Biochemistry

Biochemistry is the study of the

chemical substances found in living
organisms and the chemical
interactions of these substances with
each other.
• The underlying principle of
biochemistry is understanding the
structure of living systems and, in turn,
their functions and ways to control
them.

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• It deals with the structure and function
of cellular components, such as
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
nucleic acids, and other biomolecules.

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 Two types of biochemical
substances:
1. Inorganic substances: water and
inorganic salts.
2. Bioorganic substances:
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and
Nucleic Acids.
3. Complex bioorganic/inorganic
Molecules: Enzymes, Vitamins, DNA,
RNA, and Hemoglobin etc.
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Four major types of Biomolecules
( Bioorganic substances)

1. carbohydrates,
2. lipids,
3. nucleic acids,
4. and proteins.

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CARBOHYDRATES
Learning Objectives
• Sources of Carbohydrates
– Simple Sugars
– Complex Carbohydrates
– Dietary Fiber
• Digestion and Absorption
• Functions
• Blood glucose regulation
• Artificial sweeteners
• Dietary Recommendations
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What are Carbohydrates?

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 I. CARBOHYDRATES
• are an important source of energy.
• most abundant biomolecules in nature
• provide structural support for cells and
help with communication between cells.
• consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H)
and oxygen (O) atoms.
 2. Types of Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
– monosaccharides
– disaccharides
Complex Carbohydrates
– oligosaccharides
– polysaccharides
• glycogen
• starches
• fibers

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 Simple Carbohydrates
A. Monosaccharides: Single
Sugars
1.Glucose
– carbohydrate form used by the
body, referred to as “blood
sugar”
– basic sub-unit of other larger
carbohydrate molecules
– found in fruits, vegetables,
honey 12
2. Fructose
– sweetest of the sugars
– occurs naturally in fruits & honey,
“fruit sugar”
– combines with glucose to form
sucrose

3. Galactose
– combines with glucose to form
lactose, “milk sugar”

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 B. Disaccharides
1. Sucrose (“table sugar”)
– glucose + fructose

2. Lactose (“milk sugar”)

– glucose + galactose

3. Maltose (“malt sugar”)

– glucose + glucose
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Joining and Cleaving Sugar
Molecules

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 Complex Carbohydrates
1.Oligosaccharides
– short carbohydrate chains of 3 - 10
monosaccharides
– found in legumes and human milk
– Examples: cannot be broken down by human
enzymes, though can be digested
• raffinose
by colonic bacteria
• stachyose

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2. Polysaccharides
• long carbohydrate chains of
monosaccharides linked by glycosidic
bonds
– alpha (α) bonds (starch)
– beta (β) bonds (found in fiber)

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 amylose

3. Starch amylopectin
– plant storage form of
carbohydrate
– long branched or
unbranched chains of
glucose
• amylose
• amylopectin

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4. Glycogen
– highly branched chains of
glucose units
– animal storage form of
carbohydrate
• found in LIVER and MUSCLE
• Humans store ~ 100g in liver;
~ 400g in muscle
– negligible source of
carbohydrate in the diet
(meat)
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5. Fiber
Dietary Fiber
– non-digestible carbohydrates (chains of
monosaccharides) and lignin that are intact and
intrinsic in plants (includes oligosaccharides)
Functional Fiber
– isolated, non-digestible carbohydrates that have
beneficial physiological effects in humans

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Fiber cont.
• dietary fiber found in all types of plant
foods
• refining removes fiber from whole
grains and other foods

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Fiber cont.
• types of non-starch
polysaccharides include:

cellulose
hemicelluloses
pectins
gums & mucilages
β-glucans
chitin & chitosan
lignans
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Sources of Carbohydrates

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3. Digestion & Absorption
1. Mouth
• chewing
• salivary amylase
2. Stomach
• fibers remain in the
stomach longer, delays
gastric emptying

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3. Small Intestine
• pancreas secretes enzyme pancreatic
amylase
• enzymes located on the cell membranes of
the intestinal epithelial cells complete
digestion

maltase
maltose glucose + glucose
sucrase
sucrose glucose + fructose
lactase
lactose glucose + galactose 26
• only monosaccharides can be absorbed
– glucose & galactose absorbed by ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
– fructose absorbed by FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• all three monosaccharides travel in the portal
vein to the liver
• three fates of glucose at the liver
– Energy, storage as glycogen, released to blood

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4. Large Intestine
• resistant starches and fibers may be
digested by bacteria
– produces short chain fatty acids
• absorbed by the intestine and used for energy
(dietary fiber yields about 2 kcal/g)
• other health benefits (more later in semester)

