Assault on the Ecole: Student Campaigns against the Beaux Arts, 1925-1950

Author(s): William Littmann

Source: Journal of Architectural Education (1984-), Vol. 53, No. 3, Beyond Expert Culture
(Feb., 2000), pp. 159-166
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Association of Collegiate Schools of
Architecture, Inc.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1425634 .
Accessed: 22/06/2014 15:21

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Taylor & Francis, Ltd. and Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, Inc. are collaborating with
JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Architectural Education (1984-).

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 185.44.77.40 on Sun, 22 Jun 2014 15:21:33 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Assaulton theEcole:
StudentCampaigns
AgainsttheBeauxArts,1925-1950

WILLIAM
LITTMANN,
Universityof California,Berkeley

duringtheeconomicupheaval
Students played a significant part in the growing of the 1930s phasison monumentalbuildingtypesfor
influence of modernism at American design led themto challengethetraditional beaux eliteclients.Berkeleystudentsvoicedtheir
schools between the First and Second World
artsmethodof architectural
Wars. At several universities, students led a spir- education.A objectionsnot only in studio,but in fre-
closeexamination of thedesignprogram at quentmeetlngsWlt. 1 top unlverslty ac.mln-
. . . . .

ited campaign to replace beaux arts teaching

methods wiffia curriculumbased on modernist the Universityof California,Berkeley,re- istrators,alumni,and leadingmodernist
principles. This essay focuses on the Universityof
vealsthatstudentdemandsto modifythe arc.lltectsln t.lelrreglon.
. . . .

California,Berkeley, where activist students ad-

curriculum
vanced their cause by meeting with top university compelledadministrators to re-
administratorsand by publishinga magazine vamptheprogram andsignaledto theuni-
critical of their program. The students' desire for
modernism was fueled not only by aesthetic versitythattherewasa receptive climatefor Establishment of the Beaux Arts
modernism
trends in the design profession, but from their in- withintheschool.2 at Berkeley
volvement in leftist political and social move- Butit wasmorethanjustthe formal
ments that swept campuses in the 1930s. For
many students, modernism offered a set of toolsqualitiesof the modernmovementthatso Thecurriculum of thearchitecture program
for improvingffie lives of Arnericansduring theattracted architecture undergraduates (Fig- at the Universityof Californiain the early
Great Depression. The student activity at Berke-
ure1). Studentswereenticedby thepoliti- decadesof the twentiethcenturycloselyre-
ley ultimately led to a gradual shift away from
cal content of modernism,especiallyits sembledthatof manyof the nation'sfirst
beaux arts methods at the school and it hastened
a search for a modernist architect to take overemphasison publichousingfor working- collegiate designschools.Whenthe admin-
the design program. classand impoverished Americans.They istration decidedto offerarchitecture courses
sawin the movementa hopethatthey,as atBerkeley, theynaturally lookedfora direc-
architects,couldplaya significantrolein torwithexperience in themethodsandtheo-
ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION AT AMERICAN rebuilding the nation after the Great De- ries of the French Ecole desBeaux-Arts. The
universities entereda particularly conten- pression. A number of architecture students systematic approach to design and itsvenera-
tiousanddynamicperiodbetweentheFirst wereradicalized throughtheirinvolvement tion of the classicaltraditionappealedto
andSecondWorldWars.Universities such in a series of free-speech andpacifismpro- manyAmericans whohopedto improvethe
as Columbiaand Harvardbeganto aban- tests that swept college campusesbetween professional standards of the nation'sarchi-
don the educationalmethodsassociated thewars.Thisexperience emboldened some tects and builders. The beauxartsmethod
withthe EcoledesBeaux-Arts in Parisand students to challenge the hierarchical teach- seemed especially attractive to BayAreaelites,
revamped theircurricula to reflecttheaims ing methods of the beaux arts and its em- as it offered a way to improve whattheysaw
of the modernmovement.lMostscholarly as the unsophisticated cultural standards of
descriptions of this eracreditthis shiftto the region. The administrators selected John
the determined actionsof a handfulof ar- GalenHowardto establishthe newdesign
chitects.In thesenarratives, notedmodern- program in 1903. In the decadebefore,
istslikeWalterGropiusandJosephHudnut Howard had workedforthefirmof McKim,
areportrayed asheroicactorsalmostsingle- Mead and White andhadspenttwoyearsat
handedlycastingout the old-fashioned the Ecole. At the turn of the centuryhe
Frenchapproach fromtheuniversities. moved to the Bay Area fromNewYorkinor-
This essaydoesnot disputethe im- der to supervise the creation of a comprehen-
portantroleof professional architectsand sive master plan for the Berkeley campus.3
educatorsin establishing modernistpeda- The Berkeley program under Howard
gogyatmanyof thenation'sdesignschools. reproduced the Ecole's emphasis on drafts-
Yetit doesattemptto reinsert thesignificant manship and the artistic representation of
roleof architecture studentsin thistransfor- buildings. Throughout the first half of the
mation,showinghow theircomingof age century,thefacultyexpectedstudentsto be
1. Students inside the architecture buildingat the Universityof well-versed in the historyof architecture-
Education,pp.159-166
JournalofArchitectural
California,Berkeley, in 1928. (Photo courtesy of the College of
EnvironmentalDesign Documents Collection, Universityof
notably that of Greek,Roman,andRenais-
(C)2000 ACSA, Inc. California,Berkeley.) sance culture-and use thisvocabulary of

