very expensive and needs, therefore, places for provisioning need
to be carefully chosen. The identification of a charging slot is on the urban level but also on the
public parking space level very important. The benefit to deploying on prime locations in car parks
brings little or no benefit and needs, therefore, be reconsidered (ibid. p.69).

A more specific policy analysis was done by Langbroek, Franklin and Susilo (2016) in their paper
The effect of policy incentives on electric vehicle adoption. The article starts by identifying the need
for charging infrastructure and that home charging would have a higher value than public charging
or charging at work (Lin and Greene, 2011). It moves on explaining the taxonomy of policy
instruments which can be either use- based or purchase- based incentives. Use-based policy is for
example free parking for EVs or allowing to use the bus lane. Purchased- based incentives are
described as initiatives which decrease the fixed costs of EV use. Langbroek et al. (2016) state that
local use- based policy is more likely to be adopted by municipalities and “only influence people
who can gain from these location-specific incentives” (ibid. p.95). There are more local incentives
which are also identified as little use “registration tax exemptions or exemption on annual road
taxes are not considered as very effective and efficient ” (Gass, Schmidt and Schmidt, 2014). In
addition, road tax exemptions are not targeting the disadvantage of the initial high purchase costs
EVs (Langbroek, Franklin and Susilo, 2016, p. 96). Although the mentioned incentives might not
convince the potential consumer at first glance, it has the possibility to become attractive since the
cost of ownership scatter over time and are an affordable option for the municipality ( ibid. p. 96).
31
The article also addresses the socio-psychological dimension of EV adoption and concludes that
consumers with an advanced mindset on technological change, environ mentalism and behavioural
change have a decreased price- sensitivity. Consequently, “subsidization is less effective and
therefore less efficient for people in more advanced stages- of- change.” (ibid. p 101). Moreover, if
the society is able to shift toward the use of EV with an attitude change, policies should be
reallocated to EV promotion policy (ibid. p. 101).
Furthermore, the article stresses that policy incentives are not designed for infinite use and should
only be available until the EV market is able to function on its own (ibid. p. 102). Moreover, used-
based incentives such as free parking should also be stopped since they are no longer viable. The
socio-economic aspects of incentive policy is identified as “local policy incentives decrease the
marginal cost of EV use rather than their fixed costs; those policy measures are of little help for the
group of car buyer that can currently not afford to buy an EV” (ibid. p. 102). Side effects of
incentive-based policy is the signal to private investors. Industries often wait and react upon
governmental intervention and see business opportunities. But policies need to be communicated in
a clear and transparent way this includes the length and financial extend ( ibid. p.102). The article
concludes that “[…] a more cost-effective strategy might be to put efforts on moving people towards
a more advanced stage-of-change and focussing on this particular group of people when designing
a less extensive package of policy- incentives for the specific group.” (ibid. p.103).

32
4.5. Urban case study Los Angeles and Oslo
To demonstrate successful EV transitions in urban areas two example case studies are selected, Los
Angeles (USA) and Oslo (Norway). Their initiatives and success will be briefly introduced and give
an example of how the successful implementation of policy can achieve a transition to an EV
penetrated market.

4.5.1. Los Angeles (California, USA)

A case study that is of particular interest for this project was conducted in 40 Californian cities
(Lutsey, 2017b). A combination of state and federal financial incentives and a new policy
framework called the Zero- Emission Vehicle Program became a leading initiative in the US. This
program sent a strong signal to local stakeholders and created the foundation of the EV transition.
Specific policy tools were free parking for EVs, workplace charging and fleet subsidies. A
particular driver was identified in 30 California cities; the accessibility to public charging
infrastructure was five times higher per capita than in any other US major city (Lutsey, Searle and
Pavlenko, 2016).

Los Angeles is the largest city in the US state of California with a population of 4 million citizens
and the highest level of ozone in the US. The city adopted the California Zero Emission Vehicle
program and offered a broad portfolio of consumer incentives. An additional driver was the
development of two headquarters of EV manufacturers and a settlement of e - mobility related
companies from 2010 onwards. Los Angeles has the highest sales of PHEVs and the highest
availability of EV and PHEV models. The EV market share lies approximately 3 per cent which is
four times higher than the national average (Lutsey, 2017b). Finally, the city offers very high
monetary benefits. A brief summary of all relevant policies are listed in table 7:

Table 7. Overview of promotion for electric vehicles in Los Angeles Metropolitan area (Hall, Moultak and
Lutsey, 2017, p. 25)

The table highlights that California is offering next to national incentives state incentives, too. For
example, the additional rebate for the purchase price, preferences for the use of HOV Lanes,
charging infrastructure expansion and extensive education programs.

33
4.5.2. Oslo (Norway)
Another empirical study that is of relevance for the project was conducted in Oslo (Norway) by
Hall, Moultak and Lutsey (2017). The capital of Norway claims to be the “Electric Vehicle Capital
of the World” (Oslo kommune, 2018). The city of Oslo has 35,000 registered EVs and a market
share of 21 per cent of new registered EVs in 2015. In addition, Norway and in particular Oslo has a
very expanded charging infrastructure. Moreover, the city has a very generous incentive program
which is summarised in table 8. Specific highlights are the 25 per cent VAT exemption and various
charging infrastructure programs.

Table 8. Summary of electric vehicle support actions in the Oslo Metropolitan area (Hall, Moultak and Lutsey, 2017,
p. 18)

Since Norway´s national authority offers already generous incentives, Oslo´s municipality mostly
benefiting from and is actively expanding on charging infrastructure and engages in education
campaigns.

34
 5. Empirical results
The following section will give an overview of the selected case studies Washington, DC and Berlin.
It starts with presenting (1) the geographical and demographical description, (2) policy efforts and
shows the municipalities commitment, (3) presents the current state of charging infrastructure and
related initiatives, (4) moves on to the electricity supply as the sources for the EV, (5) addresses the
issue of visibility and signage, (6) reports on the local consumer awareness and finally looks at the
(7) R&D development in this. All those empirical results will be underlined with the interviews
taken during the field trips and reflect the real-life development.

5.1. Washington, DC (USA)

Washington, DC (District of Columbia) with a population of 690.000 citizens (US Census Bureau,
2017) is the capital of the USA and has exclusive jurisdiction and is therefore not considered as an
independent state. The city has limited congressional power and is allowed to elect a major. The
majors and councils political power reaches over local taxes and a budget. However, the budget can
be retrained by Congress at the same time Washington, DC has no voting representation in Congress
but a non- voting delegate who is appointed to the House of Representatives. Washington, DC has
two neighbouring states, Maryland and Virginia (see figure 8). As a result, the city is experiencing
an increasing population due to the commuting citizens in the neighbouring states. Also, air and
noise pollution are increasing and create environmental and public health issues.

Figure 8. Washington, DC area, surrounded by the states Maryland and Virginia (catolico, 2014).
The US leaves most development interactions to the open market and is not active in restricting or
even banning consumer choices. There were ideas in setting targets and market share minimum of
EVs in the country, but the legal ban of harmful technology such as ICEV is not considered as an
option (www.selectUSA.gov, 2017).

35
5.1.1. Policy
Washington, DC offers some policies and incentives next to the national and industry initiatives and
has a market share of 1.87 per cent (www.evadoption.com, 2017). The following table provides a
summary and overview of all related and identified initiatives.
Table 9 Overview of national and state incentives and industry initiatives
Policy Name Policy Program Incentive in $ Potential solution Source

National Level
Income Tax This tax credit applies to 2500- 7500 per new This policy is (Office of Energy
Credit vehicles purchased after purchased EV tackling the most Efficiency &
December 31, 2009. The hindering factor of Renewable Energy,
size of the tax credit the EV transition, 2018;
depends on the size of the high upfront www.fueleconomy.gov,
the vehicle and its purchase price 2018)
battery capacity
National Industry Initiatives
Chargenow Company offer by BMW No cost, unlimited 30 (ChargeNow, 2017)
DC Fast - in cooperation with minute, DC Fast Combo
Washington, Evgo for BMW i3 charging sessions at
DC drivers, 24 months no EVgo Stations
cost for charging
No cost, unlimited 1 hour,
Level 2 charging sessions
at EVgo Stations.
Nissan LEAF Company offer of 24 Public charging is (EVgo, 2018)
“No Charge months of free public complimentary for an
to Charge” charging with the unlimited number of 30-
Program - DC purchase or lease of a minute DC Fast charges
new model year 2013 or and 60-minute Level 2
later Nissan LEAF charges at participating
locations for 24 months
State Level
Alternative $ 36.00/ year (first time A small saving (District of Columbia
Fuel and registration only) compared to the Department of Motor
Fuel-Efficient high purchase price Vehicles, 2018)
Vehicle Title
Tax
Exemption
Alternative A tax credit for 50% of the equipment and labour Enhances (Office of Energy
Fuel Vehicle costs for the purchase and installation of alternative deployment of Efficiency &
(AFV) fuel infrastructure. charging Renewable Energy,
and infrastructure were 2018)
Infrastructure The maximum credit is $1,000 per residential EV consumer needs it (DC.gov Office of Tax
Tax Credit charging station, and $10,000 per publicly accessible and Revenue, 2014)
AFV fuelling station.
PEPCO Electricity price discounts for (Public Service
-100 residential consumers with existing EVs and Commission of the
installed domestic charging infrastructure District of Columbia,
-50 Smart Level II EV for residential consumers 2017)
with no existing domestic charging infrastructure
-10 Smart Level II EV for apartment buildings with
garage parking, with non- existing domestic
charging infrastructure
-Installation of max. 4 DC fast charger for public use

The table summarizes national, industry and state level initiatives related to the expansion of EVs. Most of
the initiatives are addressing the charging station deployment or use of a specific charging stations by
offering discounted rates.
36
5.1.2. Commitment of the Washington, DC municipality
On a municipality level Washington, DC created the Sustainability DC framework to develop the
city sustainably. The goal 4 focuses on the improvement of air quality along major transportation
routes. Specifically, the goal 4.3 focuses on expanding public electric vehicle charging
infrastructure throughout the city. Also, goal 4.5 aims to track and report the mileage data from
clean fuel, low-emission, and electric vehicles (Malinowski, 2017; www.sustainabledc.org, 2017).

To communicate Washington, DC´s commitment to the EV transition, the fleet is in the process of
changing to EVs. With leading by example of environmentally friendly behaviour, it can increase
the visibility and create more awareness. However, the fleet is only labelled with a small sticker and
limits its presentation to the unknown person.
Washington, DC is a member of the Clean Cities Coalition. This coalition has over 100 local
coalitions with municipalities around the US. They define their mission as “[…] to promote and
assist in measurable improvements in regional reductions in the use of petroleum -based fuels
through a strong coalition of effective partnerships; increase the use of alternative fuels, vehicles,
and infrastructure; promote economic opportunities in clean energy technologies; and, encourage
academically focused research on increased utilization of transportation energy efficiency options .”
(www.gwrccc.org, 2018). The coalition brings together stakeholders from business interests,
research institutions and environmental organisations. However, it was not possible to find any
results, events or other measures which can reflect the success of this coalition.
An initiative between Washington, DC and its neighbouring states is the fast lane for carpooling.
The HOV Lanes are fast-track lanes on motorways with the condition that three or more people are
joined in a car. The lane is also toll-free for EVs in Maryland. However, Virginia stopped that
initiative (http://www.virginiadot.org, 2018; www.roads.maryland.gov, 2018).

5.1.3. Charging infrastructure

As outlined in table 7, since September 2015 Washington, DC Council offers financial incentives
for the installation of private charging infrastructure. $ 1000 are available per electric vehicle
charging station is available for a private household installation (Government of the District of
Columbia Office of Tax and Revenue, 2015).

The second commitment of the Washington, DC council is the new EV Public Infrastructure
Expansion Act 2017 which has an effect since March 2018. It aims to provide at least 15 public
charging stations within the District of Columbia until January 2019 (Council of the District of
Columbia, 2017; Government of the District of Columbia District Department of Transportation ,
2017).

Currently, there are 746 registered charging stations available (Solving EV, 2018). Whereby most of
them are attached to private car parking facilities, so-called semi-public charging infrastructure. The
deployment of these charging station is mostly in the city centre of Washington, DC. This
deployment pattern is often due to the profitability of a charging station and only attracts investment
where quick profits can be generated. This leaves out economically less developed areas since they
are less likely to adopt the expensive EV. The most dominant charging station providers are Tesla,
Charge Point and EVgo.

There is only one publicly available fast charger available which is located at 870 9th St NW
Washington, DC 20001. The distribution of charging stations is demonstrated in figure 9. Although
there was no possibility to receive an official interview with a representative of the car park
operator, the manager was willing to answer a few questions. The car park is located next to
shopping and residential facilities and offers four EV parking spaces for a duration of maximum 2
hours. The fast charger offers a full recharge within 30 minutes if the car is equipped for that
technology. However, most EVs are still designed for the Level 2 charger and needs several hours
to be recharged. This led to an abuse of the EV charging stations.

37
EV drivers parked their car for more than two hours which blocked and even with issuing parking
tickets of $ 250 the abuse continued. Especially EV taxies were the most observed abuser. As a
consequence, the car park operator disconnected the charging facilities from the grid and stopped
the service. The conversation was taking place in October 2017. However, mobile apps are now
showing the station is in service again and have been used frequently.
Make infrastructure available in
residential neighbourhoods is a difficult
task. A specific parking slot needs to be
allocated for the EV and ready for
charging at any time. Eric Campbell
(pers.com, Campbell, 2018) shares his
experience stating “… when it comes to
dominating public face for the big
reason, we are with people taking it
away from us. People can get very upset
about that very quickly and generally in
the US it has been very difficult to
identify ways that we can make charging
stations accessible on the curb in
public.”. He continued and referred to a
case study in California where public
charging stations where deployed with
the “agreement of the entire
neighbourhood felt comfortable about the
location. People do not want to have
random strangers come and leave the car
overnight” (pers.com, Campbell, 2018).
Figure 9. Map of registered charging stations Washington, DC (ChargePoint, 2018).
The development is left to the open market on purpose “finding a hosting space is difficult, and they
are expensive, too. From a government perspective, you don’t want to own actively and operate
charging much rather see private investment from different charging stations supplier coming in .”
(pers.com, Campbell, 2018). He continued explaining partnerships, assistance with a permit, finding
a plot of land or connecting groups is the role of the DC government. At the same time companies
such as EVgo and ChargePoint are also interested in being involved in this transition and are willing
to assist with issues related to education and communication.

At the same time, the municipalities can and should take action to expand on the charging
infrastructure and cooperate stronger with home owner associations to enhance the charging
facilities at home (pers.com, Olexsak, 2018).

5.1.4. Electricity supply

The electricity supplier in Washington, DC is limited to one company Potomac Electric Power
Company (PEPCO) and creates a monopolistic supply. It offers in cooperation with Washington,
DC Council a new consumer incentive which is available since April 2017. Its aim is to approve a
limited, voluntary, demand management program for EV charging stations in Washington, DC
(Public Service Commission of the District of Columbia, 2017) (for details see table 9).

PEPCO will offer reduced rates during off-peak hours and offers smart charging options with an
option to choose a 100 per cent renewable energy as electricity source which will come with an
additional charge. However, this offer is limited to a reduced number of consumers. The aim of that
initiative is to collect data and information about charging behaviour and consumer choice. The
collected data supposed to be used for an improved consumer service experience and better analysis
of the location of the charging station. After data were collected and analysed, it will be presented
to the Commission of the District of Columbia. The anticipated program has a limited timeframe
until the third quarter of 2019. Moreover, PEPCO aims to:
38
● develop an understanding of any potential impacts which may increase the adoption of EVs
● gather information to evaluate and mitigate the impact on the distribution system
● test and validate different incentive programs (e.g. Time-of-use rates)

Washington, DC largest utility supplier is PEPCO and has only one competitor Constellation
Energy. However, Constellation Energy is dependent on the existing electricity infrastructure
provided by PEPCO which results in a dependency of accessibility to residential customers
(Constellation, 2018).