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4. Functions of Carbohydrates
1) Energy
• glucose fuels the work of most of the body’s
cells
– preferred fuel of NERVOUS TISSUE (the brain,
nerves) and RED BLOOD CELLS (RBC)
• excess glucose is stored as GLYCOGEN in
liver and muscle tissue

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2) Sparing Body Protein
• if diet does not provide enough glucose, then
other sources of glucose must be found
• if carbohydrate intake < 50 - 100 g, body
protein will be used to make glucose
• an adequate supply of carbohydrate spares
body proteins from being broken down to
synthesize glucose

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3) Preventing Ketosis (Anti-ketogenic)
• carbohydrates required for the complete
metabolism of fat
• incomplete fat metabolism produces
KETONES
• an adequate supply of carbohydrate (>
50 – 100 g per day) prevents KETOSIS

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 Ketosis
• A metabolic state or process in order to
keep our body working. When it doesn’t
have enough carbohydrates from food
for your cells to burn for energy, it burns
fat instead. As part of this process, it
makes ketones.

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 Fiber
• beneficial for weight control by contributing to
satiety & delay gastric emptying
• soluble fibers lower blood cholesterol to help
reduce risk of cardiovascular disease
• minimizes risk of and helps control Type II
Diabetes
• insoluble fibers help promote intestinal health
by enlarging stool size and easing passage of
stool

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 5. Regulation of Blood
Glucose
Optimal functioning of the body is dependant on
keeping levels of glucose within certain
parameters.
Elevated blood glucose = Hyperglycemia
Low blood glucose = Hypoglycemia
The ENDOCRINE SYSTEM is primarily
responsible for regulating blood glucose. The
two main hormones are INSULIN and
GLUCAGON. 36
Regulation of Blood Glucose

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Regulation of Blood Glucose

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Regulation of Blood Glucose

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Blood Glucose Level

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 Diabetes Mellitus
• a disorder of energy metabolism due to failure
of insulin to regulate blood glucose
• results in hyperglycemia
• acute symptoms include thirst, increased
urine production, hunger
• long term consequences include increased
risk of heart disease, kidney disease,
blindness, neural damage
• two forms: Type I and Type II

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 Diabetes Mellitus
Type I
• Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease,
which means it results from the immune
system mistakenly attacking parts of the
body. In the case of type 1 diabetes, the
immune system incorrectly targets
insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas.

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 Diabetes Mellitus
Type I
• Nobody knows why this occurs, or how to
stop it. The immune systems of people with
type 1 diabetes continue to attack beta cells
until the pancreas is incapable of producing
insulin.
• People with type 1 diabetes need to inject
themselves with insulin to compensate for the
death of their beta cells. Everyone with type 1
diabetes is insulin-dependent.
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 Diabetes Mellitus
Type II
• Type 2 diabetes is different. The autoimmune
systems of people with type 2 diabetes don’t
attack beta cells. Instead, type 2 diabetes is
characterised by the body losing its ability to
respond to insulin. This is known as insulin
resistance.

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 Diabetes Mellitus
Type II
• The body compensates for the ineffectiveness
of its insulin by producing more, but it can’t
always produce enough. Over time, the strain
placed on the beta cells by this level of insulin
production can destroy them, diminishing
insulin production.

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Type 1 vs. Type 2

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 Hypoglycemia
• dramatic drop in blood glucose
• symptoms similar to an anxiety attack: rapid
weak heart beat, sweating, anxiety, hunger,
trembling, weakness
• RARE in healthy people
• may occur as a result of poorly managed
Diabetes or other causes:
– reactive hypoglycemia
– fasting hypoglycemia

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 Artificial Sweeteners
1.Aspartame
• 200x sweeter than sugar, yields 4 kcal per
gram
• made of two amino acids:
PHENALANINE & ASPARTIC ACID
• individuals with PKU (genetic disorder) cannot
convert phenylalanine to tyrosine
effectively, increase’s in blood phenylalanine
concentration can be toxic
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2. Saccharin
• one study found that excess may cause
bladder cancer in rats, but longitudinal human
studies show no support for saccharin
causing bladder cancer
3. Acesulfame K
• cannot be digested by the body thus provides
no energy
• not affected by heat so can be used in
cooking
• 200x sweeter than table sugar

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4. Sucralose
• made from sugar but does not contribute to
energy because it is not digested
• approved by the FDA in U.S. in 1998, used in
Canada since 1992
• sold under trade name Splenda
• 600x times sweeter than table sugar

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6. Dietary Recommendations

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