Module 3: The process of how plants and
animals get their nutrition. ● Parasitic Plants
HOW PLANTS GET WATER AND
NUTRIENTS
Plants obtain inorganic elements from the
soil, which serves as a natural medium for
land plants. Soil is the outer loose layer that
covers the surface of Earth. Soil quality is a
major determinant, along with climate, of
plant distribution and growth. Soil quality
depends not only on the chemical
composition of the soil, but also the
topography (regional surface features) and
the presence of living organisms. In
agriculture, the history of the soil, such as
the cultivating practices and previous crops,
modify the characteristics and fertility of that
soil. Plants obtain food in two different
ways. Autotrophic plants can make their
own food from inorganic raw materials, such
as carbon dioxide and water, through
photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight.
Green plants are included in this group.
Some plants, however, are heterotrophic:
they are totally parasitic and lacking in
chlorophyll. These plants, referred to as
holo-parasitic plants, are unable to
synthesize organic carbon and draw all of
their nutrients from the host plant. Plants
may also benefit from microbial partners in
nutrient acquisition. Particular species of
bacteria and fungi have co-evolved along
with certain plants to create a mutualistic
symbiotic relationship with roots. This
improves the nutrition of both the plant and
the microbe. The formation of nodules in
legume plants and mycorrhization can be
considered among the nutritional
adaptations of plants. However, these are
not the only type of adaptations that we may
find; many plants have other adaptations
that allow them to thrive under specific
conditions.
Nutrients from Other Sources
A parasitic plant depends on its host for
survival. Some parasitic plants have no
leaves. An example of this is the dodder,
which has a weak, cylindrical stem that coils
around the host and forms suckers. From
these suckers, cells invade the host stem
and grow to connect with the vascular
bundles of the host. The parasitic plant
obtains water and nutrients through these
connections. The plant is a total parasite (a
holoparasite) because it is completely
dependent on its host. Other parasitic plants
(hemiparasites) are fully photosynthetic and
only use the host for water and minerals.
There are about 4,100 species of parasitic
plants.
● Saprophytes
A saprophyte is a plant that does not have
chlorophyll and gets its food from dead
matter, similar to bacteria and fungi (note
that fungi are often called saprophytes,
which is incorrect, because fungi are not
plants). Plants like these use enzymes to
convert organic food materials into simpler
forms from which they can absorb nutrients.
Most saprophytes do not directly digest
dead matter: instead, they parasitize fungi
that digest dead matter, or are mycorrhizal,
ultimately obtaining photosynthate from a
fungus that derived photosynthate from its
host. Saprophytic plants are uncommon;
only a few species are described.
● Symbionts
A symbiont is a plant in a symbiotic
relationship, with special adaptations such
as mycorrhizae or nodule formation. Fungi
also form symbiotic associations with
cyanobacteria and green algae (called
lichens). Lichens can sometimes be seen as
colorful growths on the surface of rocks and
trees. The algal partner (phycobiont) makes
food autotrophically, some of which it shares
with the fungus; the fungal partner
(mycobiont) absorbs water and minerals
from the environment, which are made
available to the green alga. If one partner
was separated from the other, they would
both die.
● Epiphytes
An epiphyte is a plant that grows on other
plants, but is not dependent upon the other
plant for nutrition. Epiphytes have two types
of roots: clinging aerial roots, which absorb
nutrients from humus that accumulates in
the crevices of trees; and aerial roots, which
absorb moisture from the atmosphere.
● Insectivorous Plants
An insectivorous plant has specialized
leaves to attract and digest insects. The
Venus flytrap is popularly known for its
insectivorous mode of nutrition, and has
leaves that work as traps. The minerals it
obtains from prey compensate for those
lacking in the boggy (low pH) soil of its
native North Carolina coastal plains. There
are three sensitive hairs in the center of
each half of each leaf. The edges of each
leaf are covered with long spines. Nectar
secreted by the plant attracts flies to the
leaf. When a fly touches the sensory hairs,
the leaf immediately closes. Next, fluids and
enzymes break down the prey and minerals
are absorbed by the leaf. Since this plant is
popular in the horticultural trade, it is
threatened in its original habitat.