5.1.5. Signage and visibility

The availability but not visibility of charging
stations is a key observation. There are a lot of
underground parking and valet parking facilities
in the city which makes the deployment of
installed charging stations invisible to the driver
or citizen. In addition, there is no signage at the
entrance of the parking facility, information about
prices or if the charging station is free, generally
usable or out of order. Eric Campbell admits,
“Having a sign is extremely important and must
be done correctly […] and is another aspect of
consumer education.” (pers.com, Campbell,
2018). The available but missing signage
possibilities are shown in figure 10.

Figure 10. Car park entrance which offers charging stations but has no signage installed (picture by author). Car park
entrance with the digital display not indicating availability or price for electric charging.

5.1.6. Consumer awareness

There is also a lack of EV availability at car purchasing places and a lack of knowledge. The
general audience is not aware of the difference between an EV or PHEV. In fact , during casual
conversations with local citizens, the EV was often associated with the brand Tesla as the only
provider of EVs. Moreover, since ICEV are quite affordable in the US, the consumer sees no benefit
in switching to an alternative fuel vehicle or an EV (Dowling, 2011; Jaffe, 2015). Initiatives rising
awareness are for example the annual Autoshow which takes place in Washington, DC and presents
new models from national and international automakers with a specific subsection of electric
vehicles (www.washingtonautoshow.com, 2018). However, these events are often visited by car
enthusiasts. It is a question of how to reach those who are not interested in car technology
(pers.com, Nigro, 2017).

39
5.2. Berlin (Germany)
Germany's Agenda 2030, which is closely linked to the SDG framework from the UN, commits to
reducing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) by 40 per cent compared to the emission level in 1990. This target
also encourages urban policymakers to move toward a low or zero emission vehicle alternatives
such as electric vehicles. To achieve a national EV transition in Germany a target of 1 million EVs
by 2020 was set (Deutscher Bundestag, 2017a; Enkhardt, 2018). Due to the lack of action by
manufacturers and missing policy the target became unachievable and the federal government
withdraw from its idea.

Nevertheless, cities still understand their need for a successful transition in order to reduce air and
noise pollution for the health of their citizens and for the sake of the natural environment. Berlin is
trying to become a leader in the EV transition with its own regulations, incentive programs and
projects.

One approach is Germany's Electromobility Development Plan. It is designed to reach energy and
climate goals, reduce the dependence on fossil fuels, establish the German automaker industry as
the global market leader for electromobility, develop a competitive research and innovations
market, and establish social acceptance of electromobility (Die Bundesregierung, 2009). With great
ambitions the national incentives for the consumer are insignificant. A rebate amount of maximum
4000 € is less than ten per cent of the purchase price (Bundesamt fur Wirtschaft und
Ausfuhrkontrolle, 2018). The tax exemption from the annual circulation tax is a few hundred euros
per year and cannot be considered as an impact on a positive purchase decision for an EV
(www.ACEA.be, 2016). Research initiatives such as the Schaufenster Mobility (Show Case
Mobility) allowed regions to develop their own strategies and become a real-life research arena
(www.schaufenster-elektromobilitaet.org, 2018b). The showcase went beyond EVs and includes
modern forms of transportation visions. That initiative made Berlin the largest urban lab in
Germany and an interesting case study.

5.2.1. Commitment of Berlins municipality

Berlin as an independent federal state is
surrounded by Brandenburg and many people
commute to Berlin by either car or public
transport. Figure 11 presented shows Berlin
as the city (dark orange) and the metropolitan
area (light orange). Metropolitan Berlin has a
population of 4.4 million citizens of which 80
per cent (3.5 million) live within the city
boundaries (Senatsverwaltung fur Umwelt,
Verkehr und Klimaschutz, 2013). Almost
300.000 people commute to and out of Berlin
on a daily basis which puts pressure on the
infrastructure system and creates significant
environmental and public health-harming
emissions (Vossen, 2018).

Figure 11. Map of Berlin and Brandenburg highlighting the metropolitan area of Berlin and major highways
(Broadway, 2010).
The Berlin Strategy Urban Development Concept for 2030 is an urban planning framework with the
vision to set national and international benchmarks climate-friendly city (Senate Department for
Urban Development and Housing, 2013, p. 8). More visions go beyond 2030. For example, Berlin

40
aims to be climate neutral by 2050 with the creation of more green space. This will be achieved
with the existing dense energy supply network and the expansion of urban renewable energy
projects such as solar panels on roofs. Another focus is the so-called Urban Transportation
Development Plan 2025 (Menge, Horn and Beck, 2014) which is linked to the modern
transportation framework called be emobile and is the most relevant framework for this research.

5.2.2. Local policy

A recent legal dispute was decided on the highest administrative court (Court of Claims in US
English) in Germany, now allowing cities to ban high pollution vehicles from certain parts of the
city. The increasing urban air pollution measures and the lack of political intervention motivated the
Deutsche Umwelthilfe (German Environment Aid) sued the region Baden -Württemberg for keeping
the NOx emissions to the legal maximum which the EU legally set (Neumann, 2017).
Although Berlin´s has now the opportunity to ban ICEV from certain street or if needed from the
whole city, Berlins Senator for Climate and Traffic sees this step not as an option at the moment.
She states that a lot of people have simply not the economic resources to switch to an EV and
punishing those citizens would be an unfair policy. She sees the national government is in charge of
offering alternative such as the technical upgrade of ICEV to less emission causing cars. In
addition, the strategy of Berlin´s overall sustainable mobility transition is to provide more bike
lanes and improve public transport. The EV has currently no role in that transition (pers.com
Günther, 2018).

Berlin offers no specific or local policies to enhance the purchase of EVs for individual consumers
(Deutscher Bundestag, 2017b, p. 7) but for EVs which are used for business purpose (RBB24,
2018). The EV market share in Berlin in 2017 was around 0.14 per cent (total 1668 registered EVs)
(Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt, 2017; www.kba.de, 2017; Neumann and Knoblach, 2018). A list with
national policies and other German urban incentive programs are listed in table 10.

Most incentives which are addressing the high purchase price are in cooperation with the loc al
utility supplier which are owned by the government. At the same time, the supplier ensures long-
term consumer due to the terms and conditions of the incentive program.

The created Agency for electromobility (eMO) in Berlin is a public- private partnership, whereby
70 per cent funding comes from the central government and 30 per cent from private institutions
such as the local public transport company. One of the tasks of eMO is to connect related actors and
ease the possibility to start new developments in the field of electric mobility. In addition, it aims to
encourage the general innovation culture with trends which are suitable for Berlin (pers.com,
Reinhardt, 2018). This is necessary since developments on infrastructure systems are a part of
public life and are strictly regulated. In addition, new actors who try to enter the market reach out to
eMO and find the possibility to network within eMO´s pool of small and large existing actors. At
the same time, eMO reaches out to new settled companies and in particular start-ups and tries to
maintain the network within the industry.

41
Table 10. Incentive programs by national and local authorities in Germany
Policy Name Policy Program Incentive in Potential Source
€ solution
National
Environment From July 2016 all EVs Max 2000 Reduce first- (www.schaufenster-
Bonus purchased and cost less (until end of time purchase elektromobilitaet.org,
than 60,000 € 2017) price 2018a) (Bundesamt
fur Wirtschaft und
Ausfuhrkontrolle,
2018)
vehicle tax No payment of vehicle (www.schaufenster-
tax between 2016 and elektromobilitaet.org,
2020 2018a)
Incentives to Since 2017 up to 300 100 Mio. for (www.schaufenster-
expand on Mio € are available for AC elektromobilitaet.org,
charging the expansion of public 200 Mio. for 2018a)
infrastructure charging infrastructure. DC
Yet there is no specific
framework developed
Examples of local/ urban policies in Germany
STAWAG Incentive is issued if 500 Reduces first- (STAWAG
Aachen (local EV owner is customer time purchase Stadtwerke Aachen
utility by STAWAG and can price AG, 2018)
supplier) use domestic plug for
recharge
Mainova If a new EV is 250 Reduces first- (www.mainova.de,
Frankfurt purchased and a sticker time purchase 2018)
(Main) from Mainova is viable price
(regional at the car placed
utility
supplier)
Stadtwerke Incentive is issued if 500 Reduces first- (www.stadtwerke-
Frankfurt EV owner is customer time purchase ffo.de, 2018)
(Oder) by Stadtwerke price
Frankfurt (Oder)
Stadtwerke Incentive is issued if 500 Reduces first- (SWN E-
Neuwied EV owner is customer time purchase Mobilitätsangebot -
by Stadtwerke Neuwied price Elektro-Fahrzeuge -
Ladestation für E-
Autos, no date)
Stadtwerke Incentive is issued if 300 Reduces first- (www.stadtwerke-
Versmold EV owner is customer time purchase versmold.de, no date)
by Stadtwerke price
Versmold
Stadtwerke Incentive is issued if 500 Reduces first- (www.stadtwerke-
Zweibrucken EV owner is customer time purchase zw.de, 2018)
by Stadtwerke price
Zweibrucken

5.2.3. Charging infrastructure

The be emobile framework is Berlin´s approach to reduce pollution and enhance the deployment of
uniformed public charging infrastructure, electric bike and car sharing business models (Allego
GmbH, 2018). Expanding the charging infrastructure in Berlin started off with an ambitious project
and considered many of issues cities are facing. But the deployment of charging infrastructure
remains an individual challenge and varies from city to city. In particular the availability of
42
charging stations, it might be blocked by a car and the demand for reserving a car parking spot
needs to become an option to create certainty (pers.com, Reinhardt, 2018).

As a part of the Show Case Mobility project, Berlin City Council has contracted a supplier for
charging infrastructure Alliander / Allego / The New Motion (Allego GmbH, 2018). The aim was to
ensures unified charging slot become available and the user/ charging experience (including
payment method and charging price and charging slot) becomes predictable. This project was called
Berlin Standard and was established in April 2015. Until today there are installed around 170 AC
Stations (around 340 charging slots) and six DC/ fast charger stations all those stations are supplied
with a renewable energy source.

This initiative reflects the recommendation from Sarah. The national government might not be
willing to force industry leaders to deploy one and the same charging station, however, pressure on
the industry could come from the municipality level. Municipalities could form cooperations with
one specific charging station supplier and mainstream the transition (pers.com, Olexsak, 2018).

Germany's Eich- und Messgesetz (Calibration and Measurement Law) is valid since January 2015
and active in the field of electric mobility recharging since July 2017 in Berlin and received already
a nickname Berliner Modell. It demands that the charging time is charged per recharge rather than
charging time or kWh. There is now a lump sum per charging process rather than a flexible charging
price (low and high peak times adjustments) (Schwierz, 2017). An overview of the different
charging prices in Berlin is summarised in table 11.
Table 11. Overview of charging prices with the three largest charging stations supplier in Berlin.
Type of charging Street Lamp charging AC charging (Level 2) DC charging (Level 3/
__________________ (max. 3,7 kW) (max. 11 kW) Fast charger)
Charging supplier (max. 50 kW / AC 43
KW)
Be emobil (350 4,50 € 6,00 € 9,50 €
charging stations in Price per charge Price per charge Price per charge
Berlin) (be emobil,
2018)
Innogy (100 charging 30 Cent/kWh 6,95 €
stations in Berlin) Price per charge
(Innogy, 2018)
Vattenfall (50 30 Cent/kWh 20 Cent/ kWh
charging stations in
Berlin) (Going
Electric, 2018)

Public charging infrastructure comes with free parking for up to four hours between 08:00 and
18:00, and ICEV are not allowed to use that car parking slot at all. The aim is to develop a
uniformed price for charging, there should be no price fluctuation, and the consumer should be able
to know beforehand what costs to expect. However, the practice shows that it lacks in enforcement.
If an EV parking space is used by an ICEV or used longer than four hours, there might be a ticket of
maximum 20€ (www.auto.meinestadt.de, 2018) which is not a discouraging amount.

There are more suppliers of charging stations which comes to a total of over 500 publicly available
charging stations and over 700 charging slots (www.berlin.de, 2017; Frese, 2018). The number
looks, at first sight, sufficient, but it needs to be remembered these are still with different slots and
only in specific areas of Berlin. As demonstrated in figure 12, as further out of the city centre as
fewer the installed stations. It is not surprising since these are the areas with citizens with lower
incomes or unemployment.

Berlin is moving away from the

43
 strategic recommendation of
charging stations pattern
deployment and leaves the
decision- making process to the
industry and citizen. With the
proof of ownership or right of
usage on an EV (e.g. company
car), it is possible to apply for a
charging station which will be
installed in a public space. The
application process is simple
and available online. However,
it is not clear how informed the
public is about that opportunity
which raises again the critique
of the lacking an inclusive
planning process (be-emobil,
2018).
Figure 12. Berlin map with charging stations (ChargePoint, 2018).
The creative and startup industry is well established in Berlin. This includes the mobility scene
which hosts many startups with innovative business ideas such as alternative charging equipment
supplier named Ubtricity (Evert, 2013). Their innovation is the installation of a charging station at a
street lamp which has access to a parking slot; figure 12 shows an active charging station at a street
light in Berlin.

Figure 13. Charging station at street light (authors image).

Although the idea of using the existing electrical infrastructure to provide charging station seems
logical, it is only possible in a very limited manner and needs to be incorporated into the local
electrical grid system. The costs to re-engineer the street light is around 1.000 Euros and takes
about 30 minutes. Ubriticy concept is expanding beyond Berlins and Germany's boarder and is
reaching to cities such as London and New York (www.ubitricity.com, 2017, 2018).

Another mobility related start-up Chargery sees Berlin as a good starting point to develop the
business idea. Chargery offers a mobile charging service of EVs. With cargo bikes and charged
batteries the startup brings the charging facility to the EV rather than the car is going to the
charging station (3sat.online, 2018; Przybilla, 2018). Moreover, the communication between the
local municipality is positive and gaining access to a local political representative is no challenge.
However, there is also the need for more subvention for mobility specific business opportunities to
encourage the development of alternative and next-generation mobility ideas (pers.com, Lang,
2018).
44
5.2.4. Electricity supply
The local electricity supplier Stromnetz Berlin (owned by Vattenfall) is very optimistic in being
able to accommodate a growing EV market and sees the fear with blackouts and lack of electricity
supply as unreasonable. In an interview stated the general manager “ The fairytales about blackouts
caused by a booming electric mobility has no substance (translated from German into English)”
(Klinger, 2018). Various scenarios were simulated, and a growing EV market of 250,000 EVs by
2025 is no problem for the grid (Stromnetz Berlin, 2017).

5.2.5. Signage and visibility

Charging infrastructure, free parking during charging is very visible in Berlin. Parking slots have a
highlighted line, and signs are indicating the dedication of the slot. there was one occasion were the
instruction sign installed or later changed the wrong way around. The factor of the visibility of the
charging stations and electrified mobility is fairly obvious in Berlin. With business models such as
shared mobility with e- scooters a growing network of charging stations with designated parking
slots makes it obvious for pedestrians and drivers that the transition is an ongoing process in the
city. Examples of signage for EV charging and parking slots are demonstrated in figure 1 4.

Figure 14. Signage related to electric vehicle parking or charging (Parkaffe, 2018).
Another form of signage is the registration sign at the car. As demonstrated in figure 15 the
registration plague has the letter E at the end which indicates that this vehicle is an EV. EVs are at
first sight not different to an ICEV and the additional signage on the registration plague makes it
easier for the police officer to grand the free parking option at a charging station and other
designated slots. The registration plate is for free by first registration, if a driver is interested in
changing it after registration a fee of 27,50 € applies (Service Berlin, 2018).

45
Figure 15. Car registration plate with the E indicating this is a registered electric vehicle (Gutschild, 2018).

5.2.6. Consumer awareness

The Dieselgate scandal received great attention by the public and politics. A long-term solution was
demanded and EVs quickly identified as a key role in the low carbon/ emission transport transition
(tagesschau.de, 2017). However, the knowledge of EVs itself is still limited and the difference
between an EV and a PHEV is also a confusing concept.
The industry should make larger efforts in reaching out to consumers and educate with commercials
and other activities (pers.com, Mock, 2018).

The communication with citizens is important. Technology is only as good when people can
actually use it, and the purpose of the idea is fulfilled. Furthermore, the demand to expand the
communication to the citizen with educational initiatives from the national and regional government
is missing. According to Johanna a budget should be allocated for specifically that purpose and seen
as a long-term investment to enhance the urban EV transition (pers.com, Reinhardt, 2018). In
addition, the need for information on individual boroughs of Berlin is underdeveloped.
Municipalities of a sub-local level need more help to develop the EV transition with knowledge and
understanding of the process (pers.com, Reinhardt, 2018).