1 59 Littmann

This content downloaded from 185.44.77.40 on Sun, 22 Jun 2014 15:21:33 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
formsin theirown efforts.Howardestab-
lisheda point systemof advancement for
seniorsandgraduate students,furtherrepli-
catingthemethodsof theEcole.In thissys-
tem, students graduated when they
accumulateda certainnumberof points
earnedthroughclasscompetitions. Thefac- 2.1920.
Members of the Tau Sigma Delta architectural fraternity in
On the front row, from left, are architecture school
ultyurgedstudentsto travelto Europeto faculty members WarrenPerry, John Galen Howard, and William
seethe monumentsof the Renaissance and Hays. The men standing at the back are unidentified architecture
students. (Photo courtesy of the College of Environmental
antiquity.Theyplacedfarlessemphasison Design Documents Collection, Universityof California,Berkeley.)
the importance of BayAreaarchitects, de-
spitethepresence ofworksbyJuliaMorgan, ologybecameoneof themostobjectionable
Bernard Maybeck,andWillisPolk.4 facetsof the programfor studentsduring
Howardretiredastheheadof thear- the GreatDepression.Both Howardand
chitectureschoolin 1927followinga series Perrymadesurestudentsgainedexposure to
of disputeswith the administration. The theculturalpreferences andactivitiesof the
universityreplacedhim with his protege, elite clientelethey mightserveas profes-
WarrenPerry,who remaineddeanat the sionalarchitects. Theyexpectedstudentsto
schoolfor nearlya quartercentury(Figure developforeignlanguage skillsandbecome
2). He wasone of the firststudentsin the familiar withgreatworksof art,music,and
3. Berkeley architecture students John Ignatius McVey and
Berkeleyarchitectureprogram; Howardhad literature. The facultyendeavored tO repli-
CarrollClark, about 1917. (Photo courtesy of the College of
takenit uponhimselfto remoldtheyoung catethe socialdynamicandlifestyleof the EnvironmentalDesign Documents Collection, Universityof
maninto a discipleof the Frenchmethod. ParisianEcoleaswell (Figure3). Educated California,Berkeley.)
When Perryfinishedhis undergraduate to admireallthingsFrench,studentsin the
workat Berkeleyin 1907, Howardcon- firstdecadesof theprogram frequently used by his mentorin romanticterms:"The
vincedhim to attendthe Ecoleby offering Frenchexpressions whilein the studioand glamourof the QuartierLatin and of
to payhis expensesin Paris.Upon Perry's tookto wearinglongsmocksimported from L'Ecolehungoverus.We . . . spokeglibly
returnin 1911, Howardhiredhimto teach Paris.The Berkeleyfacultypromotedthis of iesquisse, charettes, andrendus.' Guadet's
at thearchitectureschool.Perryrepaidthis Francophilia by frequently assigning Elementset Theoriede l'Architecture was
debtthroughan undyingcommitmentto projectsalongParisian boulevards.6 ourBiblewhichweabsorbed fromtheorigi-
thebeauxartspedagogical methodsHoward The influenceof the Ecoleled to the nalwithquantities of deliciousteabeforethe
establishedat Berkeley.Perrycontinued development of strongpatriarchal relations smoldering logsof thegreatfireplace in the
Howard's emphasis on thedesignof fanciful betweenstudentsand faculty.Perryex- Howard'shouseon the hill. I mustsaywe
buildingtypes,and,aswithmanyEcole-de- pectedstudentsto be closefriendswithfac- mighthavemadea worsechoiceof a gospel
rivedprograms, studioassignments tended ultymembers, yetbeunquestioning of their andof a prophet."7
towardroyalpalaces, lakesideestates,tombs, criticismof projectsin thestudio.Students
andotherbuildingtypesremovedfromthe oftensocialized withfacultyatparties heldat
everyday experience of students.Thestruc- thearchitecture schoolorattheirresidences Roots of Student Rebellion
tureandcostof construction of the design in Berkeley.For Perry,this fraternization
mattered lessthanitsceremonial appearancewasat the heartof the Ecolemethodas it Whilethe schoolremainedweddedto the
andhowtheplanfacilitated differentfunc- createda camaraderie that mirroredthe methodsof the Ecole,Berkeley studentsin
tions.Eveninto the late 1940s, Perryad- Frenchateliersystem.Perryaffectionately thelate1920sandearly1930sbeganto take
heredto thebasicapproach of theEcole.5 remembered partiesat Howard's houseand an interestin examples of modernarchitec-
The reverence forelitecultureat the wantedto re-createthatexperience forhis tureappearing in California andin national
EcolewasimitatedatBerkeley, andthiside- students.Perrydescribed thepartieshosted designmagazines. Theyadmired theworkof