HOW DO PLANTS MAKE THEIR OWN
FOOD?
● Plants make their own food from
carbon dioxide and water in a
chemical reaction called
photosynthesis.
- The food made by photosynthesis is
the sugar glucose.
- Oxygen gas is also made as a
by-product of photosynthesis.
● Plants need energy for
photosynthesis to take place.
- The energy for photosynthesis
comes from the sun.
● It is the chlorophyll that absorbs
light energy from the sun to make
photosynthesis happen.
● Word equation for photosynthesis:
- Carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of light energy and
chlorophyll, produces glucose and
oxygen.
● How are leaves adapted?
- Leaves are adapted so that
photosynthesis can take place.
● What features of leaves make them
suitable for photosynthesis?
- A leaf is BROAD and FLAT to
capture lots of sunlight.
- VEINS carry water to the leaf and
take food from the leaf to the rest of
the plants.
- Certain plant cells CONTAIN
chloroplasts with chlorophyll.
- Small holes called STOMATA in the
underside of a leaf allow gases in
and out.
● Water from the soil enters a plant
through the roots.
● Water movement inside the plant:
- XYLEM: Responsible for the
transportation of water.
- PHLOEM: Responsible for the
transportation of glucose (sugar).
● How are roots adapted?
Roots are branched and spread out for 2
reasons:
- To absorb water (and mineral salts)
from a large amount of soil.
- To anchor the plant in the soil
Roots are covered in root hair cells:
- Root hair cells have thin walls and a
large surface area to help them
absorb lots of water.
 Nutritional Needs and Adaptations in
Animals
● HOLOZOIC NUTRITION
- The organism feeds by ingesting
solid organic matter which is then
digested and absorbed into their
bodies.
( humans, animals, and insectivorous
plants)
● SAPROPHYTISM
- Saprophytes
- Feed on dead and decaying matter
- Digests the food externally before
absorbing the nutrients.
● PARASITISM
- Obtain nutrients from living
organisms
- Obtains nutrition by living in the body
of the host
(fleas, lice, and tapeworms)
Herbivores, Omnivores, and Carnivores
● Herbivores
- are animals whose primary food
source is plant-based. These
animals have evolved digestive
systems capable of handling large
amounts of plant material.
Herbivores can be further classified
into frugivores (fruit-eaters),
granivores (seed eaters), nectivores
(nectar feeders), and folivores (leaf
eaters).
● Carnivores
- are animals that eat other animals.
The word carnivore is derived from
Latin and literally means “meat
eater.” Wild cats such as lions and
tigers are examples of vertebrate
carnivores, as are snakes and
sharks, while invertebrate carnivores
include sea stars, spiders, and
ladybugs. Obligate carnivores are
those that rely entirely on animal
flesh to obtain their nutrients;
examples of obligate carnivores are
members of the cat family, such as
lions and cheetahs. Facultative
carnivores are those that also eat
non-animal food in addition to animal
food. Note that there is no clear line
that differentiates facultative
carnivores from omnivores; dogs
would be considered facultative
carnivores.
● Omnivores
- are animals that eat both plant- and
animal-derived food. In Latin,
omnivore means to eat everything.
Humans, bears and chickens are
examples of vertebrate omnivores;
invertebrate omnivores include
cockroaches and crayfish.
Food chain
Plants are called producers because
they are able to use light energy from
the sun to produce food (sugar) from
carbon dioxide and water. Animals
cannot make their own food so they
must eat plants and/or other animals.
They are called consumers. There are
three groups of consumers. Animals that
eat only plants are called herbivores (or
primary consumers). Animals that eat
other animals are called carnivores.
Carnivores that eat herbivores are
called secondary consumers, and
carnivores that eat other carnivores are
called tertiary consumers. Animals and
people who eat both animals and plants
are called omnivores. Then there are
decomposers (bacteria, fungi, and even
some worms), which feed on decaying
matter. These decomposers speed up
the decaying process that releases
mineral salts back into the food chain for
absorption by plants as nutrients.