46
 6. Analysis
In this chapter, the empirical results are analysed with the help of the conceptual socio technical
system presented in chapter 3.5. At first (1) the socio-technical aspects are examined for their
relevance for the EV transition in cities. Then (2), the analysis shifts towards practices. This
chapter separates by the key characteristics of the theoretical and conceptual framework; Vision
and Political Will, Networks, Communication & Education and Knowledge building. Finally (3), a
closer look is taken to individual actions and their contribution to the urban EV transition.

6.1. Reconfiguration of a system in an urban transition

The theories of urban environmental governance offer ways in which governing is conducted and
address forms of interventions (Gibbs and Jonas, 2000; Bulkeley, 2011). Those interventions can be
considered as experiments (Hodson, Geels and McMeekin, 2017). These dynamic of an experiment
such as the urban EV transition is an overlapping intervention and can be categorised in the outlined
theoretical concepts; urban environmental governance, socio-technical system and urban living
laboratory. With concepts drawing from those literature, the case study research served as a means
through which the EV transition in the chosen cities takes place. At the same time, it opens up t he
space for analysing related technical and social innovations as well as policies approach which are
designed for that particular transition.

Understanding urban environmental governance and institutional arrangements within the urban
living lab is important because it is shaping the ongoing reconfiguration of a system. Within this
reconfiguration, network building, stakeholder participation and innovation development become
key criteria for analysing the process of a socio-technical system transition. During the transition
process and the rise of the niche innovation, the reconfiguration of elements such as policy
priorities and experimental governance initiatives will become present and visible in the urban built
environment. Furthermore, the experiment with innovation in a closed environment such as the city
will provide an empirical and theoretical contribution to developing a conceptualised way of
achieving sustainability.

Experiments demonstrate the relationship between technical and social aspects and the governance
of urban environmental governance experimentation. This process includes actors who are involved
in or affected by the emerging niche development and the new political sphere of providing space
for this innovation (Bulkeley and Castán Broto, 2013, p. 361).

The urban living lab provides the playground for multiplicity transition at the same time and helps
to embrace the niche innovation. Usually, the niche innovation occurs with on a singular transition,
the urban lab will embrace the multiplicity transition and helps to understand the wider interaction
between technology and society. Moreover, the urban living lab sets parameters for the
experimental and learning process in the city and become a strategy of urban governance (Hodson,
Geels and McMeekin, 2017, p. 4).

A quote by Wittmayer et al. summarises all those aspects:

“ […] governing sustainability should be about finding creative ways for opening space for
participation, change and experimentation, that is, for creating alternative ideas, practices, and
social relations” (Wittmayer et al., 2016, p. 49).

Interpreting this quote in relation to the empirical findings, it can be said that an urban transition
governed with the integration and participation of networks, creative ideas, real-life experiments
and development social niches can be achieved. This conclusion will guide the analysis and helps to
capture the MLP.

47
6.2. The character of an urban electric vehicle transition
The start of the transition came from the development of a sophisticated electric car motor,
increasing pollution in terms of CO2, NOx and the fraud coming from the diesel scandal. As a
result, the public outrage was increasing, and national policymakers started accommodating
alternative policy strategies promoting eco-innovations. This development is a good example of the
socio-technical system. The system is experiencing an external shock (climate change, consumer
demand, air pollution), creating a window of opportunity for novelties (the niche innovation - the
EV) and leads to the reconfiguration the socio-technical regime.

Because this transition is related to the promotion of an eco-innovation and the political sphere is
highly involved in the promotion of this novelty, the creation of a common political vision is key to
promote the momentum of the innovation (Smith, 2007; Hodson and Marvin, 2010; pers.com,
Goetz, 2017; pers.com, Nigro, 2017; pers.com, Mock, 2018; pers.com, Olexsak, 2018). The
technical novelty and proposed vision of an EV penetrated market communicated through media to
the citizens and industry leaders and reached a greater momentum which enhances the transition.
Furthermore, the socio-technical system theories see small networks of actors as those supporting
novelties (Geels and Schot, 2007). In addition, during that rising process of niche innovation, the
learning process (further referred as knowledge) takes place and is required to compete with the
established regime.
The niche innovation brings new actors to the scene, and the window of opportunity creates space
for subsystems to emerge. That sub- systems are for example the charging infrastructure and online
applications. Urban leaders quickly identified their role in the transition since urban streets are
highly polluted and citizens negatively affected. This includes Berlin and Washington, DC and their
approach on how to govern this transition is quite different.

Taking the theories from the socio-technical system into account there are four processes
distinguished to create a successful development of a technological niche;
Vision, Communication, Network, Knowledge (Kemp, Schot and Hoogma, 1998, p. 1998; Hoogma et
al., 2005; Geels and Kemp, 2007; Geels and Schot, 2007). For the purpose of this thesis the
analysis, of the identified aspects are adjusted and help to create an analysis of the multiple case
study in context of the EV transition. These four aspects are guiding the analysis, and the empirical
findings are adapted accordingly.

6.3. Vision
A clear defined vision is the foundation of a transition governed by local authorities. This should be
communicated to all stakeholder including civil society and the business sector (Geels and Kemp,
2007; Loorbach and Rotmans, 2010).

Moreover, urban policy leaders should dare to govern and to manage the desired transition with a
bold policy framework (Edmondson, Kern and Rogge, 2018). As seen in other case studies (see
chapter 4.5.1 and 4.5.2) with a comprehensive and ambitious policy framework the transition to an
EV penetrated market becomes realistic and fast growing. After all regulations and governance is
seen as a cornerstone of the socio-technical transition (Kern, 2012; Steinhilber, Wells and
Thankappan, 2013)

48
Table 12 provides a summary of the identified initiatives in Berlin and Washington, DC.
Table 12. Overview of local policies to enhance the electric vehicle transition in Berlin and Washington, DC (based
on chapter 5)
Type Initiative Berlin Washington, DC
Regulatory Aim Development of a  Show Case Mobility  Sustainable DC
political vision  Be emobile Framework: Improve air
quality with sustainable
transport systems, public
charging infrastructure
Indirect Preferential Access  Free parking at  Free use of HOV Lane
Incentive public charging between Washington, DC
station during and Maryland
charging
Funding for  Free installation of  Infrastructure tax credit
Charging charging public charging  EV Public Infrastructure
Infrastructure infrastructure equipment when Expansion Act 2017
application form is  Installation of residential
submitted charging by PEPCO
Complementary  Coherent charging  No registration fee (Tax
policies price through the exemption)
Calibration and
Measurement Law

Berlin´s EV vision is outlined in the be emobil framework. The reduction of pollution caused by
motorised transport and the deployment of charging infrastructure is the main aim. Moreover, the
partnership with Allego aims to create a uniform charging infrastructure plug system which gained
already the nickname “Berlin Standard” (Allego GmbH, 2018). Especially, the deployment of
charging facilities per demand is an inclusive form of a decision- making process. This approach is
so interesting because it is moving away from a purely statistic method of a decision finding and let
the citizens and businesses lead the way to form the built environment.
Another policy initiative and conversion of the vision is the free parking slot during charging.
However, the high purchase price, which is considered as the main barrier for consumers, is not
addressed through subsidies and only a small deduction.
The industry is showing its commitment to offering renewable energy on a voluntary basis as an
energy source for charging. This is a good example of how businesses are participating to a
sustainable urban EV transition (Menge, Horn and Beck, 2014).

Washington, DC is offering various charging infrastructure incentives. The city is focusing on

shaping the built environment rather than addressing the purchase barrier. With its own created
infrastructure tax, PEPCO charging station deployment initiative, and reduced residential charging
prices, the barrier to access a private charging facility is lowered. The local target to install 15
public charging stations by January 2019 is a small step forward but shows that Washington, DC is
not ignoring its responsibility for provisioning and ultimately shows its dedication to the urban EV
transition. However, there is the obstacle coming from the empirical results from Washington, DC.
The local community has a passive attitude toward the public charging infrastructure installed in
their neighbourhood and lobby against the deployment (pers.com, Campbell, 2018). Since the
citizens is a key stakeholder in all forms of urban development, their concerns need to be taken into
consideration.

6.4. Communication
Just a vision from policy leaders is not enough; it needs to be communicated and instrumentalised.
Especially the industry is waiting for signals from the national and regional authorities to see a
shifting demand which creates certainty for future investors (Loorbach and Rotmans, 2010;
Edmondson, Kern and Rogge, 2018; pers.com, Mock, 2018). In addition, “the articulation of
49
expectations and visions […] are considered crucial for niche development because they provide
direction to learning processes, attract attention, and legitimate (continuing) protection and
nurturing.” (Schot and Geels, 2008, p. 540). Moreover, communication of the vision is key to find
shared targets with other stakeholders, further, with incorporating these stakeholders a coordinated
transition at a coherent pace becomes possible (pers.com, Olexsak, 2018).

Another form of communication comes from the citizen. The original demand for an EV transition
came from the citizen. Whilst being affected by air pollution and climate change results, there are
limited possibilities on contributing to the EV transition. The dependence on industry coming
forward with alternatives is high, and the government can only act when technological niche
emerged to a state where it is appropriate to use. The EV and related technologies are now
sophisticated, and it is time to respond to the demands and make the access to alternatives possible.
This applies not just to the general access to the EV but also education on different EV types and
the education of the second largest barrier, range anxiety. Furthermore, it is important to stress to
the citizen that range anxiety is in an urban context a myth and becomes with the increasing
charging infrastructure deployment an unrealistic fear (Franke et al., 2012; Steinhilber, Wells and
Thankappan, 2013; Rauh, Franke and Krems, 2015).

Table 13 gives an overview of identified communication initiatives within the EV transition in

Berlin and Washington, DC.
Table 13 Overview of communication initiatives to enhance the electric vehicle transition in Berlin and Washington,
DC (based on chapter 5)
Type Berlin Washington, DC
Visibility  Active deployment of public  Cooperation with local
charging infrastructure energy supplier PEPCO in
 Obvious signage around charging deploying more public
stations charging infrastructure
Consumer  Awareness building through the E at  Annual Autoshow
education the end of the EVs registration
plague

Berlin, with a German tradition of strong regulations, has a lot of signage at the charging station
itself and highlighted car parking slots. This is a highly visible tool to show citizens and car drivers
the transition has priority in the infrastructure development.
The letter E on the registration plague of an EV is another visibility factor , but the educational value
needs to be questioned. If consumers are not aware of EVs in general, the additional letter will not
be a communication alternative. Nevertheless, these approaches are visible and can be traced to
governance actions and reflect the local policy leaders’ vision (Edmondson, Kern and Rogge, 2018).

Washington, DC annual Autoshow is an example of an educational measure. However, it only

attracts people who are already interested in cars.
Signage is a form of communication is a significant gap in the EV transition and charging station
availability, and accessibility is not visible yet neither at public or private parking spaces.
The cooperation between PEPCO and the municipality to expand on infrastructure can be seen as a
strong communication to other industry and send signals to other actors who might be interested in
exploring Washington, DC as a business opportunity.

6.5. Network
A way to communicate the vision is the creation of networks. Network building is a key message by
the environmental governance framework and aims to exchange experiences, ideas and challenges.
The collaboration of new networks is an important factor to enhance the learning and acceleration
process of the transition (Rotmans and Kemp, 2004). Especially when the networks are broad, and
the articulation of multiple visions comes together, the learning process and mobilising of
underrepresented stakeholders gains momentum (Schot and Geels, 2008).

50
Table 14 Overview of initiatives related to network building in the electric vehicle transition in Berlin and
Washington, DC (based on chapter 5)
Type Berlin Washington, DC
Governmental  Former case study of showcase  Member of the Clean Cities
Level mobility national imitative Coalition
 Creation of a dedicated agency;  EV use of HOV lane between
eMO Maryland and Washington, DC
Industry Level  Startup community developing
alternative charging infrastructure

Berlin uses eMO as a communication and networking platform for stakeholders mostly from the
mobility industry. This network opens a pool for exchange on specific local issues related to policy
planning and practical experiences. Moreover, during Berlins EV transition a growing network of a
startup community occurred as a subsystem and helps the niche innovation to maintain the transition
process.
For example, the startup Chargery was a well- established startup which developed a flexible way of
charging within the urban area. They are cooperating with the local municipality openly and
maintain a communicative relationship. However, by reaching for a higher level of political
representation, the communication process ends quickly, and there is no clear path on who and
where rising innovations and business ideas can go further (pers.com, Lang, 2018). Although this
networking opportunity finishes the start quickly- up scene finds its own way of cooperation.
Forming a greater network of startups with a similar working field, they try to find a common goal
and challenge, reach out to policymakers and demonstrated their voice is not an isolated case and
should be taken seriously (pers.com, Lang, 2018).

Washington, DC is a part of the Clean Cities Coalition and builds networks with other cities with
the common goal of a cleaner and more sustainable city. Although there were no results published,
the coalition and exchange within the network can lead to a more informed decision - making
process on the governance level. Other stakeholders such as businesses and research institutions are
already involved in the coalition. However, it lacks in the articulation and creates a blind spot for
stakeholders interested but not aware of the networking opportunity.
The use of the HOV lane between Washington, DC and Maryland is another example of the cross-
border network development. With the identification of a common challenge, for example, traffic
jams and high pollution caused by motorised transport, the solution to offer a free corridor for EVs
is a quick policy tool to incorporate.

The local stakeholder engagement with PEPCO creates a strong network since the electricity supply
has a monopolistic position. It brings the benefit of reaching as many citizens as possible and
provides an easily understandable policy cooperation. At the same time, the joined initiatives are
limited to established charging infrastructure.

When cities form coalitions they are able to form a strong alliance and use their combined political
strengths to pressure national policy makers (pers.com, Mock, 2018). In addition, this formed
alliance can also include other stakeholders, such as new and established industries, and a joined
path can be created. The lack of a strategic connection between stakeholders will create a transition
process which can become messy, especially in this living urban environment where developments
occur unregulated due to missing experience (Hodson, Evans and Schliwa, 2018).

Finding alternative ways of charging, investigating ways of overcoming the micro - development
challenge is important to replace the regime. In fact, if the development is too much left to the niche
developers and they do not see profitable or realistic chances in entering the urban market, the niche
may disappear.

51
6.6. Knowledge
The experiments are observed as a micro- level phenomenon and interact with the established
regime. That means experiments on the urban EV context are the development of alternative
charging stations and alternatives ways of accessing charging equipment. This is identified as the
niche innovation and is still acting on a small market where selection criteria are different from the
existing regime. At the same time, the niche provides a space for learning and network building.
Those newly formed networks are in a learning process and invest in its development (Schot,
Hoogma and Elzen, 1994; Kemp, Schot and Hoogma, 1998; Hoogma et al., 2005; Schot and Geels,
2008)

The urban lab combines many aspects which are significant for R&D, knowledge building and the
overall learning process. Academics have the possibility to study consumer behaviour, and
businesses can reach consumers and apply their first innovation and observe in practice to develop
the idea and technology further (Kern, 2012, Edmondson, Kern and Rogge, 2018).

The practical environment creates a playground not just for businesses and research institutions but
also for policymakers. Applying new policies on an urban scale can become a case study with key
observation and important lessons to learn. Even failed policy can become a lesson learned
development and helps to sustain and govern the desired transition.

Although there have been successful examples of the urban EV transition elsewhere, the urban
experimentation never ends, and the purpose of embedding something new within the built
environment is an ongoing process which contributes to the learning and experimenting process.

Berlin uses a lot of resources to enhance the learning and knowledge building path. The former
showcase region and current startup capital create learning processes on multiple levels. For
example, the mentioned startups Chargery and Ubricity may not replace the current regime but show
that a slow transition process also opens the window of opportunity for subsystems. Using the lack
of urban charging infrastructure as an opportunity to develop a new business model and experiment
with flexible charging possibilities. At the same time, they use the underdeveloped built
infrastructure as an arena for experimenting with their technology and see where the demand and
how the demand for charging is evolving. Subsidising innovations by governments is therefore key
since they can serve as a long-term goal such as sustainability or reduction of air pollution (Schot
and Geels, 2008).

