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WMR0010.1177/0734242X18767038Waste Management & ResearchAwasthi et al.

Mini-review Article

Waste Management & Research

E-waste management in India:

2018, Vol. 36(5) 408­–414
© The Author(s) 2018
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DOI: 10.1177/0734242X18767038
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Abhishek Kumar Awasthi1,2, Mengmeng Wang1,2, Zhishi Wang3,

Mrigendra Kumar Awasthi4 and Jinhui Li1,2

Abstract
Environmental deterioration and health risk due to improper e-waste management has become a serious issue in India. The major
portion of e-waste reaches an unorganized e-waste recycling sector and is then treated by using crude methods. This review article
presents a brief highlight on e-waste management status, legislation, and technology uses in India. The present e-waste management
needs to be more focused on environmentally sound management, by more active support from all the participants involved in the
e-waste flow chain in India.

Keywords
Electronic-waste, environmental pollution, public health, environmentally sound management, India

Received 28th December 2017, accepted 27th February 2018 by Editor-in-chief P. Agamuthu.

Introduction Source of generation and composition

The rapid improvement in technology changes lifestyle which
has consequences in the fast growing e-waste (41.8 million
metric tons (MT) every year) stream worldwide (Li et al., 2015;
Balde et al., 2015; Fowler, 2017) . Currently, India generates
approximately 1, 641 metric kilo tonnes of e-waste annually
(StEP, 2017). According to the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) (2009) report discarded computers will
increase up to five times more and mobile phone will increase
18 times by 2020, and this will add substantially to the e-waste
accumulation in India. In addition, India and other Asian coun-
tries will face rising environmental damage and health prob-
lems (Shinkuma and Managi, 2010; Sthiannopkao and Wong,
2013), if e-waste recycling is left to the vagaries of the informal
sector (Dwivedy and Mittal, 2010a, 2010b, 2012; Streicher-
Porte et al., 2005; StEP, 2010; Wath et al., 2010).
Proper e-waste recycling is very important for the sustainable
development of a developing country, because it is directly con-
nected with environmental problems due to presence of a large
unauthorized sector (Borthakur and Govind, 2017). A variety of
heavy metals including different hazardous substances are pre-
sent in e-waste which causes environmental and health risks, if
these substances are not managed properly (Awasthi et al.,
2016a). Informal recycling causes adverse effects on the labour
engaged in it, which has become a serious issue (Awasthi et al.,
2016b; Fowler, 2017). In this context, the environmental author-
of E-waste
The annual e-waste quantity generated in India is about 1,641
(total in metric kilotons) (StEP, 2017). While according to an ear-
lier report by Rajay Sabha (2011), the highest level of e-waste is
generated in the state of Maharashtra (particularly in Mumbai
city), followed by other states, such as Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. In addition, approximately 70% of
the e-waste is being generated from (of total waste) the govern-
ment, public and private sectors, and only 15% belongs to indi-
vidual households.
E-waste includes variety of electronic and electrical appli-
ances, such as computers and their accessories (monitors, central
processing units, printers, and keyboards), type-writers, mobile
phones and chargers, headphones, remotes, batteries, compact
discs, LCD/Plasma TVs, air conditioners, refrigerators, and fluo-
rescent and other mercury containing lamps (Central Pollution
Control Board, 2016). The maximum e-waste component con-
sists of household appliances (42%), followed by information
1School of Environment, Tsinghua University, China
2Key Laboratory for Solid Waste Management and Environment
Safety (Ministry of Education of China), Tsinghua University, China
3Macau Environmental Research Institute, Macau University of
Science and Technology, China
4Department of Earth Sciences, Barkatullah University, India