 Module 4: Gas Exchange in Plants and
Animals
Specialization for gas exchange is apparent
in the structure of the respiratory surface,
the part of an animal’s body where gas
exchange occurs. Like all living cells, the
cells that carry out gas exchange have a
plasma membrane that must be in contact
with an aqueous solution. Respiratory
surfaces are therefore always moist. The
movement of O2 and CO2 across moist
respiratory surfaces takes place entirely by
diffusion. The rate of diffusion is proportional
to the surface area across which it occurs
and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance through which molecules must
move. In other words, gas exchange is fast
when the area for diffusion is large and the
path for diffusion is short. As a result,
respiratory surfaces tend to be large and
thin.
● Gills are outfoldings of the body
surface that are suspended in the
water. Gills often have a total
surface area much greater than that
of the rest of the body’s exterior.
Movement of the respiratory medium
over the respiratory surface, a
process called ventilation, maintains
the partial pressure gradients of O2
and CO2 across the gill that are
necessary for gas exchange. To
promote ventilation, most gill-bearing
animals either move their gills
through the water or move water
over their gills.
● The tracheal system of insects is
made up of air tubes that branch
throughout the body, this system is
one variation on the theme of an
internal respiratory surface. The
largest tubes, called tracheae, open
to the outside. The finest branches
extend close to the surface of nearly
every cell, where gas is exchanged
by diffusion across the moist
epithelium that lines the tips of the
tracheal branches. Because the
tracheal system brings air within a
very short distance of virtually every
body cell in an insect, it can
transport O2 and CO2 without the
participation of the animal’s open
circulatory system.
● Lungs are localized respiratory
organs that are represented by an
infolding of the body surface, they
are typically subdivided into
numerous pockets. Because the
respiratory surface of a lung is not in
direct contact with all other parts of
the body, the gap must be bridged
by the circulatory system, which
transports gases between the lungs
and the rest of the body. Lungs have
evolved in organisms with open
circulatory systems, such as spiders
and land snails, as well as in
vertebrates.
● Leaves generally have large surface
areas and high surface-to-volume
ratios. The large surface area
enhances light absorption for
photosynthesis. The high
surface-to-volume ratio aids in CO2
absorption during photosynthesis as
well as in the release of O2, a
by-product of photosynthesis. Upon
diffusing through the stomata, CO2
enters a honeycomb of air spaces
formed by the spongy mesophyll
cells. Because of the irregular
shapes of these cells, the leaf’s
internal surface area may be 10 to
30 times greater than the external
surface area. Although large surface
areas and high surface-to-volume
ratios increase the rate of
 photosynthesis, they also increase
water loss by way of the stomata.
Thus, a plant’s tremendous
requirement for water is largely a
consequence of the shoot system’s
need for ample exchange of CO2
and O2 for photosynthesis. By
opening and closing the stomata,
guard cells help balance the plant’s
requirement to conserve water with
its requirement for photosynthesis.
Mammalian respiratory system: A closer
look
Gas exchange in mammals occurs in alveoli
(singular, alveolus), air sacs clustered at the
tips of the tiniest bronchioles. Human lungs
contain millions of alveoli, which together
have a surface area of about 100 m2, 50
times that of the skin. Oxygen in the air
entering the alveoli dissolves in the moist
film lining their inner surfaces and rapidly
diffuses across the epithelium into a web of
capillaries that surrounds each alveolus. Net
diffusion of carbon dioxide occurs in the
opposite direction, from the capillaries
across the epithelium of the alveolus and
into the air space.
Lacking cilia or significant air currents to
remove particles from their surface, alveoli
are highly susceptible to contamination.
White blood cells patrol alveoli, engulfing
foreign particles. However, if too much
particulate matter reaches the alveoli, the
defenses can be overwhelmed, leading to
inflammation and irreversible damage. For
example, particulates from cigarette smoke
that enter alveoli can cause a permanent
reduction in lung capacity. For coal miners,
inhalation of large amounts of coal dust can
lead to silicosis, a disabling, irreversible,
and sometimes fatal lung disease.
 Module 5: Circulation in Plants and
Animals
A circulatory system has three basic
components: a circulatory fluid, a set of
interconnecting vessels, and a muscular
pump, the heart. The heart powers
circulation by using metabolic energy to
elevate the hydrostatic pressure of the
circulatory fluid, which then flows through
the vessels and back to the heart. By
transporting fluid throughout the body, the
circulatory system functionally connects the
aqueous environment of the body cells to
the organs that exchange gases, absorb
nutrients, and dispose of wastes.