Washington, DC coalition with other cities aiming for a cleaner and more sustainable city is a good
example of cross-border knowledge and best practice exchange. As seen in Berlin, challenges can
lead to opportunities and the continuous observation and discussion on that topic can bring new
perspectives on the solution finding process.

The research on the EV transition is mostly focused on technological development (e.g. most
efficient or low costs solution). The social aspect of the transition is left ou t but and information
such as consumer education and engagement is missing (pers.com, Olexsak, 2018). Moreover, there
should be a stronger engagement with NGOs and other stakeholders not representing the industry.

6.7. Changing focus towards the practical application

After the conceptual framework was elaborated in chapter 4, it is now time to focus on explaining
the key interaction between the case study and the conceptual framework. It aims to explain how a
mix of policies rather than a single policy instrument influences the development of a sustainable
transition in a socio-technical system (Bulkeley and Castán Broto, 2013, p. 361).

The analysis above demonstrates that there are many aspects to consider in order to manage an
urban transition. Policymakers govern the transition with policy tools and search for industry
cooperations. At the same time, cities need to communicate a vision and offer educational tools to
communicate the transition is an ongoing and not just a trend.
52
With the previous discussion in mind and looking at each city governing the transition in individual
ways there came the observation that the four key aspects are often an overlapping and reinforcing
process (visualised in figure, 16).

Vision, Communication, Reconfiguartion

Network, Knowledge of a system
transition

Figure 16. Four key aspects of the reconfiguration of a system transition (authors interpretation)
Some scholars argue that the communication of a vision should be the first step to broaden networks
and enhance the learning process in order to manage a niche innovation (Hegger, Vliet and Vliet,
2007; Schot and Geels, 2008). However, this analysis shows that four key aspects are not happening
in a hierarchy or a specific order. The balance of all four is critical to achieving the reconfiguration
of a system transition.

This leads to the questions on how to maintain the balance. For example, by offering a protected
space through governance and policies. Here the potential to strengthen niche innovation and create
a new formation of partnerships in the field the EV transition is occurring and needs to be shielded
from old regime actors. Shielding niche innovations are also important to provide space for learning
and building of networks (Geels and Kemp, 2007).

Moreover, with the share of a vision through policy interventions, a visible and traceable
governmental action is communicated to stakeholders. As a result, the signal of the political will,
will generate positive expectation and indicate stable investment conditions. That way the socio-
technical systems matures and niche actors gain market share. Simultaneously, actors can form
coalitions and challenge regime actors and their established ideas. With the niche actors improving
on experience in technology performance, cost reduction and local market understanding the
collaboration with policies can achieve greater support by civil society. In the case of the urban EV
transition, the air quality will improve and public support which reinforces the new direction of the
socio-technical system. Another policy approach would be the creation of a monetary loss for the
established regime. Established actors are more willing to reform their structures and form alliances
with niche developers and jump on the transition train to gain momentum and may enhance their
corporate profile. Neither of the cities is currently using this opportunity; all policies are incentive-
based and do not see punishment as a solution.

A key focus in the urban transition and the discourse on urban socio-technological systems has been
mostly on the special scale (Hodson and Marvin, 2010). This limits the perspective of a successful
implementation of policies over time and how the transition is adjusted or adjustable over time.
With directing the focus more on time-sensitive analysis, the uncertainty within a transition can be
managed in a more coherent way. This comprehensive case study offered a new spatial perspective
to the discourse and demonstrated the difficult and complex process of the urban EV transition.

53
Taking the findings and analysis into consideration, the dynamics of the EV transition can be
illustrated in the socio-technical system by Geels and slightly altered (see figure 17):

Air Pollution
Climate Change
Consumer Demand
due to industry fraud

Electric Vehicle
T (1) T (2)

Figure 17. Socio-technical system altered to urban case study results (based on Geels, 2007 modified by author).
Applying the Geels socio-technical system to the conducted research, the application would look as
follow:

 The landscape layer receives pressure from external shocks such as increasing climate change,
public health concerns due to air pollution and industry frauds (diesel gate)
 The niche level emerges simultaneously with embracing the development of the electric vehicle
and related innovations such as charging infrastructure or battery capacity
However, the graphic seems to be incomplete to adopt it to the urban transition. As investigated
numerous policies are designed for a temporary period of time or have short/ mid-term goals. The
governance process is set with time stages to reflect how policies have been implemented efficiently
and how to reflect on how the market is reacting. Therefore, the model should include a reflection
period on the timeline as well to bring more emphasis on transition stages and also examine how the
regime level is reacting and maybe merging with the niche innovation. The red lines in figure 17
demonstrate the years which are used as a reflection period for governance approaches.

In conclusion, this study contributes to the research of the urban EV transition in a socio-technical
system and takes further the perspective of Geels and Schot (2007). By adding a time component
(see figure 17), the conceptual framework becomes applicable for policy and industry leaders as a
reflection and adjustment tool. This is particularly important since the urban living lab, and the
transition is an ongoing process and needs responding measures to ensure the success of the
implementation of the new regime. Moreover, when urban policies adopt over time in accor dance
with niche innovations success, industry leaders can estimate the potential of the emerging
technology and may merge with them rather than compete or depress.

54
 7. Discussion
This chapter aims to address the research questions raised in chapter 1. A number of additional
discoveries that occurred during the research phase and analysis are also considered.

7.1. Challenges and opportunities for the EV transition

identified in the literature
The pre-identification in the literature on the EV transition was important because it outlines
challenges and opportunities which can either vary or are common. With answering this research
questions is addressing the gap of research on how the policymaking process can influence the
direction of a socio-technical transition towards sustainability within an urban context (Schot,
Hoogma and Elzen, 1994; Edmondson, Kern and Rogge, 2018). Especially with looking at more
than one policy instrument (e.g., car purchase subsidy or charging station deployment policy) is a
missing aspect in the academic literature and is now addressed with the comprehensive case study
approach (Edmondson, Kern and Rogge, 2018).

The results of this study represent common challenges and approaches and were conducted with
different urban policy approaches. They can be used to prepare, compare and analyse the answers
given in the interview conducted for this thesis. They highlight that there is a lack in the research
how likely it is that policy interventions are enhancing the urban transition to an EV dominated
market. It discovers the interaction between policy instruments implemented by the municipality
and the behaviour, perception as well as the characteristics of the local consumer (Silvia and
Krause, 2016, p. 106).

The revision of the literature also highlights that the EV transition is different from the conventional
idea of the socio-technical system. This is because the EV is not a superior technology in respect to
the ICEV. It “only” provides a different motor and different energy source but the ideology of car
ownership, flexible driving when needed and the general operational use of the car remains (Schot,
Hoogma and Elzen, 1994). This factor can be crucial for the communication to the potential
consumer, a challenge to distribute this knowledge on the EV but opportunity to quickly convince
unenthusiastic technical drivers (Steinhilber, Wells and Thankappan, 2013).

This research question concludes that several policy instruments are needed to simultaneously
enhance the communication of a vision, network building on various levels (social and business) as
well as gain access to knowledge building process (Geels and Kemp, 2007). Consequently, active
governance and policy-making with the provisioning of resources needs to remain flexible to
address the challenges the niche innovation is experiencing and in order to foster a sustainable
urban transition (Schot and Geels, 2008; Pinkse and Kolk, 2012; Edmondson, Kern and Rogge,
2018)

7.2. Challenges for cities to achieve an EV transition

With the approach of multidisciplinary research and the socio-technical system, this study shows
that an emerging technology such as the EV is going through difficult phases and urban leaders
need to develop a variety of policy tools to govern the transition. A combination of political
decisions, infrastructure change and network building, brings a complex transition in the living city
forward. The key challenges cities face are the high purchase price and limited consumer awareness
of the EV technology as well as the limited charging station deployment.

High purchase price: consumers often put off by the high purchase price of the EV. The
selling price is set by the car manufacturer and municipalities do not influence the production costs,
nor the origin of the product because the car manufacturing business is a very globalised industry.
The only way of lowering this barrier is going beyond national approaches and design an incentive
policy. As seen in case studies from small German communities (see chapter 5.2.1) cooperation
with the local electricity supplier would be a feasible option.

55
 Limited consumer awareness: although the industry and policymakers are developing
initiatives to enhance the transition, the consumer is still left aside in this process. The need to
educate and communicate about the benefits of the EV is crucial to achieving a higher interest and
uptake.

Charging station deployment: the access to charging facilities is key for the use of an EV,
and the provisioning of those charging stations is an ongoing process in the urban buil t environment
transition. Charging facilities are a subsystem to the EV and bring with an effective deployment at a
readiness level to the city. Even if a city has no local purchase incentives designed, the readiness
level of the charging infrastructure is needed either way. As soon as EVs become more affordable
and consumers better educated on the matter, the city needs to respond or preferably already
equipped for the rapid change (Steinhilber, Wells and Thankappan, 2013).

The case study shows that in order to address these common challenges the inclusion of urban
transport development in the sustainability agenda can become a key component of the policies and
regulation frameworks (Hodson, Geels and McMeekin, 2017). Especially with respect to the built
environment the active provisioning of governance can assist to include other stakeholders in the
transition process (Bulkeley, 2011). Consequently, a new partnership of actors is not just
participating but also addressing learning gaps and assists in modifying policy or incentive
initiatives which may hinder a sustainable urban transition (Huijstee, Francken and Leroy, 2007;
Pinkse and Kolk, 2012). However, the provisioning of policies and incentives should not be seen as
the ultimate solution or path for the management of a transition. Finding local actors with a
common vision striving for an EV transition can form voluntary collaborations and bring bottom-up
perspectives to light (Waddock and Bannister, 1991; Gibbs and Jonas, 2000).

Bringing the socio-technical system theory to the spatial focus, the urban living lab provides the
space for the experimental transition and offers opportunities for niche innovations to grow beyond
its origin (Hodson, Geels and McMeekin, 2017). Here the challenge becomes an opportunity and
creates an arena for the niche innovation (Nevens et al., 2013; Frantzeskaki, Kabisch and
McPhearson, 2016; Bulkeley et al., 2017; Menny, Palgan and McCormick, 2018).

7.3. Milestones and obstacles identified in the EV transition in

Berlin and Washington, DC
7.3.1. Milestones
With the help of multidisciplinary research and the theories of the socio-technical system, this
comprehensive case study shows that the EV transition in both cities has overlapping approaches.
With policy frameworks focusing on the deployment of charging infrastructure (public or private)
the groundwork for an EV transition can be organised (Schot, Hoogma and Elzen, 1994).

Even with Washington, DC not being on the top of the transition path, there will be a lot to gain
from their experience. For example, the inclusion of the electricity supplier PEPCO can create a
smooth and coherent transition when the same goal is identified, and a strong network formed. The
municipality maybe starts with a small target of public infrastructure but demonstrates that the
governance of this transition is happening with cautiousness. At the same time being a part of the
Clean Cities Coalition, the exchange of knowledge and experience is helping to shape the transition
in the future. Learning from various policy experiments can help to make policy modificati ons
elsewhere (Edmondson, Kern and Rogge, 2018).

Berlin has a more proactive approach during its EV transition and acts as an experimentation arena
for charging solutions and mobility related startups. Moreover, with reviewing Berlins empirical
results, several other milestones and discussion points appeared. Different charging innovations
offer new approaches of contributing to a successful EV transition. This observation is in line with
Bergman et al. (2010) theories on the bottom- up, social innovation. While the actual EV is
56
continuously improved elsewhere, and merely a technical development, the overlooked but
potentially significant development of alternative charging facilities gains momentum (Bergman et
al., 2010). The bottom-up/ social niche becomes evident with a startup community bringing new
ideas to the market and allowing new actors, such as electricity supplier Innogy with deploying
charging stations, to enter the transition process (Geels and Kemp, 2007). The vision comes from
individual actors and gets practically implemented in the urban living lab. This development of the
social niche acts as a building block for the ongoing urban EV transition and support changes
towards sustainable development. (Schot and Geels, 2008). The urban bottom- up niche innovation
is a significant observation because urban policies cannot influence the EV or battery capacity
technology.
A more short-term approach is the efficient deployment of charging infrastructure the range anxiet y
can be reduced. The real-world experiment or the use of the urban living lab is an arena that leads
market niche developments (Schot and Geels, 2008)

7.3.2. Obstacles
Some obstacles appeared in this study. Being well aware of the biggest barrier and having a vision
of urban street dominated by EVs, the high purchase price, there is no additional incentive . As a
result, the vision becomes weak and reduces the credibility of the ambition. The regime will remain
the dominating force, and niche innovation experiences a postponed transition.

Although positive initiatives on the deployment of charging infrastructure were identified, both
cities have the largest accumulation at locations where profits are more likely to occur such as the
city centre which creates some charging deserts.

The education on the EV and articulation of the cities vision is in both cities not well
communicated. Both cities lack in promoting their incentives more publicly and under

Berlin is now empowered to use its local authorities to ban ICEV in order to protect their citizen's
health and the environment. Currently, there is no plan (no long-term strategy either) to simply ban
ICEVs (pers.com Günther, 2018). This can be seen as a weak signal to the national government and
citizens.

An obstacle remains, the market share of EVs is double as high in Washington, DC compared to
Berlin. Despite all the initiatives and efforts, Berlin is introducing; the EV market share transition is
continuing with a slow pace (a reminder and summary of the current EV transition in Berlin and
Washington, DC is demonstrated in table 15).

Table 15. Berlin and Washington, DC electric vehicle transition in numbers

Berlin Washington, DC
EV market share (2017) 0.14 per cent 1.87 per cent
(Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt, (www.evadoption.com, 2017;
2017; www.kba.de, 2017) Slowik and Lutsey, 2018)
Public or semi-public 500 746
charging stations deployed (www.berlin.de, 2017; (Solving EV, 2018)
Frese, 2018)

57
 8. Conclusions
The aim of this study is with the help of interdisciplinary and case study research as well as the
conceptual framework socio-technical system theory to explore the urban EV transition in selected
case studies. The last chapter reconnects to the aim and summarizes the key findings. Moreover, the
practical implications and the suggestions for future research are offered.

It has been illustrated that an experimental process of an urban EV transition is a complex process.
At the same time, a spatially- specific attempt can contribute to a solution and decision- making
process which addresses the local geographical, cultural, political and economic circumstances.
Moreover, it was shown that not a single innovation could shape a transition. Also, the multiplicity
of innovations in a city can lead to a sustainable and successful transition process. The urban living
lab offers a solid arena for a diverse range of innovations. Here, transitions can act open-ended
rather than experiencing a sharp cut and offers a greater frame for the transitions grow .

With the ongoing urban EV transition, the urban environmental governance with the aim of
sustainability and climate change mitigation becomes an initiator and a replication model for other
cities. Maintaining political support through governance is key for a sustainable transition. In
addition, with the collaboration of stakeholders, the destruction of the established artefact can lead
to either cooperation or adoption of practices towards the desired urban EV transition. Moreover, by
observing the EV transition through the lens of environmental governance, the importance of
tackling global climate change on a local scale with the inclusion of different stakeholders becomes
evident. The EV transition is an example of how urban experimentation leads to new forms of
political space and creates a way for public and private authorities to enact through forms of
technical intervention. Drawing attention to the importance of an urban living lab and the
experiments taking place is needed to enhance the transition to sustainability.

In addition, the research also showed there is a demand for a multi-level policy approach. The
promotion of complementary niche innovations requires with incentive programs and other
initiatives enhance the transition of various levels. The formation of new coalitions plays an
important part in the transition. Thus, the exchange of knowledge and results during the
experimentation process can be exchanged and lead to better governance of the transition.
Finally, the findings of this thesis also point to an emerging research field on urban environmental
governance and the experimentation process in the urban living lab as well as the socio-technical
system and how it engages within the diversity of experimentation process and how they are
conducted in practice on an individual case by case study.

8.1. Methodological reflection and future research

The social-technical system provides a valuable framework for urban case study research. The
research applies the transition theories and includes perspectives from political representatives and
businesses and NGOs; this has not been done by researcher so far. Furthermore, the variety of data
collection methods provides a pool of valuable empirical material which served as the foundation
for the analysis.