2000 JAE53/3
February 1 60

This content downloaded from 185.44.77.40 on Sun, 22 Jun 2014 15:21:33 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
BayAreaarchitect TimothyPflueger, nota- of modernism atAmerican schoolsof archi- later,thefederalgovernment movedtheof-
blyhis 1925designof thePacificTelephone tecturehadtwodistinctstages:one formal, fice to San Francisco.SeveralBerkeley
buildingin SanFrancisco. Pflueger's
design, orconcentrating on theaesthetic elements of graduatesworkedin the office, and its
whichresemblesEliel Saarinen'ssecond- the movementand a secondphasebased projectswerewell-known to manystudents
prizeentryin the ChicagoTribuneTower upon the modernmovement'spolitical at theuniversity. TheFSAprojectsin Cali-
competition, wasa beaconof modernism to agenda.At manyuniversities, thevisualas- forniaandArizonaoftenadoptedhousing
students acrossthebayin Berkeley.Frequent pectsof modernismpromotedby various formsanddesignstrategies fromEuropean
roadtripsallowedstudentsto seeexamples worldexpositionsand, by the late 1930s, modernists,includingthe employmentof
of modernism in the BayAreaby architects Americandesignmagazines,wereconsid- zeilenbau siteplanning thearrangement of
WilliamWurster andGardner Dailey,or,in eredby manyarchitects asyet anotherkit- buildingsin strictparallelrowsto provide
LosAngeles, wheretheysawbuildings byRi- of-partsto be appropriated in the design optimumsunlight.l2
chardNeutraandBertramGoodhue.Stu- process.The adoptionof modernismby Knowledge of modernist housingex-
dentswouldreturnfromthesejourneys and manyarchitects alloweddesigners to suggest perimentsat homeandabroadcompelled
describethevirtuesof the newarchitectureto clientsthattheirworkwasup-to-date and studentsto go beyondjustaddingmodern-
to otherundergraduates. Thestripped-downnovel.Inthismilieu,Perryandothereduca- istictouchesto designprojects. Theybegan
aesthetic of thesemodernbuildings notonly torsacceptedmodernism for theybelieved to activelycampaign forstudioassignments
seemedappropriate fortheageof masspro- thatthestyle's"look"couldbe easilyincor- andacademic classesthatofferedtrainingin
ductionand the automobile,theyalsore- poratedintothebeauxartsapproach.l° engineeringand publichousing.Robert
vealedthatAmerican architects
werecapable Butstudentsbeganto advocatefora Ratcliff,chairmanof the studentarchitec-
of creativeandpioneering work.8 moreleftistversionof modernism not long turalassociation, recalled
hisangeroverthe
Studentsquicklybeganincorporatingafterthe GreatDepression.Not only did contentof studioprojectsin thisway:
theformalelementsof moderndesigninto theyexperience the effectof the economic
theirownprojects. TheEcole'semphasis on collapsein northern California,theyalsosaw The principalthingthatI wascon-
lavishornamentationwas replacedcrisp firsthand someof thenation'smostinnova- cernedaboutwasthat the architec-
lines,definedplanes,andsmoothsurfaces. tlveexperlments
. .

ln creatlnglow-costhous-
. .

turalschoolwaslaggingbehindthe
Onestudentsummedupthefeelingamong ing.AstheFirstWorldWarwasthecatalyst restof the worldin recognizing that
undergraduates in the 1920s:"I thinkwe forEuropean modernist experiments, urban therehadbeensomebasicchangesin
gotpersuaded thatdoinganelaborate palace decayin the BayAreaand the arrivalof theoutlookof peopletowardmodern
fora foreignministeron a lakein theSwiss thousands of dispossessed dustbowlrefugees architecture,whatthenextgeneration
Alpsor somethingwasnot [right].We be- to California leftmanystudents disillusioned hadto offer.Thecurriculum wastied
ganto beawarethattherewereproblemsin with the Ecoleapproachas it offeredno to the beauxartssystem.Practically
the world. Somehowwe found out that methodto respondto theneedsof indigent the entirefacultyhadstudiedunder
therewasa FrankLloydWright,andwesaw Americans. Studentsaswellsufferedgreatly the old beauxartssystem,and they
the magazines.Somethingseemedwrong duringthe depression; manyfoundthem- werenotfocusedon modernarchitec-
abouthavingfunctionalthingslikeshutters selveslivingwithoutparentalsupportand tureat all.
nailedto eachsideof thewindowsof little livedin a stateof near-poverty.ll I can remember beingveryfrus-
houses.Whydidyou haveto havethemat By the 1930s the BayAreahad be- tratedbecause on theoutsideweheard
all if you weren'tgoing to use them>"9 comea nationallyrecognized centerforex- and readaboutGropiusand Breuer
Thoughmanyfacultymembers,including periments in thedesignof low-costhousing. and Corbusierand Frank Lloyd
Perry,feltmodernistarchitecture hadlittle In 1935thefederalRuralResettlementAd- Wright.And all these peoplewere
lastingmerit,bythe 1930stheynevertheless ministration(RRA)establisheda western talkingaboutcontemporar,v architec-
awardedseveralprizesto outstandingstu- regionalofficein Berkeleyto buildneeded ture.Whereason the insidethe guys
dentdesignsin themodernidiom. housingin agricultural areasof California. we were studyingwith were not.
Thefaculty's approval
of thesedesigns Whenthe RRAwasmergedinto the Farm Whenwe wereseniorsWarrenPerr,v
clearlyillustrates
thefactthattheacceptance SecurityAdministration (FSA)two years gaveus a project:"Designa palacein

1 61 Littmann

This content downloaded from 185.44.77.40 on Sun, 22 Jun 2014 15:21:33 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 | t t s S .... X 1 '-. 7 f bt '. l' . . b . i, ' ......... t 6. 2 :.e ...

t . -- .
* ... :: . ... . .. . }: .

S we we la L

%%. es t:
:. . .e ';;
%

.. ..... ... .. ...... ....