● Circulatory systems are either open
or closed, vary with regard to the
number of circuits in the body, and
rely on pumps that differ in structure
and organization.
OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Circulatory fluid bathes the organs directly.
In these animals, the circulatory fluid, called
hemolymph, is also the interstitial fluid that
bathes body cells. Contraction of one or
more hearts pumps the hemolymph through
the circulatory vessels into interconnected
sinuses, spaces surrounding the organs.
Within the sinuses, chemical exchange
occurs between the hemolymph and body
cells. Relaxation of the heart draws
hemolymph back in through pores, which
are equipped with valves that close when
the heart contracts. Body movements help
circulate the hemolymph by periodically
squeezing the sinuses. The open circulatory
system of larger crustaceans, such as
lobsters and crabs, includes a more
extensive system of vessels as well as an
accessory pump.
CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
In a closed circulatory system, a circulatory
fluid called blood is confined to vessels and
is distinct from the interstitial fluid. One or
more hearts pump blood into large vessels
that branch into smaller ones that infiltrate
the organs. Chemical exchange occurs
between the blood and the interstitial fluid,
as well as between the interstitial fluid and
body cells. Annelids (including earthworms),
cephalopods (including squids and
octopuses), and all vertebrates have closed
circulatory systems. The closed circulatory
system of humans and other vertebrates is
often called the cardiovascular system.
- Arteries carry blood away from the
heart to organs throughout the body.
Within organs, arteries branch into
arterioles, small vessels that convey
blood to the capillaries.
- Capillaries are microscopic vessels
with very thin, porous walls.
- Networks of these vessels, called
capillary beds, infiltrate every
tissue, passing within a few cell
diameters of every cell in the body.
Across the thin walls of capillaries,
chemicals, including dissolved
gases, are exchanged by diffusion
between the blood and the interstitial
fluid around the tissue cells.
- At their “downstream” end,
capillaries converge into venules,
and venules converge into veins,
the vessels that carry blood back to
the heart.
● In bony fishes, rays, and sharks, the
heart consists of two chambers: an
atrium and a ventricle. The blood
passes through the heart once in
each complete circuit, an
arrangement called single
circulation.
● The circulatory systems of
amphibians, reptiles, and mammals
have two circuits, an arrangement
called double circulation. The pumps
for the two circuits are combined into
a single organ, the heart.
● Having both pumps within a single
heart simplifies coordination of the
pumping cycles. One pump, the right
side of the heart, delivers
oxygen-poor blood to the capillary
beds of the gas exchange tissues,
where there is a net movement of
O2 into the blood and of CO2 out of
the blood. This part of the circulation
is called a pulmonary circuit if the
capillary beds involved are all in the
lungs, as in reptiles and mammals. It
is called a pulmocutaneous circuit
if it includes capillaries in both the
lungs and the skin, as in many
amphibians.
MAMMALIAN CIRCULATION
- One complete sequence of pumping
and filling is referred to as the
cardiac cycle.
- The contraction phase of the cycle is
called systole, and the relaxation
phase is called diastole.
- The volume of blood each ventricle
pumps per minute is the cardiac
output.
- Two factors determine cardiac
output: the rate of contraction, or
heart rate (number of beats per
minute), and the stroke volume, the
amount of blood pumped by a
ventricle in a single contraction.
- The average stroke volume in
humans is about 70 mL.
- The vertebrate blood is a connective
tissue consisting of cells suspended
in a liquid matrix called plasma.
- Suspended in blood plasma are
platelets, fragments of cells that are
involved in the clotting process.
- Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, are
by far the most numerous blood
cells. Each microliter (μL, or mm3) of
human blood contains 5–6 million
red cells, and there are about 25
trillion of these cells in the body’s 5 L
of blood. Their main function is O2
transport, and their structure is
closely related to this function.
- The blood contains five major types
of white blood cells, or leukocytes.
Their function is to fight infections.