There is a strong need for urban case studies in the field of socio-technical transitions. In particular,
how policies have an influence on the transitions and how the dynamics of a changing policy
framework affects characteristics such as public acceptance/ engagement. Furthermore, urban case
study research is important because it implements national and local policies and considers local
cultural aspects. With deeper observing multiple levels of governments, a more inclusive policy
framework can be developed in praxis. In addition, it would deepen the conceptual understanding of
policy effects on the socio-technical transition.

58
9. Acknowledgement
I would like to thank all interviewees for their time and input. My gratitude goes also to my
supervisor Cecilia Mark Herbert, my evaluator Peter Söderbaum and Uppsala University for
supporting this research project. Without their passionate participation and input, this thesis could
not have been successfully conducted.

59
10. References
3sat.online (2018) Stromkuriere - In Berlin radeln mobile Ladestationen für E-Autos. Available at:
http://www.3sat.de/mediathek/?mode=play&obj=73205 (Accessed: 4 September 2018).

Adnan, N., Nordin, S., Rahman, I., Vasant, P. and Noor, A. (2016). A comprehensive review on theoretical
framework-based electric vehicle consumer adoption research. International Journal of Energy Research,
41(3), pp.317-335.

Agenbroad, J. and Holland, B. (2014) RMI: What’s the true cost of EV charging stations?, GreenBiz.
Available at: https://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2014/05/07/rmi-whats-true-cost-ev-charging-stations
(Accessed: 5 September 2018).

Agence France-Presse (2017) ‘China to ban production of petrol and diesel cars “in the near future”’, The
Guardian, 11 September. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/sep/11/china-to-ban-
production-of-petrol-and-diesel-cars-in-the-near-future (Accessed: 3 August 2018).

Allego GmbH (2018) ‘Hintergrund – be-emobil.de’. Available at: http://www.be-emobil.de/hintergrund/

(Accessed: 11 January 2018).

Anderson, P. and Tushman, M. L. (1990) ‘Technological Discontinuities and Dominant Designs: A

Cyclical Model of Technological Change’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(4), pp. 604–633. doi:
10.2307/2393511.

Anonymous (2009) ‘The sound of silence’, The Economist, 7 May. Available at:
https://www.economist.com/node/13606446 (Accessed: 21 May 2018).

Bache, I. and Flinders, M. (2004) Multi-level Governance. Oxford University Press. Available at:
http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/0199259259.001.0001/acprof-9780199259250
(Accessed: 3 August 2018).

Bäckstrand, K. (2006a) ‘Democratizing Global Environmental Governance? Stakeholder Democracy after

the World Summit on Sustainable Development’, European Journal of International Relations, 12(4), pp.
467–498. doi: 10.1177/1354066106069321.

Bäckstrand, K. (2006b) ‘Multi-stakeholder partnerships for sustainable development: rethinking

legitimacy, accountability and effectiveness’, European Environment, 16(5), pp. 290–306. doi:
10.1002/eet.425.

Bäckstrand, K. (2012) ‘Democracy and global environmental politics’, Handbook of Global

Environmental Politics, Second Edition, pp. 507–519. doi: 10.4337/9781849809405.00051.

Bakker, S. and Trip, J. J. (2013) ‘Policy options to support the adoption of electric vehicles in the urban
environment’, Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 25, pp. 18–23. doi:
10.1016/j.trd.2013.07.005.

Bakogiannis, E., Siti, M., Vassi A., Georgia, C., Kyriakidis, C. (2014) ‘Case Studies and Sustainable
Urban Mobility research schemes: A communication channel among researchers and interdisciplinary
community groups’, International Journal of Service Science, Management and Engineering, 1, pp. 42–
51.

Baxter, P. and Jack, S. (2008) ‘Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation
for Novice Researchers’, Qulitative report, 13(4), pp. 544–559.

be emobil (2018) Was kostet ein Ladevorgang?, be-emobil.de. Available at: http://hilfe.be-
emobil.de/hc/de/articles/203066241-Was-kostet-ein-Ladevorgang- (Accessed: 6 August 2018).

60
Beatley, T. (2000) Green urbanism: learning from European cities. Washington, DC: Island Press.

be-emobil (2018) ‘Standort beantragen – be-emobil.de’. Available at: http://www.be-emobil.de/standort-

beantragen/ (Accessed: 5 August 2018).

Bergman, N., Markusson, N., Connor, P. and Ricci, M. (2010) ‘Bottom-up, social innovation for
addressing climate change’, p. 27.

Bhattacherjee, A. (2012) Social science research: principles, methods, and practices. Available at:
https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/BookDetail.aspx?bookId=79 (Accessed: 11 January 2018).

Bijker, W. E. (1997) Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs: Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change. MIT
Press.

Binder, C., Mühlemeier, S. and Wyss, R. (2017) ‘An Indicator-Based Approach for Analyzing the
Resilience of Transitions for Energy Regions. Part I: Theoretical and Conceptual Considerations’,
Energies, 10, p. 36. doi: 10.3390/en10010036.

Bleischwitz, R. (2004) ‘Governance of sustainable development: co-evolution of corporate and political

strategies’, International Journal of Sustainable Development, 7(1), p. 27. doi:
10.1504/IJSD.2004.004982.

Böll, S. (2016) Bundesländer wollen Benzin- und Dieselautos ab 2030 verbieten, www.spiegel.de.
Available at: http://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/bundeslaender-wollen-benzin-und-dieselautos-ab-2030-
verbieten-a-1115671.html (Accessed: 3 August 2018).

Bonges, H. A. and Lusk, A. C. (2016) ‘Addressing electric vehicle (EV) sales and range anxiety through
parking layout, policy and regulation’, Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 83, pp. 63–
73. doi: 10.1016/j.tra.2015.09.011.

Brenner, N. (2004) ‘Urban governance and the production of new state spaces in western Europe, 1960–
2000’, Review of International Political Economy, 11(3), pp. 447–488. doi:
10.1080/0969229042000282864.

Bulkeley, H. (2006) ‘Urban Sustainability: Learning from Best Practice?’, Environment and Planning A,
38(6), pp. 1029–1044. doi: 10.1068/a37300.

Bulkeley, H., Coenen, L., Frantzeskaki, N., Hartmann, C., Kronsell, A., Mai, L., Marvin, S., McCormick,
K., van Steenbergen, F.,Voytenko Palgan, Y (2017) ‘Urban living labs: Governing urban sustainability
transitions’, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 22(22), pp. 13–17. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2017.02.003.

Bulkeley, H. and Betsill, M. (2005) ‘Rethinking Sustainable Cities: Multilevel Governance and the
“Urban” Politics of Climate Change’, Environmental Politics, 14(1), pp. 42–63. doi:
10.1080/0964401042000310178.

Bulkeley, H. and Castán Broto, V. (2013) ‘Government by experiment? Global cities and the governing of
climate change: Government by experiment?’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 38(3),
pp. 361–375. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-5661.2012.00535.x.

Bulkeley, H. S., Heike Janda, Katy Zhao, Jimin Armstrong, Andrea Chu, and Shu Yi Ghosh, Shibani
(2011) ‘The Role of Institutions, Governance, and Urban Planning for Mitigation and Adaptation’, in
Cities and Climate Change: Responding to an Urgent Agenda. The World Bank, pp. 125–159. doi:
10.1596/9780821384930_CH05.

61
Bundesamt fur Wirtschaft und Ausfuhrkontrolle (2018) BAFA - Elektromobilität. Available at:
http://www.bafa.de/DE/Energie/Energieeffizienz/Elektromobilitaet/elektromobilitaet_node.html
(Accessed: 5 August 2018).

Bureau of Transportation Statistics (2017) National Household Travel Survey Daily Travel Quick Facts |
Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Washington, DC. Available at: https://www.bts.gov/statistical-
products/surveys/national-household-travel-survey-daily-travel-quick-facts (Accessed: 5 September
2018).

Çağatay Bayindir, K., Gözüküçük, M. A. and Teke, A. (2011) ‘A comprehensive overview of hybrid
electric vehicle: Powertrain configurations, powertrain control techniques and electronic control units’,
Energy Conversion and Management, 52(2), pp. 1305–1313. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2010.09.028.

catolico (2014) ‘Washington DC Map USA Washington dc state map 550 X 429 pixels’, Printable Map
HD. Available at: http://catolico.info/washington-dc-map-usa/washington-dc-map-usa-washington-dc-
state-map-550-x-429-pixels/ (Accessed: 18 July 2018).

Cattani, G. (2006) ‘Technological pre-adaptation, speciation, and emergence of new technologies: how
Corning invented and developed fiber optics’, Industrial and Corporate Change, 15(2), pp. 285–318. doi:
10.1093/icc/dtj016.

ChargeNow (2017) ChargeNow DC Fast - ChargePoint. Available at:

http://chargenow.chargepoint.com/fast-charging (Accessed: 11 February 2018).

ChargePoint (2018) ChargePoint Map Washington, DC. Available at:

https://na.chargepoint.com/charge_point (Accessed: 5 August 2018).

Chrisafis, A. and Vaughan, A. (2017) France to ban sales of petrol and diesel cars by 2040,
www.theguardian.com. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/jul/06/france-ban-
petrol-diesel-cars-2040-emmanuel-macron-volvo (Accessed: 3 August 2018).

Christensen, C. (1997) The Innovator’s Dilemma: When New Technologies Cause Great Firms To Fail.

Coffman, M., Bernstein, P. and Wee, S. (2017) ‘Electric vehicles revisited: a review of factors that affect
adoption’, Transport Reviews, 37(1), pp. 79–93. doi: 10.1080/01441647.2016.1217282.

Constellation (2018) Washington, D.C. Energy. Available at: https://www.constellation.com/solutions/for-

your-home/solutions-by-state/washington-dc-energy.html (Accessed: 12 February 2018).

Corrêa de Faria, S., Fernando Macedo Bessa, L. and Corrêa Tonet, H. (2009) ‘A theoretical approach to
urban environmental governance in times of change’, Management of Environmental Quality: An
International Journal, 20(6), pp. 638–648. doi: 10.1108/14777830910990753.

Council of the District of Columbia (2017) B22-0096 - Electric Vehicle Public Infrastructure Expansion
Act of 2017. Available at: http://lims.dccouncil.us:80/legislation?identifier=B22-0096 (Accessed: 22 July
2018).

Creswell, J. W. (2009) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches.
SAGE Publications.

DC.gov Office of Tax and Revenue (2014) Alternative Fuel Vehicle Infrastructure and Conversion
Credits. Available at: https://otr.cfo.dc.gov/publication/alternative-fuel-vehicle-infrastructure-and-
conversion-credits-faqs (Accessed: 21 July 2018).

Deutscher Bundestag (2017a) ‘Aufgabe des Elektrofahrzeuge-Ziels der Bundesregierung’. Available at:
http://dip21.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/18/130/1813034.pdf.

62
Deutscher Bundestag (2017b) Förderung der Elektromobilität durch die Bundesländer. Available at:
https://www.bundestag.de/blob/504150/6f645b9dd6e876b8a5f6260d4ca034ae/wd-5-029-17-pdf-data.pdf.

Die Bundesregierung (2009) Bundesregierung | Elektromobilität. Available at:

https://www.bundesregierung.de/Webs/Breg/DE/Themen/Energiewende/Mobilitaet/podcast/_node.html
(Accessed: 31 August 2017).

District of Columbia Department of Motor Vehicles (2018) Vehicle Registration Fees | dmv. Available at:
https://dmv.dc.gov/node/155452 (Accessed: 21 July 2018).

Dowling, N. (2011) Why cars cost more here than in the US, CarsGuide. Available at:
https://www.carsguide.com.au/car-news/why-cars-cost-more-here-than-in-the-us-18284 (Accessed: 23
August 2018).

Driel and Schot (2005) ‘Radical innovation as a multilevel process: introducing floating grain elevators in
the port of Rotterdam’, Technology and Culture, 46(1), pp. 51–76.

Dubois, A. and Gadde, L.-E. (2002) ‘Systematic combining: an abductive approach to case research’,
Journal of business research, 55(7), pp. 553–560.

Edmondson, D. L., Kern, F. and Rogge, K. S. (2018) ‘The co-evolution of policy mixes and socio-
technical systems: Towards a conceptual framework of policy mix feedback in sustainability transitions’,
Research Policy. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2018.03.010.

Eisel, M., Schmidt, J. and Kolbe, L. M. (2014) ‘Finding suitable locations for charging stations’, in 2014
IEEE International Electric Vehicle Conference (IEVC). 2014 IEEE International Electric Vehicle
Conference (IEVC), pp. 1–8. doi: 10.1109/IEVC.2014.7056134.

Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989) ‘Building Theories from Case Study Research’, The Academy of Management
Review, 14(4), pp. 532–550. doi: 10.2307/258557.

Enkhardt, S. (2018) Bundesregierung hält am Ziel von einer Million Elektroautos bis 2020 fest, pv
magazine Deutschland. Available at: https://www.pv-magazine.de/2018/04/12/bundesregierung-haelt-am-
ziel-von-einer-million-elektroautos-bis-2020-fest/ (Accessed: 16 June 2018).

EVgo (2018) Nissan No Charge to Charge, EVgo. Available at: https://www.evgo.com/special-

offers/nissan-no-charge-charge/ (Accessed: 9 August 2018).

Field, K. (2017) Electric Cars Up 137% In Germany, Approaching 2% Market Share, CleanTechnica.
Available at: https://cleantechnica.com/2017/09/10/electric-cars-are-up-137-in-germany-with-plug-in-
vehicles-approaching-2-market-share/ (Accessed: 10 January 2018).

Forschungscampus3 (2015) ‘Energie und Antrieb’. Available at: http://www.forschungscampus-

hessen.de/energie-fc3/energie-und-antrieb (Accessed: 26 February 2018).

Franke, T., Neumann, I., Bühler, F., Cocron, P. and Krems, J. (2012). Experiencing Range in an Electric
Vehicle: Understanding Psychological Barriers. Applied Psychology, 61(3), pp.368-391.

Frantzeskaki, N., Kabisch, N. and McPhearson, T. (2016) ‘Advancing urban environmental governance:
Understanding theories, practices and processes shaping urban sustainability and resilience’,
Environmental Science & Policy, 62, pp. 1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2016.05.008.

Frese, A. (2018) ‘Berliner Stromnetz ist fit für E-Autos’, Der Tagesspiegel Online, 4 July. Available at:
https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wirtschaft/elektromobilitaet-berliner-stromnetz-ist-fit-fuer-e-
autos/22768386.html (Accessed: 6 August 2018).

63
Gass, V., Schmidt, J. and Schmidt, E. (2014) ‘Analysis of alternative policy instruments to promote
electric vehicles in Austria’, Renewable Energy, 61, pp. 96–101. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2012.08.012.

Geels, F. W. (2002) ‘Technological transitions as evolutionary reconfiguration processes: a multi-level

perspective and a case-study’, Research Policy. (NELSON + WINTER + 20), 31(8), pp. 1257–1274. doi:
10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00062-8.

Geels, F. W. (2005) ‘Processes and patterns in transitions and system innovations: Refining the co-
evolutionary multi-level perspective’, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 72(6), pp. 681–696.
doi: 10.1016/j.techfore.2004.08.014.

Geels, F. W. (2010) ‘Ontologies, socio-technical transitions (to sustainability), and the multi-level
perspective’, Research Policy. (Special Section on Innovation and Sustainability Transitions), 39(4), pp.
495–510. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2010.01.022.

Geels, F. W. and Kemp, R. (2007) ‘Dynamics in socio-technical systems: Typology of change processes
and contrasting case studies’, Technology in Society, 29(4), pp. 441–455. doi:
10.1016/j.techsoc.2007.08.009.

Geels, F. W. and Schot, J. (2007) ‘Typology of sociotechnical transition pathways’, Research Policy,
36(3), pp. 399–417. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2007.01.003.

Gene (2017) ‘Tesla’s Next Gen Roadster is a beast: 0-60 in 1.9 sec., 620 miles of range’,
TESLARATI.com, 16 November. Available at: https://www.teslarati.com/tesla-next-gen-roadster-0-60-1-9-
sec-620-miles-range/ (Accessed: 9 August 2018).

Gibbs, D. and Jonas, A. E. G. (2000) ‘Governance and regulation in local environmental policy: the utility
of a regime approach’, Geoforum, 31(3), pp. 299–313. doi: 10.1016/S0016-7185(99)00052-4.