themannerof Peruzzi." Peruzzi wasa middle-classand immigrantfamiliesin

contemporaryof Michelangelo! This school,it keptfinanciallytroublededuca-
wasat thesametimethattheBauhaus tionalinstitutionsafloatin the 1930s.The
wasgoingon, MiesvanderRohe.All growingheterogeneity of the studentbody
thesepeopleweredoingthingsinwhat led manystudentsto becomemorecon-
I thoughtwasa veryexcitingarea.We sciousof classdistinctions in American soci-
weren'texposedto thisat all.l3 ety and moresympathetic to off-campus
politicalandsocialmovements.'6
ManystudentslearnedaboutEuro- At the sametime,studentsbeganto
peanhousingeffortsfromtheirvisitsto ar- be disillusioned withthe influenceof large
chitects practicing in the Bay Area. administrative andpoliticalinstitutionsin
Wurster'soffice, which frequentlyhired American society.The carnageof the First
graduates of theBerkeley program, 4. Studentprotestat the Berkeleycampusin 1934. The
became photographshowsprotestleadersbeingpeltedby eggs and WorldWarledmanystudentsto reconsider
a refugefor dissatisfiedstudents.Wurster tomatoesby hostilemembersof the crowd.(Photofromthe theirpatriotic supportof theAmerican mili-
hadgraduated fromthe Berkeleyprogram DailyCalifornian.) tary.Manyconsidered the university an ac-
withhonorsin 1919andhadtakenclasses complicein U.S. war efforts, providing
taughtby Howardand Perry.Thesestu- censorship of studentpublications andits trainingforofficersandscientificsupport.
dentsaskedWursterto articulate theircon- controloverpoliticalralliesheldon campus Studentssimilarlybecamedisaffected with
cerns about the school to Perry. But grounds.Socialiststudentgroupscollected establishedsocialbehavior as well. Many
Wursterrefusedto intervene,sayinghe food for migrant farm workers in studentsadopteda cultureof rebellionthat
wouldonlydo so if Perrypersonally asked California's Central Valleyregionandraised manifested itselfin "radical" modesof dress,
for his help in updatingthe curriculum. fundsforstrikinglongshoremen. Theyor- sexualexperimentation, and renunciation of
Studentsalsoremember beinginfluenced at ganizedstudentfreespeech"strikes" that organizedreligion.Students also began to
the time by the renownedplannerand haltedclassesthroughoutthe university. envisionthemselves as a distinct generation
housing expert Catherine Bauer, who Berkeleystudentshada chanceto hearat witha set of beliefsandculturaltraitsthat
taughtattheBerkeley SocialWelfareschool this time such leftist leadersas Norman set themat a distancefromtheirparents'
in 1939. Bauer,who marriedWursterin Thomasand longshoremenunion chief generation.Forthe firsttimein collegiate
1940,playeda keyrolein shapinghousing HarryBridges. Architecture studentRatcliff life, studentsbelievedthey couldcontest
policyin theUnitedStates.l4 andmanyof the morevocalstudentcritics authority anddidso witha confidencethat
While the students'dissatisfaction of thearchitecture department playeda part seemedimpertinent to members of thepre-
mighthavebeenrootedin trendswithinthe in this movementby attendingmeetings viousgeneration.'7
profession, theydrewstrengthfroma series Wlt1 soclalStorganlzatlons
.

anc partlclpat- The movement's

.
callforstudentsto
. . . . .

of leftistproteststhatsweptthe Berkeley ingin campusdemonstrations.'5 havegreater autonomy and moresayin the

campusbetweenWorldWarI andII (Fig- Therisein thenumberof middle-classoperationof the university contrasted
ure4). Foreshadowing thewell-known stu- studentsattendingAmericancollegesbe- sharply withthe deeply entrenched authori-
dent movementof the sixties, students tweenthewarsplayeda roleingrowing cam- tarianmethods of the Ecole educational sys-
throughoutthe nationin the thirtiessimi- pus activism.Manymiddle-classfamilies tem. Arguments became more and more
larlycampaigned for civilrightsandpaci- cameto seecollegeenrollment asa necessity commonin thearchitecture department by
fism. Regulardemonstrationsheld just foradvancement in an increasingly techno- the late 1930s, and the family-like atmo-
outsidetheBerkeley campusdrewcrowdsof craticandbureaucratic society.Duringthe sphereof theschoolslowlydissolved.Feel-
threeto fourthousandstudents.Thesepro- depression, theRoosevelt administration be- ing pressurefromstudentsand younger
testscalledfor betterstudenthousingand gan to offergrantsto collegesto sponsor members of thefaculty,Perryfoundhimself
anendto compulsory attendancein Reserve work-study programs fordisadvantaged stu- portrayed as an old-fashioned defenderof
OfficerTrainingCorps(ROTC)programs. dents.Thisprogramnot onlyhelpedkeep the Ecole faith. In a letter to a younger
Studentsralliedagainsttheadministration'shundredsof thousandsof studentsfrom member of the faculty,Perry wrote: "Oflate