ities in India are now paying serious attention on developing a

strategy for stopping the informal sector (Awasthi and Li, 2017). Corresponding author:
Jinhui Li, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Rm. 805, Sino-
Therefore, the aim of this mini-review article is to present the Italian Ecological Energy Efficient Building, Beijing 100084, China.
brief overview on e-waste management in India. Email: jinhui@tsinghua.edu.cn
Awasthi et al. 409
Table 1.  E-waste rules and regulation, recycling rate and technology in India and some other countries.
India
Regulation E-waste (Management)
Rules, 2016
Main recycling approach Mechanical technology
(including manual
dismantling)
Recycling rate ‘438085.62 MTA’ (2016) *
5% (2011) **
Sources: * Central Pollution Control Board (2016); **Rajya Sabha (2011); Zeng et al. (2013); ***Zeng et al. (2017).
and communication technology (34%), consumer electronics
(14%) and others (10%) (Needhidasan et al., 2014). This waste is
composed of Iron and steel (50%), plastics (21%), non-ferrous
metals (13%), and other components (16%). Non-ferrous metals
consist of metals, such as copper, aluminium and precious metals
such as gold, palladium and platinum (Rajya Sabha, 2011;
Widmer et al., 2005).
Environmental deterioration causes
adverse impact on human health
A very small quantity of e-waste reaches to the formal sector,
resulting in the majority of e-waste going to the informal sector,
where it is treated using primitive methods, and the remaining
residues are carelessly disposed of (Awasthi et al., 2016; Chi
et al., 2011; Luo et al., 2011). As a result of this careless disposal,
discarded e-waste gets into air, soil and water bodies (Awasthi
et al., 2016; Grant et al., 2013 ). Furthermore, the informal
e-waste recycling sector have captured ground for extraction of
precious metals such as gold, by avoiding the precautionary
measures, and using improper and unauthorized methodology
(Huo et al., 2007; Wong et al., 2007; Awasthi and Li, 2017).
These workers often suffer with physical injuries caused during
the breaking/dismantling of waste electrical and electronic equip-
ment (WEEE). Use of concentrated acid for recovery of gold
from microprocessors, is a well-known practices in the informal
sector. Dust/air pollution is a key medium for causing contamina-
tion, which results in many public health problems, including eye
problem, respiratory irritation, pneumonitis, psychiatric prob-
lems, etc. (Awasthi et al., 2016; Fujimori and Takigami, 2014;
Labunska et al., 2015; Lepawsky and McNabb, 2010; Leung
et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008a, 2008b; Rao et al., 2017; Sepulveda
et al., 2010; Toxics Link, 2013).
E-waste legislations
The rapid proliferation of e-waste has become problematic in
terms of environmental performance in a high population
density country such as India. For effective management of
European Union US
Waste Electrical and Electronic Resource Conservation and
Equipment (WEEE) Directive Recovery Act (RCRA), 1976
2012/19/EU & Restriction Environmental Protection
of Hazardous Substances Agency (EPA) Cathode Ray
Directive (RoHS) 2011/65/EU Tube Rules
Advance mechanical Advanced mechanical
technology/ technology, pyro-metallurgical
smelter technology smaller scale using
hydrometallurgical technology
33% (2009) *** 40% (2013) ***
e-waste, it is essential to strict implement rules and regula-
tions at ground level. In this context, the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change, India, has enforced
the specific rules and regulation ‘E-waste (Management and
Handling), May 2011’ (Central Pollution Control Board,
2011), which is based on extended producer responsibility
(EPR) (Suja et al., 2014). In addition, after that, the most
recent ‘E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016’ has been enforced
since 1 October 2016 (Central Pollution Control Board, 2016).
Earlier Akenji et al. (2011) advised that the EPR system
needed an advanced infrastructure, and effective enforcement
of regulation. A brief outline of e-waste management in India,
along with other countries such as the European Union, and
US is presented in Table 1.
Similarly, Khetriwal et al. (2009) had previously discussed
that EPR should be applied in a robust manner, in order that it
will be helpful for improving the applicability with advanced
technology as in Switzerland. Therefore, updated legislation,
skilled workers, improved technology, and better financing, in
the formal e-waste sector can be proper solutions for e-waste
management. In the meantime, consumers should be educated
about and encouraged to send their e-waste to formal sector. For
example, in the developed countries where innovative advanced
recycling technology for e-waste has led to more efficient collec-
tion and recycling rates (Table 1).
In India, earlier the ‘E-waste (Management & Handling)
Rules, 2011’, only focuses on EPR without including collection
rate. Subsequently, the adaptation of the policies of other coun-
tries (EU and US) is not key to getting success in solving this
problem, because each nation has different circumstances. The
implementation of latest ‘E-waste (Management) Rule, 2016’ is
a big task in India. For e-waste management, Zeng et al. (2015)
proposed that the integration of mobile recycling plants is an
efficient approach for solving the e-waste problem and will be
added as a significant contribution in global environmental mit-
igation. Therefore, a combination of pre-processing technology
with the environmental and health prospect at local level
together with high standard end processing could be a suitable
approach for an effective solution to the e-waste problem (Wang
410 Waste Management & Research 36(5)
et al., 2012). We have considered the concerns of many authors
who have contributed on the environmental issues facing the
community in India (Borthakur and Govind, 2017; Dwivedy
et al., 2015; Manomaivibool, 2009; Wath et al., 2010).
Therefore, we believe further attention must be given to devel-