Giddens, A. (2014) Beyond left and right: the future of radical politics. Place of publication not identified:
Polity Press. Available at: http://rbdigital.oneclickdigital.com (Accessed: 4 May 2017).

Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E. and Chadwick, B. (2008) ‘Methods of data collection in qualitative
research: interviews and focus groups’, British Dental Journal, 204(6), pp. 291–295. doi:
10.1038/bdj.2008.192.

Giménez-Gaydou, D. A., Ribeiro, A.S.N., Gutierrez, J. and Antunes, A.P. (2016) ‘Optimal location of
battery electric vehicle charging stations in urban areas: A new approach’, International Journal of
Sustainable Transportation, 10(5), pp. 393–405. doi: 10.1080/15568318.2014.961620.

Given, L. M. (2008) The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods. SAGE Publications.

Going Electric (2018) Vattenfall Ladekarte - Vattenfall | Ladekarten. Available at:

https://www.goingelectric.de/stromtankstellen/anbieter/angebot/Vattenfall-Ladekarte-Vattenfall/12/
(Accessed: 6 August 2018).

Gordon-Bloomfield, N. (2015) ‘UK Government Announces Changes to Plug-in Car Incentives,

Introduces Banding Based on ZEV Capabilities.’, Transport Evolved, 13 February. Available at:
https://transportevolved.com/2015/02/13/uk-government-announces-changes-plug-car-incentives-
introduces-banding-based-zev-capabilities/ (Accessed: 25 July 2018).

Government of the District of Columbia District Department of Transportation (2017) DDOT Testimony -
June 21 2017 Hearing_FINAL.pdf. Washington, DC, p. 10. Available at:
https://ddot.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/ddot/release_content/attachments/DDOT%20Testimony%20
-%20June%2021%20Hearing_FINAL.pdf (Accessed: 20 October 2017).

64
Government of the District of Columbia Office of Tax and Revenue (2015) charging station incentive.
Available at: https://ddot.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/otr/publication/attachments/2015%20DC-
1167%2009042015.pdf (Accessed: 11 February 2018).

Guillemin, M. and Gillam, L. (2004) ‘Ethics, Reflexivity, and “Ethically Important Moments” in
Research’, Qualitative Inquiry, 10(2), pp. 261–280. doi: 10.1177/1077800403262360.

Guinn, S. (2017) Level 1 vs Level 2 Electric Vehicle Charging Stations, ClipperCreek. Available at:
https://www.clippercreek.com/level-1-level-2-charging-stations/ (Accessed: 9 November 2017).

pers.com Günther, R. (2018) ‘Berlin im Wandel’.

Gutschild (2018) ‘Elektroautos bekommen ein E im eigenen Nummernschild’. Available at:

https://www.gutschild.de/blog/was-bringt-das-neue-e-kennzeichen/ (Accessed: 6 August 2018).

Hall, D., Moultak, M. and Lutsey, N. (2017) ‘Electric vehicle capitals of the world: Demonstrating the
path to electric drive’, The ICCT, p. 57.

Hall, P. (1966) The world cities. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Hamad, E.O., Savundranayagam, M.Y., Holmes, J.D., Kinsella, E.A.and Johnson A.M. (2016) ‘Toward a
Mixed-Methods Research Approach to Content Analysis in The Digital Age: The Combined Content-
Analysis Model and its Applications to Health Care Twitter Feeds’, Journal of Medical Internet Research,
18(3). doi: 10.2196/jmir.5391.

Harrison, H., Birks, B., Franklin, R. and Mills, J. (2017) ‘Case Study Research: Foundations and
Methodological Orientations’, Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research,
18(1). Available at: http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/2655 (Accessed: 23
August 2018).

He, F., Yin, Y. and Zhou, J. (2015) ‘Deploying public charging stations for electric vehicles on urban road
networks’, Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 60, pp. 227–240. doi:
10.1016/j.trc.2015.08.018.

Hegger, D. L. T., Vliet, J. V. and Vliet, B. J. M. V. (2007) ‘Niche Management and its Contribution to
Regime Change: The Case of Innovation in Sanitation’, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management,
19(6), pp. 729–746. doi: 10.1080/09537320701711215.

Hegger, M., Zeumer, M., Fuchs, M. and Stark, T. (2007) Energie Atlas: Nachhaltige Architektur. 1st edn.
Basel: Birkhäuser.

Hildermeier, J. (2017) Slow electric car uptake due to lack of choice, availability and marketing spend –
report | Transport & Environment, European Federation for Transport and Environment AISBL.
Available at: https://www.transportenvironment.org/press/slow-electric-car-uptake-due-lack-choice-
availability-and-marketing-spend-%E2%80%93-report (Accessed: 21 May 2018).

Hodson, M., Evans, J. and Schliwa, G. (2018) ‘Conditioning experimentation: The struggle for place-
based discretion in shaping urban infrastructures’, Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space, p.
239965441876548. doi: 10.1177/2399654418765480.

Hodson, M., Geels, F. W. and McMeekin, A. (2017) ‘Reconfiguring Urban Sustainability Transitions,
Analysing Multiplicity’, Sustainability, 9(2), p. 299. doi: 10.3390/su9020299.

Hodson, M. and Marvin, S. (2010) ‘Can cities shape socio-technical transitions and how would we know
if they were?’, Research Policy, 39(4), pp. 477–485. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2010.01.020.

65
Hoogma, R., Kemp, R., Schot, J. and Truffer, B. (2005) Experimenting for Sustainable Transport: The
Approach of Strategic Niche Management. Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9780203994061.

http://www.virginiadot.org (2018) High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lanes - Rules and FAQs. Available at:
http://www.virginiadot.org/travel/hov-rulesfaq.asp (Accessed: 22 August 2018).

Huijstee, M. M. V., Francken, M. and Leroy, P. (2007) ‘Partnerships for sustainable development: a
review of current literature’, Environmental Sciences, 4(2), pp. 75–89. doi: 10.1080/15693430701526336.

Innogy (2018) innogy ePower: Unterwegs laden mit zwei Tarifen. Available at:
https://www.innogy.com/web/cms/de/3811630/fuer-zuhause/elektrisch-fahren-und-
laden/produkte/produkte-fuer-unterwegs/epower/ (Accessed: 6 August 2018).

Jaffe, E. (2015) The Real Reason U.S. Gas Is So Cheap Is Americans Don’t Pay the True Cost of Driving,
CityLab. Available at: http://www.citylab.com/commute/2015/01/the-real-reason-us-gas-is-so-cheap-is-
americans-dont-pay-the-true-cost-of-driving/384200/ (Accessed: 23 August 2018).

Jin, C., Tang, J. and Ghosh, P. (2013) ‘Optimizing Electric Vehicle Charging: A Customer’s Perspective’,
IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 62(7), pp. 2919–2927. doi: 10.1109/TVT.2013.2251023.

Jin, L. and Slowik, P. (2017) ‘Literature review of electric vehicle consumer awareness and outreach’, The
ICCT, p. 27.

Kaatz, E., Root, D.S., Bowen, P.A. and Hill, R.C. (2006) ‘Advancing key outcomes of sustainability
building assessment’, Building Research & Information, 34(4), pp. 308–320. doi:
10.1080/09613210600724608.

Kemp, R. and Loorbach, D. (2003) ‘Governance for sustainability through transition management’, in
Open Meeting of Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Research Community, Montreal,
Canada.

Kemp, R., Parto, S. and Gibson, R. B. (2005) ‘Governance for sustainable development: moving from
theory to practice’, International Journal of Sustainable Development, 8(1–2), pp. 12–30.

Kemp, R., Schot, J. and Hoogma, R. (1998) ‘Regime shifts to sustainability through processes of niche
formation: The approach of strategic niche management’, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management,
10(2), pp. 175–198. doi: 10.1080/09537329808524310.

Kern, F. (2012) ‘Using the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions to assess innovation
policy’, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 79(2), pp. 298–310. doi:
10.1016/j.techfore.2011.07.004.

Klinger, G. (2018) Stromnetz Berlin für E-Auto-Boom gerüstet. Available at: https://www.energate-
messenger.de/news/184389/stromnetz-berlin-fuer-e-auto-boom-geruestet (Accessed: 6 August 2018).

Knowles, M., Scott, H. and Baglee, D. (2012) ‘The effect of driving style on electric vehicle performance,
economy and perception’, International Journal of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, 4(3), pp. 228–247. doi:
10.1504/IJEHV.2012.050492.

Koenig-Archibugi, M. and Zürn, M. (2006) New modes of governance in the global system: exploring
publicness, delegation and inclusiveness. Basingstoke [England]; New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Available at: http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=1039764 (Accessed: 25 July 2018).

Kooiman, J. (1993) Modern Governance: New Government-Society Interactions. SAGE Publications.

66
Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt (2016) Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt - Verkehr in Kilometern. Available at:
https://www.kba.de/DE/Statistik/Kraftverkehr/VerkehrKilometer/verkehr_in_kilometern_node.html
(Accessed: 26 February 2018).

Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt (2017) Fahrzeugzulassungen Berlin 2017, p. 73.

Kronsell, A. and Bäckstrand, K. (2015) Rethinking the Green State. Environmental governance towards
climate and sustainability transitions. London.

Krupa, J. S. (2014) ‘Analysis of a consumer survey on plug-in hybrid electric vehicles’, Transportation
Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 64, pp. 14–31. doi: 10.1016/j.tra.2014.02.019.

Krutko, P., Moon, J. C. and Finkle, J. A. (2013) Analysis of the Electric Vehicle Industry. Washington,
DC: International Economic Deveopment Council. Available at:
https://www.iedconline.org/clientuploads/Downloads/edrp/IEDC_Electric_Vehicle_Industry.pdf
(Accessed: 29 August 2018).

Kvale, S. and Brinkmann, S. (2008) InterViews: Learning the Craft of Qualitative Research Interviewing.
2nd edition. Los Angeles: Sage Publications Ltd.

Kwan, I., Lutsey, N., Slowik, P. and Jin, L. (2016) Identifying the leading regional electric vehicle
markets in the United States. Available at: http://www.theicct.org/publications/identifying-leading-
regional-electric-vehicle-markets-united-states (Accessed: 14 November 2017).

Lambert, F. (2017) ‘The Dutch government confirms plan to ban new petrol and diesel cars by 2030’,
Electrek, 10 October. Available at: https://electrek.co/2017/10/10/netherlands-dutch-ban-petrol-diesel-
cars-2030-electric-cars/ (Accessed: 3 August 2018).

Langbroek, J. H. M., Franklin, J. P. and Susilo, Y. O. (2016) ‘The effect of policy incentives on electric
vehicle adoption’, Energy Policy, 94, pp. 94–103. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2016.03.050.

Le Petit, Y. (2017) ‘How will electric vehicle transition impact EU jobs? Yoann Clean vehicles and
Emobility Officer’. European Federation for Transport and Environment AISBL. Available at:
https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/Briefing%20-
%20How%20will%20electric%20vehicle%20transition%20impact%20EU%20jobs.pdf (Accessed: 21
May 2018).

Lefevre, B. and Enriquez, A. (2014) Transport Sector Key to Closing the World’s Emissions Gap | World
Resources Institute. Available at: http://www.wri.org/blog/2014/09/transport-sector-key-closing-
world%E2%80%99s-emissions-gap (Accessed: 24 November 2017).

Levinthal, D. A. (1998) ‘The Slow Pace of Rapid Technological Change: Gradualism and Punctuation in
Technological Change’, Industrial and Corporate Change, 7(2), pp. 217–247. doi: 10.1093/icc/7.2.217.

Li, W., Long, R., Chen, H., and Geng, J. (2017) ‘A review of factors influencing consumer intentions to
adopt battery electric vehicles’, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 78, pp. 318–328.

Lin, Z. and Greene, D. L. (2011) ‘Promoting the market for plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles:
role of recharge availability’, Transportation Research Record, 2252(1), pp. 49–56.

Lindley, S. J., Handley, J.F., Theuray, N., Peet, E. and Mcevoy, D., (2006) ‘Adaptation Strategies for
Climate Change in the Urban Environment: Assessing Climate Change Related Risk in UK Urban Areas’,
Journal of Risk Research, 9(5), pp. 543–568. doi: 10.1080/13669870600798020.

Loorbach, D. and Rotmans, J. (2010) ‘Towards a better understanding of transitions and their governance,
A systemic and reflexive approach, as Part II’, Transitions to Sustainable Development - Part 1. New
Directions in the Study of Long Term Transformative Change, pp. 105–120.
67
Lu, J. (2018) Comparing U.S. and Chinese Electric Vehicle Policies, www.eesi.org. Available at:
http://www.eesi.org/articles/view/comparing-u.s.-and-chinese-electric-vehicle-policies (Accessed: 3
August 2018).

Lutsey, N. (2017a) ‘The transition to electric cars: How can policy pave the way?’ Available at:
http://theicct.org/blog/staff/policies-to-pave-ev-transition-20171025 (Accessed: 13 November 2017).

Lutsey, N. (2017b) ‘Update: California’s electric vehicle market’, The ICCT, p. 16.

Lutsey, N., Searle, S. and Pavlenko, N. (2016) ‘Leading edge of electric vehicle market development in
the United States: An analysis of California cities’, The ICCT. Available at:
https://www.theicct.org/publications/leading-edge-electric-vehicle-market-development-united-states-
analysis-california (Accessed: 25 July 2018).

MacKenzie, D. and Wajcman, J. (1999) The social shaping of technology. Edited by D. MacKenzie and J.
Wajcman. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. Available at: http://mcgraw-hill.co.uk/openup/
(Accessed: 23 August 2018).

Malinowski, M. (2017) Here’s how DC is committing to the Paris Agreement, www.ggwash.org.

Available at: https://ggwash.org/view/63681/heres-how-dc-is-committing-to-the-paris-agreement-
sustainable-dc-2.0 (Accessed: 11 January 2018).

Mayntz, R. (2004) Governance Theory Als Fortentwickelte Steuerungstheorie?

McGaghie, W. C., Bordage, G. and Shea, J. A. (2001) ‘Problem statement, conceptual framework, and
research question’, Academic Medicine, 76(9), pp. 923–924.

Menge, J., Horn, B. and Beck, B. (2014) Berlin´s Urban Transportation Development Plan 2025 -
Sustainable Mobility.

Menny, M., Palgan, Y. V. and McCormick, K. (2018) ‘Urban Living Labs and the Role of Users in Co-
Creation’, GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society, 27(1), pp. 68–77. doi:
10.14512/gaia.27.S1.14.

Merriam, S. B. (1991) Case study research in education: a qualitative approach. Jossey-Bass.

Moss, S. (2015) ‘End of the car age: how cities are outgrowing the automobile’, The Guardian, 28 April.
Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/apr/28/end-of-the-car-age-how-cities-outgrew-the-
automobile (Accessed: 9 August 2018).

Mulgan, G. (2006) ‘The Process of Social Innovation’, Innovations: Technology, Governance,

Globalization, 1(2), pp. 145–162. doi: 10.1162/itgg.2006.1.2.145.

Nelson, E. (2017) Electric car market share by country in 2016, Atlas. Available at:
http://www.theatlas.com/charts/ryip4b02W (Accessed: 3 August 2018).

Neubauer, J. and Wood, E. (2014) ‘The impact of range anxiety and home, workplace, and public
charging infrastructure on simulated battery electric vehicle lifetime utility’, Journal of Power Sources,
257, pp. 12–20. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.01.075.

Neumann, P. (2017) Luftverschmutzung: Diesel-Fahrverbot in Berlin rückt näher, Berliner Zeitung.

Available at: https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/berlin/verkehr/luftverschmutzung-diesel-fahrverbot-in-
berlin-rueckt-naeher-28084204 (Accessed: 25 November 2017).

Neumann, P. and Knoblach, J. (2018) Trotz vieler Vorteile: Berliner wollen keine E-Autos fahren,
Berliner Zeitung. Available at: https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/berlin/verkehr/trotz-vieler-vorteile-
berliner-wollen-keine-e-autos-fahren-30733624 (Accessed: 4 September 2018).
68
Nevens, F., Frantzeskaki, N., Gorissen, L. and Loorbach, D. (2013) ‘Urban Transition Labs: co-creating
transformative action for sustainable cities’, Journal of Cleaner Production. (Special Issue: Advancing
sustainable urban transformation), 50, pp. 111–122. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.12.001.