2000 JAE53/3
February 1 62

This content downloaded from 185.44.77.40 on Sun, 22 Jun 2014 15:21:33 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
I havebeenfirstamusedand then rather cludingthoseto designlow-costhousingin mostinnovative to Berkeley designstudents
annoyedto find myselfclassedas a 'reac- blighted areasofOakland andBerkeley.2l The hadsimilarlybeeninfluencedby pressure
tionary.'''l8Despitethispressure, Perryap- useof a smallmagazine to airdemands was fromthenationalstudentrightsmovement.
proved only minor changes to the likelya tacticborrowed fromthefreespeech At Columbia,forexample,designstudents
department,for he believedthat a total movement as TheNewDesignwasoneofdoz- tookoverthearchitecture buildingaspartof
overhaulof the curriculum wouldleadto ensof leftistjournals to appear on campusin a campus-wide demonstration against censor-
chaosandfurtherdissentionby facultyand the1920sand1930s.Thisjournal wasdistrib- shipof thestudentpaper.Duringa strikeon
students.Perrybelievedthat Hudnut's utedwidelyon andoff campus,whichdis- April6, 1932,inwhichmorethanonethou-
transformation of thearchitecture program tressed seniormembers of thefacultybecause sandstudents refused to goto class,thearchi-
at Harvard University haddonegreatharm it disclosed to theoutsidearchitectural com- tecturestudentsbarricaded AveryHalland
to the traditionsof the school.Dissatisfied munitythediscordattheschool.22 hunga bannerreading,"NO GAGGING
withthe paceof change,Berkeley students Perrywas not the only department FREESPEECH," fromthe topfloorof the
soon tooktheircomplaintsaboutthe cur- headfendingoff hostilearchitecture stu- building.It islikelythatthisincreasing activ-
riculumoutsidethe department to univer- dents.Demandsandpetitionssupporting ismalloweduniversity administrators to be-
sityadministrators andalumni.l9 modernism circulated atseveral eliteuniver- lievethatstudents wouldwelcomeHudnut's
Berkeleydesignstudentsmet regu- sitiesduringthisperiod.23 Manyestablished innovative approach andembrace thechanges
larlyin thelate1930sandearly1940swith educators andarchitects feltuncomfortableheplannedforthedesigncurriculum.26
University President RobertSproulandhis withstudentunrestandwereanxiousto re- Studentsin the architecture program
staffin attemptto ridtheschoolof itsbeaux asserttheirauthorityovertheyouthmove- at the Universityof Pennsylvania alsore-
artsapproach.ThoughSproulat firstre- ment. For example,in an article,"The memberthat their politicizationin the
fusedto mandatechangesin the architec- SchoolsandtheNewArchitecture," thedi- 1930scompelledthemto turnagainstthe
ture department,he began to monitor rectorof the New EnglandDivisionof the beauxarts systemof education.Joseph
closelydevelopments in the program.Stu- AmericanInstituteof Architectswrote, Esherick saidthathis experience protesting
dentsalsobroughttheircomplaints to local "Theyouthof theprofession arenowmov- againstfascismwith otherdesignstudents
architectWalterSteilberg,a prominent ing towarda new frontierundera banner forcedhimto seetheroleof architecture as
memberof theschool'salumniassociation. emblazoned with the word'Progress,' but "aninstrument of socialchange,something
Steilberg agreedwiththestudents'concerns unfortunately thatyouthincludesgreenand dangerous, andlessan institutionto please
about the conservativeapproachof the inexperiencedrecruits.Only underad- the wealthy."27 Like Berkeleystudents,
school,andhe soonwroteto Sproulto push equateandexperienced leadership canthe Esherick wasespeciallyinfluencedby local
Perryto hirea staffmoreaccepting of mod- regionof'progress' be reached."24 interwarexamples of modernism, fromthe
ernistidealsandpedagogy.2° HostilitygrewatBerkeley asstudents Philadelphia SavingFundSocietyBuilding
One of the mostdisturbing develop- noticedthatotherarchitecture schoolswere by GeorgeHowe andWilliamLescazeto
mentsto Perryanduniversit,v administratorsbeginningto turnawayfromthe methods OskarStonorov'sCarlMackleyHousesof
wastheappearance ofa small,unprofessional-of thebeauxarts.Thechangesimplemented 1933-34,a housingprojectfundedbya lo-
lookingpublication titledTheNew Design. in the 1930sat ColumbiaandHarvardby cal hosieryworkersunionwith assistance
Founded byarchitecture studentsin 1937and Hudnutwereespecially disturbing, as they from the PublicWorksAdministration.
appearing episodicallyfortwoyears,thejour- weredescribed in detailin thearchitecturalEsherick,who enteredthe architecture
nalkeptstudentsabreast of modernist devel- press.In addition,severalBerkeley students schoolin 1932, oncewrotethathis back-
opments.Issuescontained articles
andletters madesummersojournsto Bauhaus-influ- groundin leftistpoliticslefthimfeelingthat
fromnotedsupporters of NewDealhousing encedprograms, likeLudwigMiesvander the typeof assignments associated withthe
experiments,includinga 1939 note from Rohe'sIllinoisInstituteof Technologyand Ecolewereirrelevant, noting,"Itwasdiffi-
LewisMumford supporting thestudents' de- LaszloMoholy-Nagy'sSchoolof Design cultto understand thenhowanyonecould,
mandfora breakwiththebeauxartssystem. andthen reportedon theirexperiences in in 1937,becomedeeplyconcerned abouta
Editorialsin TheNewDesignfrequently called TheNew Desz<gn.25 buildingto enshrine thechaliceofAntioch."
forgreater realismin studioassignments, in- Manyof the programsthat seemed As studenthostilityto traditional methods

1 63 Littmann

This content downloaded from 185.44.77.40 on Sun, 22 Jun 2014 15:21:33 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 educationgrewin the next
of architectural theBerkeley architecture schoolafter1940. DeutschwroteSproulin supportof thear-
decade,theUniversity stood
of Pennsylvania Bynow,juniorfacultymembers underPerry chitect,"IhaveagainlearnedthatWurster
fastin its commitment to beauxartsvalues. begantO complaintO the universitypresi- wouldbe eagerto teachin theUniversity if
Afterthe SecondWorldWar,thisdissatis- dentthattheprogram hadgrownstagnant. opportunity affordeditself.... [He] does
factionturnedinto openstudentunrestas Perhapsmore problematic,concerned strikemeasa manof originality andimagi-
studentsrefusedto participatein design alumniand donorsexpresseddisappoint- nationandI fearthatin thecaseof a num-
competitions. betweenStU-
Therelationship mentthattheschoolwasno longera leader ber of membersof that [architecture]
dentsandfacultygrewso strainedthatthe education.Sproul'sfirstre- department
in architectural thesequalities arelacking." De-
sponsewasto leavePerryin charge, butforce spltet 1e unlverslty s lnterest,t ze acmlnls-
.