oping appropriate measures to mitigate India’s e-waste
problems.
In terms of the negative effect of e-waste to the surrounding
environment as well as human health, a number of nations
urged the requirement for an international effort to resolve this
issue. The strategic initiatives about WEEE management in
India are still is developing and in need of more careful imple-
mentation. The following are environmental laws relative to
WEEE in India: (i) ‘The Hazardous wastes (Management and
Handling) amendment rules, 2003’; (ii) ‘Guidelines for
Environmentally Sound Management of E-waste, 2008’; and
(iii) ‘E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011’. These
three policy initiatives have been rigorously evaluated by
Garlapati (2016). Additionally, in this article, we have evalu-
ated the recently uncovered policy initiative ‘E-waste
(Management) Rules, 2016’ which has been notified and
enforced since 1 October 2016 in India:
(a)  According to Schedule-1, rules include all the compo-
nents, consumables, spares and parts which make the EEE prod-
ucts operational. And the rules are applicable to each manufacturer,
producer, consumer or bulk consumer, every collection centre, all
the dealers/E-retailers/ refurbishers (both dismantler and recy-
cler) involved in different stages for processing of EEEs (manu-
facture, sale, transfer, purchase, collection, and storage) or
e-waste listed in Schedule I.
(b)  The rules also extended the scope of e-waste, by includ-
ing fluorescent and other mercury-containing lamps.
Before, 2010, there was no specific rules and regulations
related to the E-waste issue, and the hazardous substances con-
tained in WEEE are considered under ‘The Hazardous and
Waste Management Rules, 2008’ in India. However, India sub-
sequently has enforced two specific e-waste laws ‘E-waste
(Management & Handling), 2011’ and most recently ‘E-waste
(Management), Rules, 2016,’ but more time is still needed
before the effectiveness of the most recent law can be properly
evaluated. India is developing effective measures to prevent
illegal imports of e-waste, and for environmentally sound man-
agement of e-waste, but these actions need more positive
efforts at the local national, and global levels to be effective.
Sepúlveda et al. (2010), suggested that the better downstream
monitoring of overseas e-waste up to the end point (destina-
tion) and the total stoppage of doubtful or illegal exports will
significantly help to reduce the hazardous waste from e-waste.
Wath et al. (2011), suggested that the policy should maintain a
balance between the environment, public health, and economic
development in India. The points discussed in this article pro-
vide insight for improving the e-waste management system in
India. In addition, the public participation is very important for
improvement of e-waste sustainability.
E-waste recycling
MAIT-GTZ (2007) reported that only a small quantity (5%) of
e-waste reaches formal recyclers, while the remaining (95%) is
processed by the informal sector. Also, due to a rise of metal
prices, e-waste recycling has shifted to become a livelihood
option in unauthorized sector. After e-waste has been collected
from the source point, it is often transferred to a family workshop
for sorting, manual dismantling/informal recycling, and even re-
selling of different reusable materials (Dwivedy and Mittal,
2012; Wath et al., 2010, 2011). The unusable residues material
are then often disposed of in open land which deteriorates the
environment (Luo et al., 2007). The informal sector is a complex
channel, and because of their high penetration ability at the com-
munity level they are providing more convincing services to con-
sumers than the formal sector for collection of e-waste (Awasthi
et al., 2016); for example, the e-waste collected from a consumer
by an informal sector worker (local name as Kabadiwala) is then
handed over to a dealer or bigger trader who further processes it,
such as segregation of different parts (Figure 1). These informal
sector workers extract the reusable materials including metals
from the e-waste by primitive methods, then discard all the
remaining materials in open land (Awasthi et al., 2016b; Wath
et al., 2010). In this context, the life cycle assessment is a key
roadmap for estimation of the flow of e-product in relation to
environmental impact at different levels (Yellishetty et al., 2011).
Currently, 178 formal e-waste recycling/dismantling units are
registered by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in
India. These units have mainly adopted three type of operation
methods: automated; semi-automated; and manual. These units
located in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, West Bengal and Uttarakhand are shown
in Figures 2 and 3 (Central Pollution Control Board, 2016). Out
of the total formal sector, only 27 units have high capacity (more
than >5000 metric tons per annum) of annual e-waste recycling.
Maximum e-waste is recycled (86,130 MT) at Uttar Pradesh state
followed by Rajasthan (68,670 MT), and other states. It is also
reported that the state of Karnataka has a maximum number of 39
smaller-size units followed by 23 units in Maharashtra states,
while there are 9 units in the state of Uttar Pradesh. It was also
found that, out of a total 178 units, 90 recycling units have very
small annual recycling capacity as shown in Figure 4.
Metals recycling from WEEE helps to provide a more sub-
stantial level of energy saving than metal mining from ores. For
instance, Cui and Forssberg (2003), directed that the recycling of
valuable metals (Al:95%, Cu:85%, Fe:74%, Pb:65%, and
Zn:60%) saves the overall energy needed to mine them from pri-
mary resources. Therefore, the recycling of metals from WEEE
has great significance in decreasing the greenhouse emissions
owing to the reduction of consumption of energy resources. For
example, Kumar et al. (2017), suggested that, the recycling of 10
kg Al, minimizes about 0.11 kg of SO2(g) and 20 kg of CO2(g)
emission, along with saving 90% energy and minimizing (13 kg)
Awasthi et al. 411