Nigro, N. and Frades, M. (2014) ‘A Guide to the Lessons Learned from the Clean Cities Community
Electric Vehicle Readiness Projects’, US Department of Energy, p. 61.

Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy (2018) Electric Vehicles: Tax Credits and Other
Incentives | Department of Energy. Available at: https://www.energy.gov/eere/electricvehicles/electric-
vehicles-tax-credits-and-other-incentives (Accessed: 21 July 2018).

Oslo kommune (2018) The Electric Vehicle Capital of the World, Oslo kommune. Available at:
https://www.oslo.kommune.no/english/politics-and-administration/green-oslo/best-practices/the-electric-
vehicle-capital-of-the-world/ (Accessed: 7 August 2018).

Parkaffe (2018) ‘Falschparker vor Ladestation für Elektroautos’, Parkaffe - Kampf gegen Falschparker.
Available at: http://parkaffe.de/falschparker-vor-ladestation-fuer-elektroautos/ (Accessed: 6 August 2018).

Patton, E. and Appelbaum, S. H. (2003) ‘The case for case studies in management research’, Management
Research News, 26(5), pp. 60–71. doi: 10.1108/01409170310783484.

Pearre, N. S., Kempton, W., Guensler, R.L. and Elango, V.V. (2011) ‘Electric vehicles: How much range
is required for a day’s driving?’, Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 19(6), pp.
1171–1184. doi: 10.1016/j.trc.2010.12.010.

pers.com, Campbell (2018) ‘Eric Campbell’.

pers.com, Goetz (2017) ‘Matthew Goetz’.

pers.com, Lang (2018) ‘Christian Lang’.

pers.com, Mock (2018) ‘Peter Mock’.

pers.com, Nigro (2017) ‘Nick Nigro’.

pers.com, Olexsak (2018) ‘Sarah Olexsak’.

pers.com, Reinhardt (2018) ‘Johanna Reinhardt’.

Phills, J., Deiglmeier, K. and T. Miller, D. (2008) ‘Rediscovering Social Innovation’, Stanford Soc. Innov.
Rev., 6.

Pinkse, J. and Kolk, A. (2012) ‘Addressing the Climate Change—Sustainable Development Nexus: The
Role of Multistakeholder Partnerships’, Business & Society, 51(1), pp. 176–210. doi:
10.1177/0007650311427426.

Potoglou, D. and Kanaroglou, P. S. (2007) ‘Household demand and willingness to pay for clean vehicles’,
Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 12(4), pp. 264–274. doi:
10.1016/j.trd.2007.03.001.

Przybilla, S. (2018) ‘Start-up Chargery: Fahrradkuriere liefern Strom fürs E-Auto’, Spiegel Online, 4
September. Available at: http://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/chargery-berliner-start-up-liefert-energie-
fuer-e-autos-mit-dem-fahrrad-a-1222363.html (Accessed: 4 September 2018).

Public Service Commission of the District of Columbia (2017) FORMAL CASE NO. 1143, IN THE
MATTER OF THE COMMISSION’S CONSIDERATION OF A DEMAND MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Available at:
69
https://www.dcpsc.org/CMSPages/GetFile.aspx?guid=e776e369-bd78-4dba-97f3-a90e0796d70e
(Accessed: 11 February 2018).

Qi, Y., Ma, L., Zhang, H.and Li, H. (2008) ‘Translating a Global Issue Into Local Priority: China’s Local
Government Response to Climate Change’, The Journal of Environment & Development, 17(4), pp. 379–
400. doi: 10.1177/1070496508326123.

Rauh, N., Franke, T. and Krems, J. F. (2015) ‘Understanding the Impact of Electric Vehicle Driving
Experience on Range Anxiety’, Human Factors, 57(1), pp. 177–187. doi: 10.1177/0018720814546372.

RBB24 (2018) Berlin will Kaufprämien für E-Autos zahlen. Available at:
https://www.rbb24.de/wirtschaft/beitrag/2018/06/abwrackpraemie-elektromobilitaet-mobilitaetsgipfel-
pop-berlin.html (Accessed: 6 August 2018).

Reckwitz, A. (2002) ‘Toward a Theory of Social Practices: A Development in Culturalist Theorizing’,

European Journal of Social Theory, 5(2), pp. 243–263. doi: 10.1177/13684310222225432.

Rezvani, Z., Jansson, J. and Bodin, J. (2015) ‘Advances in consumer electric vehicle adoption research: A
review and research agenda’, Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 34, pp. 122–
136. doi: 10.1016/j.trd.2014.10.010.

Riege, A. M. (2003) ‘Validity and reliability tests in case study research: a literature review with “hands‐
on” applications for each research phase’, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 6(2),
pp. 75–86. doi: 10.1108/13522750310470055.

Rip, A. and Kemp, R. (1998) ‘Technological change’, Human choice and climate change. Vol. II,
Resources and Technology, pp. 327–399.

Robinson, A. P., Blythe, P.T., Bell, M.C., Hubner, Y. and Hill, G.A. (2013) ‘Analysis of electric vehicle
driver recharging demand profiles and subsequent impacts on the carbon content of electric vehicle trips’,
Energy Policy, 61, pp. 337–348. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2013.05.074.

Robson, C. (2011) Real world research: a resource for users of social research methods in applied
settings. 3. ed. Chichester: Wiley.

Robson, C. and McCartan, K. (2015) Real World Research. 4th edn. Hoboken: Wiley.

Rogers, E. M. (2010) Diffusion of Innovations, 4th Edition. Simon and Schuster.

Rotmans, J. and Kemp, R. (2004) ‘Managing the transition to sustainable mobility’, in Green, K. (ed.)
System Innovation and the Transition to Sustainability: Theory, Evidence and Policy. Edward Elgar
Publishing, pp. 137–168.

Rotmans, J., Kemp, R. and van Asselt, M. (2001) ‘More evolution than revolution: transition management
in public policy’, Foresight, 3(1), pp. 15–31. doi: 10.1108/14636680110803003.

Rugman, A. M. and Verbeke, A. (1998) ‘Corporate strategies and environmental regulations: an

organizing framework’, Strategic Management Journal, 19(4), pp. 363–375. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-
0266(199804)19:4<363::AID-SMJ974>3.0.CO;2-H.

Russell, S. and Williams, R. (2002) ‘Social Shaping of Technology: Frameworks, Findings and
Implications for Policy, with Glossary of Social Shaping Concepts’, Shaping Technology, Guiding Policy:
Concepts, Spaces and Tools. Available at: https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/social-
shaping-of-technology(151085d0-b006-475a-999b-26d6f2448ec0)/export.html (Accessed: 3 August
2018).

70
Sanchez-Rodriguez, R., Seto, K., Simon, D. and Laumann, G. (2005) Science Plan. Urbanization and
Global Environmental Change.

Satterthwaite, D. (2008) ‘Cities’ contribution to global warming: notes on the allocation of greenhouse gas
emissions, Cities’ contribution to global warming: notes on the allocation of greenhouse gas emissions’,
Environment and Urbanization, 20(2), pp. 539–549. doi: 10.1177/0956247808096127.

Schäferhoff, M., Campe, S. and Kaan, C. (2009) ‘Transnational Public-Private Partnerships in

International Relations: Making Sense of Concepts, Research Frameworks, and Results’, International
Studies Review, 11(3), pp. 451–474.

Schot, J. and Geels, F. W. (2008) ‘Strategic niche management and sustainable innovation journeys:
theory, findings, research agenda, and policy’, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 20(5), pp.
537–554. doi: 10.1080/09537320802292651.

Schot, J., Hoogma, R. and Elzen, B. (1994) ‘Strategies for shifting technological systems: the case of the
automobile system’, Futures, 26(10), pp. 1060–1076. doi: 10.1016/0016-3287(94)90073-6.

Schröder, A. and Traber, T. (2012) ‘The economics of fast charging infrastructure for electric vehicles’,
Energy Policy, 43. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2011.12.041.

Schwierz, P. (2017) Berliner Modell: Neue Pauschaltarife wegen Eichrecht, electrive.net. Available at:
https://www.electrive.net/2017/07/08/berliner-modell-neue-pauschaltarife-wegen-eichrecht/ (Accessed: 7
March 2018).

Senate Department for Urban Development and Housing (2013) Urban Development Concept Berlin
2030. Available at:
http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/planen/stadtentwicklungskonzept/en/ziele.shtml (Accessed: 11
January 2018).

Senatsverwaltung fur Umwelt, Verkehr und Klimaschutz (2013) Mobilität der Stadt: Kenndaten zur
Mobilität. Berlin, p. 10.

Service Berlin (2018) Elektrokennzeichen beantragen - Dienstleistungen - Service Berlin - Berlin.de.

Available at: https://service.berlin.de/dienstleistung/327084/ (Accessed: 6 August 2018).

Shackley, S. and Green, K. (2007) ‘A conceptual framework for exploring transitions to decarbonised
energy systems in the United Kingdom’, Energy, 32(3), pp. 221–236. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2006.04.010.

Shields, P. and Rangarajan, N. (2013) A Playbook for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual
Frameworks and Project Management.

Shove, E. and Pantzar, M. (2005) ‘Consumers, Producers and Practices: Understanding the invention and
reinvention of Nordic walking’, Journal of Consumer Culture, 5(1), pp. 43–64. doi:
10.1177/1469540505049846.

Silvia, C. and Krause, R. M. (2016) ‘Assessing the impact of policy interventions on the adoption of plug-
in electric vehicles: An agent-based model’, Energy Policy, 96, pp. 105–118. doi:
10.1016/j.enpol.2016.05.039.

Slowik, P. and Lutsey, N. (2018) The continued transition to electric vehicles in U.S. cities. Washington,
DC, p. 42.

Smismans, S. (2006) Civil Society and Legitimate European Governance. Edward Elgar Publishing.

Smith, A. (2007) ‘Translating Sustainabilities between Green Niches and Socio-Technical Regimes’,
Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 19(4), pp. 427–450. doi: 10.1080/09537320701403334.
71
Smith, A. and Raven, R. (2012) ‘What is protective space? Reconsidering niches in transitions to
sustainability’, Research Policy, 41(6), pp. 1025–1036. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2011.12.012.

Smith, A., Stirling, A. and Berkhout, F. (2005) ‘The governance of sustainable socio-technical
transitions’, Research Policy, 34(10), pp. 1491–1510. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2005.07.005.

Smith, A., Voß, J.-P. and Grin, J. (2010) ‘Innovation studies and sustainability transitions: The allure of
the multi-level perspective and its challenges’, Research Policy. (Special Section on Innovation and
Sustainability Transitions), 39(4), pp. 435–448. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2010.01.023.

Solving EV (2018) Washington, DC 20037 - Electric Car Charging Stations Map, SolvingEV. Available
at: http://solvingev.com/charging-stations/zip/20037-washington-dc (Accessed: 5 August 2018).

Sperling, D., Cannon, D. and James, S (eds) (2009) Reducing climate impacts in the transportation sector:
Asilomar Transportation and Energy Conference in August 2007 ; 11th biennial conference. Dordrecht:
Springer.

Sporrong, J. and Kadefors, A. (2014) ‘Municipal consultancy procurement – New roles and practices’,
Building Research and Information, 42(5), pp. 616–628. doi: 10.1080/09613218.2014.900260.

Stake, R. (1995) The art of Case Study Research. doi: 10.2307/329758.

Staufenberg, J. (2016) ‘Norway to “completely ban petrol powered cars by 2025”’,

www.independet.co.uk, 6 April. Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-
change/norway-to-ban-the-sale-of-all-fossil-fuel-based-cars-by-2025-and-replace-with-electric-vehicles-
a7065616.html (Accessed: 3 August 2018).

STAWAG Stadtwerke Aachen AG (2018) Förderprogramme. Available at:

https://www.stawag.de/?id=185 (Accessed: 5 August 2018).

Steinhilber, S., Wells, P. and Thankappan, S. (2013) ‘Socio-technical inertia: Understanding the barriers
to electric vehicles’, Energy Policy, 60, pp. 531–539. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2013.04.076.

Stromnetz Berlin (2017) Pressemitteilung 20.09.2017. Available at:

https://www.stromnetz.berlin/de/pressemitteilung-20-09-2017.htm?WT.ac=search_success (Accessed: 6
August 2018).

SWN E-Mobilitätsangebot - Elektro-Fahrzeuge - Ladestation für E-Autos (no date). Available at:
https://www.nrgie.de/weitere-produkte/swn-e-mobilitaetsangebot (Accessed: 5 August 2018).

tagesschau.de (2017) Verkehrswende: Heißt die Lösung E-Fuels?, tagesschau.de. Available at:
https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/e-fuels-101.html (Accessed: 23 August 2018).

Take Charge and Go (2014) ‘The 6 Steps of What To Do if Your Charging Spot is ICEd’, 12 July.
Available at: https://www.takechargeandgo.com/2014/12/07/the-6-steps-of-what-to-do-if-your-charging-
spot-is-iced/ (Accessed: 26 August 2018).

Taub, E. A. (2017) ‘For Electric Car Owners, “Range Anxiety” Gives Way to “Charging Time Trauma”’,
The New York Times, 5 October. Available at:
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/05/automobiles/wheels/electric-cars-charging.html (Accessed: 25
February 2018).

Thiel, L., Sage, K. and Conroy, P. (2015) ‘Retraining writing for functional purposes: a review of the
writing therapy literature’, Aphasiology, 29(4), pp. 423–441. doi: 10.1080/02687038.2014.965059.

Thompson, C. (2017) How the electric car became the future of transportation, Business Insider.
Available at: http://uk.businessinsider.com/electric-car-history-2017-5 (Accessed: 21 May 2018).
72
Travers, M. (2001) Qualitative Research through Case Studies. SAGE.

Tuttle, D. P. and Baldick, R. (2015) ‘Technological, Market and Policy Drivers of Emerging Trends in the
Diffusion of Plug-in Electric Vehicles in the U.S.’, The Electricity Journal, 28(7), pp. 29–43. doi:
10.1016/j.tej.2015.07.008.

Unruh, G. C. (2000) ‘Understanding carbon lock-in’, Energy policy, 28(12), pp. 817–830.

US Census Bureau (2017) Population and Housing Unit Estimates. Available at:
https://www.census.gov/popest (Accessed: 21 July 2018).

Valoen, L. O. (2012) Electric Vehicle Policies in Norway. Available at:

https://web.archive.org/web/20120302034445/http://www.emc-
mec.ca/files/Electric_Mobility_Canada_2008_open.pdf (Accessed: 25 July 2018).

Verbong, G. and Geels, F. (2007) ‘The ongoing energy transition: Lessons from a socio-technical, multi-
level analysis of the Dutch electricity system (1960–2004)’, Energy Policy, 35(2), pp. 1025–1037. doi:
10.1016/j.enpol.2006.02.010.

Vossen, L. (2018) Zahl der Pendler in Berlin und Brandenburg wächst rasant. Available at:
https://www.morgenpost.de/berlin/article213335513/Zahl-der-Pendler-in-Berlin-und-Brandenburg-
waechst-rasant.html (Accessed: 25 March 2018).

Waddock, S. A. and Bannister, B. D. (1991) ‘Correlates of effectiveness and partner satisfaction in social
partnerships’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, 4(2), pp. 64–79.

Walker, W. (2000) ‘Entrapment in large technology systems: institutional commitment and power
relations’, Research policy, 29(7–8), pp. 833–846.

Ward, K. (1996) ‘Rereading urban regime theory: a sympathetic critique’, Geoforum, 27(4), pp. 427–438.

web.unep.org (2017) Introduction to Environmental Governance - A free online course by InforMEA |

UNEPMAP, web.unep.org. Available at: http://web.unep.org/unepmap/introduction-environmental-
governance-free-online-course-informea (Accessed: 11 January 2018).

van Welie, M. J. and Romijn, H. A. (2018) ‘NGOs fostering transitions towards sustainable urban
sanitation in low-income countries: Insights from Transition Management and Development Studies’,
Environmental Science & Policy, 84, pp. 250–260. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2017.08.011.

WELT, D. (2017) ‘Man fährt wieder mehr Auto: Jährliche Fahrleistung’, DIE WELT, 6 March. Available
at: https://www.welt.de/motor/news/article162615191/Jaehrliche-Fahrleistung.html (Accessed: 26
February 2018).