Onlyin
. . ,

schoolnearlylostits accreditation.
the early1950sdid the schoolbreakaway himto makesubstantial changesto thepro- trationnevermadeWurstera formaloffer
froma beauxartscurriculum.28 gram.In 1940, Sproulsaidhe wouldap- andthearchitect insteadwenton to become
provefundsfor a tenuredpositionfor the the deanof architecture at the Massachu-
modernistarchitectSerge Chermayeff. settsInstituteof Technology.3l
The End of the Beaux ThoughPerrysaidthearchitect's identifica- It is ironicthatthefinalblowagainst
Arts Approach at Berkeley tionwiththemodernmovement wouldbe- thebeauxartscurriculum at Berkeley came
comesomething of a symbolto thestudent not frompacifiststudents,butfromveter-
Changesin overallundergraduate education generation,he rejectedChermayeff as too ansreturning fromWorldWarII. Thepe-
in Americaalso likely fueledUniversity radical.The nextyear,Perrybeganto take riodduringthewarwaslargelya respitefor
PresidentSproul'sdispleasurewith the stepsto hireErichMendelsohn, alsoa well- Perryas enrollment droppedto fewerthan
management of the Berkeleyarchitecture knownmodernist.Mendelsohn gavethree 50 students.Butwiththewar'scompletion,
department. In theinterwar period,leading lecturesattheschoolin 1941andwenton to veteransandhighschoolstudentsflooded
universitiesbeganto shiftthecurriculum so becomea facultymemberin 1947.By the the school.Enrollmentpeakedat around
thatit offereda morepractical educationto beginningof WorldWarII, Sproulhad 600, andin 1944 and 1945, Berkeleybe-
students.Insteadof merelyturningout pushedPerryto addelectives on modernde- cameone of the largestarchitecture pro-
"gentlemen" graduates wellversedin Greek signandcommunity housing.30 gramsin thenation.Theveterans refusedto
andLatin,the universitytriedto provide Meanwhile, thepresident's officebe- adjustto the deeplyhierarchical natureof
studentswithmorepragmatic coursesthat ganto considerhiringWursterto takeover thebeauxartssystem.Manyof theveterans
wouldaid themin theirlaterprofessional thedepartment. SproulmetWursterin the had servedas officersoverseasand were
life.Theimpactof thedepression ledmany late 1930swhenhe askedthe architectto morewillingto challenge direction fromthe
collegepresidentsto advocatefor greater design a new campus dormitory. They re- faculty. As older students, they demanded
instructionin the socialsciences,hoping mainedin contactandexchanged ideascon- to be taughtskillstheycouldput to usein
suchan emphasiswouldofferstudentsin- cerning designand architecturaleducation. officepractice.Disgruntled veteransinter-
sightinto the natureof societyandhelpin Wurster suggestedto Sproulin 1943that he rupted classes, while others lodged yetmore
the development of a systematicapproach mightbea candidate forthedeanship of the complaints with Sproul or the Veteran's Af-
to rebuildtheeconomy.Duringthethirties, architecture school.He outlinedhisplanof fairs Office. One student from that period
Sproulcameto seethebeauxartstraining of mergingtogetherdepartments of architec- remembered: "Wewereon thewholedissat-
the architecture department as one of the ture,cityplanning,andlandscape architec- isfied.... We'd beenthroughthewarand
university'slast vestiges of its classical tureinto a singlecollege.Sprouland other served overseas. We didn'twant to look
legacy.Knowledgeable aboutchangesatde- administrators wereenthusiastic about hir- back on anything.... We had changed
signprograms atHarvard andotherschools, ing Wurster forthey believedthat he could from boys to men. We were lesslikelyto put
Sproulwasdeeplyimpressed withthemod- bringnew life to the department. They up with the bullshit of the Beaux-Arts."-3'
ern movement'sgoal of givingarchitects nearlymadehim an offerin 1944, even No longerwillingto withstandfur-
trainingin suchfieldsassociology,political thoughit meantthat they would have to ther criticism fromstudentsor the admin-
science,andthenatureof materials.29 find some wayto force Perryto step down. istration, Perry announced hisretirement in
Sproulreceived littlegoodnewsabout Vice President and Provost Monroe 1948. In his resignation letter,Perry wrote

2000 JAE53/3
February 1 64

This content downloaded from 185.44.77.40 on Sun, 22 Jun 2014 15:21:33 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
thathisdeparture wouldallowtheschoolto descriptions of theeffortsof brilliant design- Journalism, 1993); Joan Draper, "The Ecole des
selecta "younger man"as a newdeanwho ersandtheirmasterworks.36 Uptonargues Beaux-Arts and the ArchitecturalProfession in the
United States:The Case of John Galen Howard,"in
would"keeppace"witharchitectural educa- insteadforanarchitectural historythatgoes SpiroKostof,ed., TheArchitect:Chaptersin theHistory
tion in the UnitedStates.33 It appearsthat beyondthe designer's intentionandexam- of theProfession(New York:Oxford UniversityPress,
Perrywasstungmostof allby the revoltof inesthe roleof buildingusers in creatinga 1977), pp. 209-234; Gwendolyn Wright, "History
thestudents.Theatmosphere of camarade- structure anddefiningitssymbolicmeaning for Architects,"in Wright and Janet Parks,eds., The
rie betweenstudentsand facultythat he afterits completion. Hisfocuson therecip- History of Historyin AmericanSchoolsof Architecture,
1865-1975 (New York:PrincetonArchitecturalPress;
treasuredfromhis daysat the Ecoleand rocalrelationship betweencreators andcon- Temple Hoyne Buell Center for the Study of Ameri-
underJohn Galen Howardhad slowly sumersshouldbe a modelfor lookingat can Architecture,1990), pp. 23-26.
turnedsouroverthe lasttwo decades.In a architectural education aswell.Thestudents' 4. Vernon DeMars, A Life in Architecture:
letterto Sproulin 1949,Perrycomplained fightformodernism atBerkeley suggests the Indian Dancin$ MigrantHousing, Telesis,Designfor
aboutthe growingarroganceamongstu- importance of lookingat the actionsof the Ur6anLivin$ Theater,Teaching(Berkeley,CA: Uni-
versity of California Regional Oral History Office,
dents:"Finally,I am afraidthat I do not consumers of architectural training.Onlyby Bancroft Library,Berkeley, CA, 1992), pp. 51-65;
needto informyou thereis an attitudeon seriously considering theneedsanddemands Joan Draper, "JohnGalen Howard,"JAE 33 (Nov.
the part of the studentbody these days of thethousands of studentsenrolledin de- 1979): 30-35.
whichis unlikeanythingI haveeverknown signschoolscanwefullyunderstand therea- 5. WarrenPerrydescribeshis careerand life
in mylongconnectionwiththe university. sonsforchanges at the architectureschool in Julia Morgan,Architec-
in architectural pedagogy in
tural History(Berkeley,CA: Universityof California
Possiblyit derivesfromthelargeenrollment the firsthalfof thiscentury.The develop- RegionalOral History Office, BancroftLibrary,Ber-
orfromthesourcefromwhichmanyof our mentsin the Berkeleydesignschoolreveal keley, CA, 1976), pp. 187b-225. Also on Perry'slife,
newstudentscome.It takesthe formeven howstudentsweremorethanpassiverecipi- see Roy Starbird,telephoneconversationwith author,
in advancedclasses,of belligerent or petty entsof newmethodsof instruction andwere 4 Aug. 1995; DeMars,Lifein Architecture,pp.51-63.
troublemaking,loud talking,generallack insteadvitalandlegitimateagentsin their 6. Descriptionsof life at the architecturede-
partmentin this periodcan be found in DeMars,Life
of manners andoftencrystallizesin out-spo- own proresslonal tralnlng.
r * 1 * -