Figure 1.  Generalized overview of e-waste management in India.

Figure 2.  Formal e-waste dismantler/recycling sector registered by pollution control board in different states in India.
Source: Central Pollution Control Board (2016).

bauxite residues. Therefore, it is reasonable and competent The increase in e-waste collection rate, and appropriate recy-
method, which can show a significant managing role in conserv- cling in terms of an environmentally friendly way and in an
ing energy. energy-efficient manner give support both to the environment
412 Waste Management & Research 36(5)
and the economy. Therefore, in order to solve the scarcity of the
primary metal resources, and minimize environmental impact,
introducing an innovative approach, and industrial strategies for
treating the materials from WEEE in an eco-friendly and energy-
efficient way is necessary. In this context, according to data from
the smelting plant known as Boliden Rönnskär (Skelleftehamn,
Sweden), removing metals from electronic waste involves only
about 10% to 15% of the entire energy needed in metal mining
from natural ores. But, still a capital investment is needed for set-
ting up a combined WEEE recycling unit with better rate of
recovery of metals. Furthermore, the recycling unit should be
properly equipped for treatment of hazardous gases;
Figure 3.  Classification of formal e-waste recyclers/
dismantling sector in India (based on annual recycling
capacity in metric tons per annum (MTA). *Very small: up to
1000 MTA; small: 1000 to 2000 MTA; middle: 2000 to 5000
MTA; large: more than 5000 MTA) (Central Pollution Control
Board, 2016).
Figure 4.  Annual e-waste recycling (in metric tons) in different states of India by formal sector (Central Pollution Control
Board, 2016).
the pyro-metallurgical method is believed to be economically
costly-efficient and eco-efficient, while also excellent for the
recovery of precious metals (Hageluken, 2006a; 2006b). The
biotechnology-based technique can provide opportunity to: (a)
utilize waste (e.g., bio-waste) for metal recovery; and (b) recov-
ery of energy rich resource material. E-waste contains a signifi-
cant amount of energy rich materials, such as e-waste plastic, so
if pollution control was achieved, this waste plastic could be used
for energy production (Hall and Williams, 2006; Bizzo et al.,
2014). In order to achieve efficient energy recovery without
affecting the environment, the pyrolysis (Guo et al., 2014), of
e-waste related plastics could be the best option to: recover syn-
thetic fuel (as secondary energy resource, and could be utilize as
fuel diesel generator); hydrogen production by two-stage pyroly-
sis–gasification (Ebin and Isik 2016); and Liquid Crystal coated
Polaroid Glass Electrode (refuse liquid–crystal display) could be
used for microbial fuel cell-based electricity production.
Conclusion
This article presents the e-waste management situation in India.
The earlier Indian e-waste rules and regulation (‘E-waste
(Management and Handling) Rules, 2011’), has been seen to lack
proper implementation, and this resulted in many improper prac-
tices (involving primitive methods used in the informal sector,
and low level of annual capacity in the formal sector recycler)
still existing in India. Therefore, the latest e-waste rules and regu-
lations (‘E-waste (Management), Rules, 2016’) need to be better
implemented. And environmentally sound technology with high
annual recycling capacity is needed for proper management of
e-waste in India.
Awasthi et al. 413
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the Editor and anonymous reviewers for their valu-
able comments and suggestions. We are also thankful to Dr. Xianlai
Zeng, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing China,
for valuable suggestions.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The work
was supported by the ‘National Key Technologies R&D Program’
(grant number 2014BAC03B04) China, and ‘Key Laboratory for
Solid Waste Management and Environment Safety (Tsinghua
University), Ministry of Education of China’ (grant number SWMES
2017-12).
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