Wittmayer, J. M., van Steenbergen, F., Rok, A. and Roorda, C. (2016) ‘Governing sustainability: a
dialogue between Local Agenda 21 and transition management’, Local Environment, 21(8), pp. 939–955.
doi: 10.1080/13549839.2015.1050658.

www.ACEA.be (2016) Overview of purchae and tax incentives for electric vehicles in the EU in 2016.
Available at: https://www.acea.be (Accessed: 23 August 2018).

www.ACEA.be (2017) Interactive map: Electric vehicle incentives per country in Europe. Available at:
https://www.acea.be/statistics/article/interactive-map-electric-vehicle-incentives-per-country-in-europe
(Accessed: 3 August 2018).

www.adac.de (2018) Übersicht: Diese Elektroautos gibt es auf dem Markt. Available at:
https://www.adac.de/rund-ums-fahrzeug/e-mobilitaet/elektroautos-uebersicht/ (Accessed: 26 August
2018).
73
www.auto.meinestadt.de (2018) Falsch Parken, Bußgeld Parken - meinestadt.de. Available at:
https://auto.meinestadt.de/deutschland/info/parken (Accessed: 6 August 2018).

www.autoscout24.de (2018) Der Elektroauto-Ladestecker: Verschiedenste Ansätze zum Aufladen Ihres E-

Autos. Available at: http://www.autoscout24.de/themen/elektroauto/laden/ladestecker/ (Accessed: 23
August 2018).

www.berlin.de (2017) Ladestationen für E-Autos, berlin.de. Available at:

https://www.berlin.de/tourismus/infos/4927092-1721039-ladestationen-fuer-eautos.html (Accessed: 6
September 2018).

www.bmub.bund.de (2017) Maßnahmen im Bereich Verkehr. Available at:

http://www.bmub.bund.de/N51393/ (Accessed: 16 December 2017).

www.cars.usnews.com (2018) 2018 Nissan Leaf | U.S. News & World Report. Available at: /cars-
trucks/nissan/leaf (Accessed: 26 August 2018).

www.chargepoint.com (2018) Electric Vehicle Drivers Enjoy Charging on a ‘First Come, First Served’
Basis, with ChargePoint’s New Waitlist Feature, ChargePoint. Available at:
https://www.chargepoint.com/about/news/electric-vehicle-drivers-enjoy-charging-first-come-first-served-
basis-chargepoints-new/ (Accessed: 26 August 2018).

www.evadoption.com (2017) ‘EV Market Share by State’, EV Adoption. Available at:

http://evadoption.com/ev-market-share/ev-market-share-state/ (Accessed: 23 October 2017).

www.fueleconomy.gov (2018) Federal Tax Credits for Electric and Plug-in Hybrid Cars. Available at:
https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/taxevb.shtml (Accessed: 11 February 2018).

www.gdrc.org (1997) Characteristics of Good Governance. Available at: https://www.gdrc.org/u-gov/g-

attributes.html (Accessed: 6 September 2018).

www.gwrccc.org (2018) Greater Washington Region Clean Cities Coalition – Greater Washington
Region Clean Cities Coalition. Available at: http://www.gwrccc.org/ (Accessed: 28 September 2017).

www.kba.de (2017) Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt - Bestand - Jahresbilanz des Fahrzeugbestandes am

1. Januar 2017. Available at:
https://www.kba.de/DE/Statistik/Fahrzeuge/Bestand/b_jahresbilanz.html?nn=644526 (Accessed: 29
August 2017).

www.mainova.de (2018) Mainova fördert den Kauf von Elektro-Fahrzeugen, Mainova AG. Available at:
https://www.mainova.de/privatkunden/mobilitaet/foerderung_strom.html (Accessed: 5 August 2018).

www.mdr.de (2018) Die Abgas-Verwirrung - Wie gefährlich sind Diesel wirklich? | MDR.DE. Available
at: https://www.mdr.de/nachrichten/politik/inland/hintergrund-stickoxide-feinstaub-cozwei-risiken-auto-
abgase-diesel-skandal-100.html (Accessed: 24 August 2018).

www.ppmc-transport.org (2017) PPMC TRANSPORT. Available at: http://www.ppmc-

transport.org/cop23/ (Accessed: 11 November 2017).

www.roads.maryland.gov (2018) High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lanes Frequently Asked Questions.
Available at: https://www.roads.maryland.gov/index.aspx?PageId=249 (Accessed: 22 August 2018).

www.schaufenster-elektromobilitaet.org (2018a) Förderungen. Available at: http://schaufenster-

elektromobilitaet.org/de/content/service/foerderungen/standard_seite_3.html (Accessed: 5 August 2018).

www.schaufenster-elektromobilitaet.org (2018b) Schaufenster Elektromobilität. Available at:

http://schaufenster-
74
elektromobilitaet.org/de/content/ueber_das_programm/foerderung_schaufensterprogramm/foerderung_sch
aufensterprogramm_1.html (Accessed: 23 August 2018).

www.selectUSA.gov (2017) Automotive Industry Spotlight | SelectUSA.gov, www.selectusa.gov.

Available at: https://www.selectusa.gov/automotive-industry-united-states (Accessed: 11 January 2018).

www.stadtwerke-ffo.de (2018) Stadtwerke: Erdgas- und Elektromobile. Available at:

https://www.stadtwerke-ffo.de/kundencentrum/klimabonus/erdgas-und-elektromobile/ (Accessed: 5
August 2018).

www.stadtwerke-versmold.de (no date) Elektromobilität Stadtwerke Versmold, Stadtwerke Versmold.

Available at: https://www.stadtwerke-versmold.de/initiativen-
foerderung/klimaschutzprojektfoerderung/elektromobilitaet/ (Accessed: 5 August 2018).

www.stadtwerke-zw.de (2018) Förderprogramme - Stadtwerke Zweibrücken GmbH. Available at:

https://www.stadtwerke-zw.de/service/energieberatung/neu-altbaukunden/foerderprogramme/ (Accessed:
23 August 2018).

www.statistica.com (2018) U.S. - electric vehicle battery range 2018 | Statistic, Statista. Available at:
https://www.statista.com/statistics/797331/electric-vehicle-battery-range/ (Accessed: 23 August 2018).

www.sustainabledc.org (2017) About | Sustainable DC, http://www.sustainabledc.org. Available at:

http://www.sustainabledc.org/about/ (Accessed: 11 January 2018).

www.sustainabledevelopment.un.org (2012)
challenges_and_way_forward_in_the_urban_sector_web.pdf. Available at:
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/challenges_and_way_forward_in_the_urban_se
ctor_web.pdf (Accessed: 6 September 2018).

www.ubitricity.com (2017) This bright idea is turning London’s streetlights into car charging points,
ubitricity. Available at: https://www.ubitricity.com/en/unternehmen/newsroom/bright-idea-turning-
londons-streetlights-car-charging-points/ (Accessed: 23 August 2018).

www.ubitricity.com (2018) ubitricity gewinnt New Yorker ‘NYCx Climate Action Challenge’, ubitricity.
Available at: https://www.ubitricity.com/unternehmen/newsroom/ubitricity-gewinnt-new-yorker-nycx-
climate-action-challenge/ (Accessed: 23 August 2018).

www.undp.org (2017) Goal 11 targets, UNDP. Available at:

http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-
and-communities/targets.html (Accessed: 24 November 2017).

www.unfccc.int (2016) The Paris Agreement - main page, United Nations. Available at:
http://unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php (Accessed: 1 November 2016).

www.unfccc.int (2017) Humans Settlements: Cities and Communities Speed Coordinated Climate Action,
www.unfccc.int. Available at: https://unfccc.int/news/humans-settlements-cities-and-communities-speed-
coordinated-climate-action (Accessed: 3 August 2018).

www.un.org (2015) Infrastructure and Industrialization - United Nations Sustainable Development.

Available at: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/infrastructure-industrialization/ (Accessed: 4
January 2017).

www.washingtonautoshow.com (2018) ‘Washington Auto Show - 2018 Vehicles on Display’,

Washington Auto Show. Available at: https://www.washingtonautoshow.com/featured-vehicles/
(Accessed: 23 August 2018).

75
www.wcr.unhabitat.org (2017) ‘Quick facts – WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016’. Available at:
http://wcr.unhabitat.org/quick-facts/ (Accessed: 24 November 2017).

www.wordspy.com (2010) range anxiety. Available at: https://wordspy.com/index.php?word=range-

anxiety (Accessed: 26 August 2018).

www.worldbank.org (1996) What is Stakeholder Analysis. New York, p. 8.

Yang, Z., Slowski, P., Lutsey, N. and Searle, S. (2016) ‘Principles for effective electric vehicle incentive
design’, The ICCT, p. 43.

Yin, R. K. (2003) Case Study Research - Design and Methods. 3. ed. London: Sage Publications.

Yin, R. K. (2013) Case Study Research: Design and Methods. 5 edition. Los Angeles: SAGE
Publications, Inc.

Zaborek, P. (2009) Application of multiple case study method in doctoral dissertation. Warsaw. doi:
10.13140/2.1.4478.0806.

Zach (2017) ‘10 Electric Cars With Most Range’, 14 December. Available at: https://evobsession.com/10-
electric-cars-range-new/ (Accessed: 26 August 2018).

Zehle, K.-O. (2014) ‘Und ich dachte immer AC/DC sei eine australische Hard-Rock-Band’, May.
Available at: http://www.klausolafzehle.de/teslablog/und-ich-dachte-immer-acdc-sei-eine-australische-
hard-rock-band/ (Accessed: 23 July 2018).

76
 Appendix 1: Case study protocol
As Yin (2013) points out, a case study protocol should be included in the sturdy. This includes the
timeline of field work, reminders for ethical considerations and a potential outline of interview
questions.

Case Study
Field Trip in Washington, DC October 2017 until January 2018
Field Trip Berlin February and March 2018

Case Study background

Presented in Chapter 4

Research Questions
Presented in chapter 1

Data collection methods/ sources

Semi- structured personal and phone interviews
Documents (governmental reports and social media, academic publications)

Data collection procedure and history

Ethical considerations
 Some interviewees requested not to be quoted in the thesis but agreed to have their names and
positions reflected
 Interviewees should know they are recorded
 Interviews should be aware of study purposes and how data will be used
 Receive approval for interview from a person

Interview guide
Appendix 2

Special preparations

 Phone and application for recording interviews (headset is needed for better sound quality);
 Print out interview guidelines and bring materials to face-to-face interviews;
 Notepad and pen for taking notes;
 Pre-book phone interviews to talk in more comfortable conditions;
 Book exact time to increase sense of commitment

Full list of interviews

Presented in chapter 4

77
 Appendix 2: Interview guide
The interview guide was the guiding tool to formulate questions for each interview.

• introduction to the institution and relation to EV transtion field

Introduction
of person and
organisation/ institution

• broad refelection/ opion on the current EV transition in the US/

Germany
• identify different stakeholders and their role (public, policy makers,
Overview of current
industry)
status of US/ German • focus on drivers, their motivation, & overall engagement
EV transition

• introduction to Washington, DC/Berlin developement of EVs

(history & future outlook)
• include policy examples and their affects
Case Study • public acceptance and accessibility
Washington D.C./
Berlin • investment opportunities (automaker, charging stations)

• final thoughts on how to promote the EV transition in Washington,

DC/ Berlin
• what is missing or needs to be addressed/ introduced
Critical Questions

78
Appendix 3: Overview of interpretations of governance, environmental governance,
multi stakeholder engagement in context to sustainability transition and urban
development
Author & Year Title Summary of findings and citations
(Bleischwitz, Governance of Sustainable Governance reveals its greatest strengths where long-
2004 p. 13) Development: Co-Evolution term innovatory tasks with low immediate damage
of Corporate and Political potential are pursued.
Strategies  Such processes usually result in new actor coalitions
and the formulation of new rules of the game.
 Areas of application are climate change policies
(Bulkeley, 2011 The Role of Institutions,  Review of the evidence on urban climate change
p. 77) Governance, and Urban mitigation and adaptation strategies new “wave” of
Planning for Mitigation and urban climate change response, encompassing a
Adaptation broader geographical range of cities and placing
adaptation on the agenda, the emphasis remains on
mitigation in both research and policy.
 Municipal provision of low-carbon transport
infrastructures is another key means through which
local governments can combine local priorities and
climate change agendas.
 Municipalities are deploying multiple modes of
governing climate change, with more emphasis on
regulation and provision than is in many cities in the
North, and that there is evidence, especially with
respect to the built environment, that urban responses
to climate change are being undertaken by other
stakeholders
(Pinkse and Addressing the Climate  Multi- stakeholder partnership is a form of governance
Kolk, 2012, p. Change—Sustainable with the potential to address existing regulatory,
176) Development Nexus: The participation, resources and learning gaps as it
Role of Multi- stakeholder harnesses the strengths of private, public and non-profit
Partnerships partners explores the role of multi stakeholder
partnerships in addressing climate change and
sustainable development
(Corrêa de Faria, A theoretical approach to Environmental governance should be understood in its
Fernando urban environmental three dimensions: Social governance, democratic
Macedo Bessa governance in times of governance and economic governance. Urban
and Corrêa change environmental governance aims to contribute on
Tonet, 2009, p. citizens and organizations of civil society’s practice of
643) public and democratic control of the state and market,
as a way to guarantee adequate, fair and sustainable
social and environmental conditions for human
development discuss the ideal meaning of good
governance for cities sustainability, basing itself on the
international consensus of governance as the most
important issue when facing urban environmental
problems
(Huijstee, Partnerships for sustainable Collaborative arrangements in which actors from two
Francken and development: a review of or more spheres of society (state, market and civil
Leroy, 2007, p. current literature society) are involved in a non-hierarchical process and
77) through which these actors strive towards a
sustainability goal

79
(Waddock and Correlates of effectiveness
Bannister, 1991, and partner satisfaction in
p. 481-482) social partnerships
(Bäckstrand, Democratizing Global
2006a, p. 468) Environmental
Governance? Stakeholder
Democracy after the World
Summit on Sustainable
Development
(Gibbs and Governance and regulation
Jonas, 2000, p. in local environmental
299) policy: the utility of a
regime approach
(Kronsell and Rethinking the Green State.
Bäckstrand, Environmental governance
2015, p. 2) towards climate and
sustainability transitions
(Bulkeley and Rethinking Sustainable
Betsill, 2005, Cities: Multilevel
p.42) Governance and the 'Urban'
Politics of Climate Change
Schreuers (2008 From the Bottom Up: Local
p.353) and Subnational Climate
Change Politics
The voluntary collaborative efforts of actors from
organisations in two or more economic sectors in a
forum in which they cooperatively attempt to solve a
problem or issue of mutual concern that is in some way
identified with a public policy agenda item
The call for ‘stakeholder participation’ is associated
with a shift in governance, namely that from top-down
steering to informal, bottom-up and voluntary
approaches. Multi-stakeholder dialogues and
partnership agreements represent key innovations in
this shifting context. These new modes of governance
bring together governmental and non-governmental
actors, and offer unfamiliar and hybrid takes on
constituency, representation and deliberation.
National governmetns also emphasize the local level of
environmental policy. Local admistrations have
developed their own policies and strategies not only as
a response to these higher-level policy initiatives, but
also from their own bottom-up perspective. At a variety
of levels, then, there is a discernible move towards
local solutions to conflicts between environmental
protection, urban growth, and economic development.
Environmental policy making has itself be come more
socially and politically inclusive of local organization.
Rather than state-imposed regulation and the
expectation that local government is the principal
delivery organization for the environment, local
environmental initiatives these days involve a wide
range of local organizations, including local
governments, business organizations, environmental
groups, community organizations, and other local
stakeholder
It seldom argues explicitly what the role of the state is,
or is expected to be, to mobilize environmental
governance arrangements towards climate and
sustainability objectives
Uses multi- level governance perspective to examine
the discursive and material struggle which takes place
in creating a sustainable city
[…] the kind of climate change initiatives that local
governments can most easily do appear to be such
activities as climate change and renewable energy
target setting, energy efficiency incentive programs,
educational efforts, green local government
procurement standards, public transportation policies,
public-private partnership agreements with local
businesses, and tree planting.
80