in Architecture,pp. 48-59; as well as DeMars, inter-

kencriticismof conductof a course."34 view with author, Oakland, CA, 28 Mar. 1993; and
A fewmonthsafterPerry's resignation Woodbridge,En Charette/OnDeadline.
Wursterwas selectedas the school'snext Notes 7. Warren Perry, "The School of Architec-
dean.Wurstercreatedintroductory classes ture at Berkeley Has Completed Its Twenty-Second
1. Foranintroduction to theinterwar period Year,"TheJournalof theStateAssociationof California
thatgavestudentscontactwiththefieldsof in Americanarchitectural education, seeTurpinBan- Architects,SouthernSection(Aug. 9, 1935): 19-20.
economlcs,Duslness acmlnlstratlon, urDan nister,ed., TheArchitectat Mid-Century(NewYork:
.

8. Robert Roycroft, telephone conversation

sociology,andengineering. He hirednoted ReinholdPublishingCorp.,1954). with author,7 Sept. 1995; DeMars,interview.
scholarsand designers,includingCharles 2. Discussionsof architectural educationin 9. DeMars,Life in Architecture, p. 51.
EamesandhistorianJamesAckerman.By America in the interwar
periodoften slighttheimpor- 10. Jordy, "The Aftermath of the Bauhaus,"
tantroleof studentsin changing traditionalpedagogy. pp. 493-496; RosemarieHaag Bletter, "Modernism
the end of the decade,he hadmanagedto However,two articlesthatdo addressstudentsare: Rears Its Head The Twenties and Thirties," in
combinetheschool'sarchitecture, landscape MartaGutmanandRichardPlunz,"Anatomy of In- Oliver,MakingofanArchitect,pp. 108-110.
architecture,andplanningdepartments into surrection," in RichardOliver,ed., TheMakingof an 11. On the politicization of students, see
theCollegeof Environmental Design,justas Architect,1881-1981, Colum6iaUniversityin the City DeMars,LifeinArchitecture,pp. 152-160 and Robert
he hadoutlinedto Sproula decadebefore. ofNew York(NewYork:Rizzoli,1981), pp. 183-210; Ratcliff,TheRatcliffArchitects,in BerkeleySince1909
WilliamJordy,"TheAftermathof the Bauhausin (Berkeley:Universityof CaliforniaRegionalOralHis-
The overhauledcurriculuminstitutedby America:Gropius,Mies, and Breuer,"in Donald tory Office,BancroftLibrary,Berkeley,CA,1990), pp.
Wurstersoon becamean influentialpara- FlemingandBernard Bailyn,eds.,TheIntellectualMi- 83-101; T. J. Kent, interviewby author, Inverness,
digmforeducating designstudents.35 gration:EuropeandAmerica,1930-1960 (Cambridge, California,13 July 1995; DeMars,interview.Also see
In theAugust1991issueof TheJour- MA.:HarvardUniversityPress,1969),pp.493-496. RogerMontgomery,"MassProducingBayAreaArchi-
nal of ArchitecturalEducation,Dell Upton 3. On the creationof the architecture pro- tecture,"in Sally Woodbridge, ed., BayArea Houses
gram at the Universityof California,see Sally (Salt LakeCity, UT: PeregrineSmith Books, 1988),
arguedthatscholarsmustgo beyond"top- Woodbridge,En Charette/OnDeadline:An Architec- pp.229-238. On decliningstandardsof livingfor col-
down"or hierarchical modelsof architec- turalHistoryof North GateHall, Universityof Califor- lege studentsin Berkeleyand throughoutthe nation,
turalhistorythatarelargelychronological nia, Berkeley(Berkeley,CA: GraduateSchool of see David O . Levine, TheAmericanCollegeand the

1 65 Llttmann

This content downloaded from 185.44.77.40 on Sun, 22 Jun 2014 15:21:33 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
CultureofAspiration,1915-1940 (Ithaca,NY: Cornell
University Press, 1986), pp. 185-209; Verne
Stadtman, The Universityof California,1868-1968
(New York:McGrawHill, 1970), pp. 289-298.
12. Mongomery,"MassProducing,"pp. 231-
236. On the FarmSecurityAdministration,see Greg
Hise, MagneticLosAngeles:Planning the Twentieth-
CenturyMetropolis(Baltimore,MD: Johns Hopkins
UniversityPress, 1997), pp. 86-116.
13. Ratcliff,RatcliffArchitects,
p. 100.
14. On Wursterand Bauer'srole in educating
studentsaboutmodernism,see Kent,interview;Roger
Montgomery)"WilliamWilson Wursterand the Col-
lege of EnvironmentalDesign C.E.D News 13 (fall
1994): 5-6; RichardPeters,i'W. W. Wurster,"Jour-
nal ofArchitecturalEducation33 (Nov. 1979): 36-41.
15. On this periodin collegiateeducation,see
RobertCohen?Whenthe OldLefFWasYoung:Student
Radicalsand America'sFirstMassStledentMovement,
1929-1941 (New York: Oxford University Press,
1993); EileenEagan,Class,Culture,and the Classroom:
TheStudentPeaceMovementof the ]930s tPhiladel-
phia, PA: Temple University Press, 1981). On the
Berkeleyprogram,see Ratcliff,RatcliffArchitects, pp.
102-103; Kent, interview.
16. SeymourLipset,Re6ellionin the University
(Chicago,IL: Universityof ChicagoPress,1976), pp.
159-160; Eagan,Class.Culture,and the Classroom, pp.
15-47; Levine,AmericanCollege,pp. 185-209.
17. Lipset, Re6ellion in the University, pp.
159-183.
18. WarrenPerryto HowardMoise, 11 Sept
1940, WarrenCharlesPerryPapers,BancroftLibrary,
Universityof California,Berkeley(hereaftercited as
PerryPapers).
19. Kent, interview;Perryto Robert Sproul,
19 Feb. 1949, PerryPapers.
February
This content downloaded from 185.44.77.40 on Sun, 22 Jun 2014 15:21:33 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
20. Ratcliff,RatcliffArchitects,pp. 100-102; Fine Arts of the Universityof Pennsylvania(Philadel-
Kent,interview. An exampleof Sproul'spressure on phia,PA:University of Pennsylvania,
1990)pp. 97-
Perryis a memofromSproulto AlvaR. Davis, 16 107 and 131-135;JosephEsherick,"Architectural
June 1948, in Universityof CaliforniaPresident's Educationin the ThirtiesandSeventies7" in Kostof,
Files,Bancroft Library,University of California,Ber- Architect,pp.238-279. Esherick is quotedoll p. 273.
keley(hereaftercitedasPresident's Files);Steilbergto 29. Levine,AmericanCollege,pp.89-1 l 2
Sproul,21 Feb.1936,President's Files. 30. The leadingarchitectsof the modern
21. New Design 5 (3 Oct. 1939) and 7 (22 movementwroteSproulin supportof Chermayeff,
Nov. 1939),President's Files. includingGropius,Hudnut,Neutra,Mumford,and
22.0n the student press activity, see Lescaze.Lettersfromoutsidearchitectsto Sproul
Stadtman,Universityof California,pp.285-287. aboutChermayeffand the departmentare in the
23. Bletter,"Modernism RearsIts Head,"p. President's Files.
112;Jordy,'iTheAftermath of theBauhaus," p. 505. 31. On the possiblehiringof Wursterby the
24. GeorgeHerbertGray,i'TheSchoolsand Universityof California,see Sproulto Deutsch,12
theNewArchitecture," TheOrtagon5 (Feb.1933):10. Apr. 1944; Wurster to Sproul, 3 Nov. 1943,
25. Tripsto theseinstitutions weredescribed President's Files;WilliamWursterGollegeof Etlviro-
in TheNew Design5 (3 Oct.1939). It shouldbenoted mentalDesign,Universityof California}CamptgsPlan-
thatseveralschoolsmovedawayfromEcole-based ning and Architectural Practice (Berkeley,CA:
methodsbefore1930. The Universityof Oregon Regional Cultural HistoryProiect,Universityof Cali-
abandonedits Ecole-influenced curriculum shortly fornia,1964),pp. 134-140.
afterthe FirstWorldWarandattempted to establish 32. Starbird,interview.
Enrollment figuresfor
a noncompetitive atmosphere at the schoolin which theBerkeley program arefromBannister,Architectat
studentscouldworkat theirown pace.Otherpro- Mid-Century,table56.
gramsfocusedon givingstudentspractical experience 33. Perryto Sproul,30Aug.1948,President's
withconstruction andthenatureof materials. Second- Files.
yearstudentsat the University of Cincinnati,forex- 34. Perryto Sproul,30Nov.1949 President's
ample,alternatedon successivemonthsbetween Files.
fieldwork andacademic training.On newapproaches 35. On thedepartment after1950,seePeters,
to designeducation in theinterwar period,seeBannis- 'iW.W.Wurster," pp.36-41;Montgomery, "William
ter,Architectat Mid-Century,pp. 102-109;Wright, WilsonWurster," pp. 5-6; Wright,"HistoryforAr-
"History forArchitects," pp. 23-35.
. ,, ,s,
c. lltectsw p. M().
26. New YorkTimes,7 Apr.1932;Colllm6ia 36. Dell Upton, "Architectural Historyor
Spectator,5 Apr.-8Apr.1932. Landscape History?"JAE44 (August1991):195-198.
27 JosephEsherick,interviewwith atlthor,
SanFrancisco, CA,12April1997.
28.Ann Strongand GeorgeThomas, The
Bookof the School:100 Years:The GraduateSchoolof
2000 JAE53/3 1 66