Some are phagocytic, engulfing and
digesting microorganisms as well as
debris from the body’s own dead
cells. Other leukocytes, called
lymphocytes, develop into
specialized B cells and T cells that
mount immune responses against
foreign substances.
● Transport systems are found in
vascular plants. Vascular networks
provide intercellular communication
in terrestrial plants. The systems
consist of tubelike connective
tissues organized into xylem and
phloem. Xylem transports water and
minerals in the plants, while phloem
transports food materials and
hormones. Xylem and phloem
tissues are grouped in arrangements
called vascular bundles.
Module 6: Gas Exchange and Circulation
The partial pressures of O2 and CO2 in the
blood vary at different points in the circulatory
system. Blood flowing through the alveolar
capillaries has a lower PO2 and a higher PCO2
than the air in the alveoli. As a result, CO2
diffuses down its partial pressure gradient from
the blood to the air in the alveoli. Meanwhile, O2
in the air dissolves in the fluid that coats the
alveolar epithelium and diffuses into the blood.
By the time the blood leaves the lungs in the
pulmonary veins, its PO2 has been raised and
its PCO2 has been lowered. After returning to
the heart, this blood is pumped through the
systemic circuit.
The low solubility of O2 in water (and thus in
blood) poses a problem for animals that rely on
the circulatory system to deliver O2.
In fact, animals transport most of their O2 bound
to proteins called respiratory pigments. These
respiratory pigments circulate with the blood or
hemolymph and are often contained within
specialized cells. The pigments greatly increase
the amount of O2 that can be carried in the
circulatory fluid (to about 200 mL of O2 per liter
in mammalian blood). A variety of respiratory
pigments have evolved among the animal taxa.
With a few exceptions, these molecules have a
distinctive color (hence the term pigment) and
consist of a protein bound to a metal. The
respiratory pigment of almost all vertebrates and
many invertebrates is hemoglobin. In
vertebrates, it is contained in the erythrocytes.
HEMOGLOBIN
● Vertebrate hemoglobin consists of
four subunits (polypeptide chains),
each with a cofactor called a heme
group that has an iron atom at its
center. Each iron atom binds one
molecule of O2; hence, a single
hemoglobin molecule can carry four
molecules of O2.
● CO2 reacts with water, forming
carbonic acid, which lowers the pH
of its surroundings. Low pH, in turn,
decreases the affinity of hemoglobin
for O2, an effect called the Bohr
shift. Thus, where CO2 production is
greater, hemoglobin releases more
O2, which can then be used to
support more cellular respiration.
CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT
● Hemoglobin helps transport CO2 and
assists in buffering the blood—that is,
preventing harmful changes in pH. Only
about 7% of the CO2 released by
respiring cells is transported in solution
in blood plasma. Another 23% binds to
the amino ends of the hemoglobin
polypeptide chains, and about 70% is
transported in the blood in the form of
bicarbonate ions (HCO3 - ).
RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS OF
DIVING MAMMALS
One adaptation of diving mammals to
prolonged stays underwater is an ability to
store large amounts of O2.
● Diving mammals also have a high
concentration of an oxygen-storing
protein called myoglobin in their
muscles.
● Diving mammals not only have a
relatively large O2 stockpile but also
have adaptations that conserve O2.
They swim with little muscular effort
and glide passively upward or
downward by changing their
buoyancy. Their heart rate and O2
consumption rate decrease during a
dive. At the same time, regulatory
mechanisms route most blood to the
brain, spinal cord, eyes, adrenal
glands, and, in pregnant seals, the
placenta. Blood supply to the
muscles is restricted or, during the
longest dives, shut off altogether.
 Module 7: Body Fluid Regulation in
Plants and Animals
One of the very important components of
plants in photosynthesis is the stomata.
Stomata are located on the outermost
cellular leaves, stems, and other plant parts.
Leaves tend to have large surface areas
and high surface-to-volume ratios, and this
is where stomata are located.
OPEN STOMATA
- An open stoma facilitates the
process of photosynthesis in many
ways: it allows light to enter the
intercellular matter and trigger this
process, it enables the plant to take
in carbon dioxide, and it allows
oxygen to be released as a
byproduct into the outside
environment.
- Open stomata are necessary for
undergoing photosynthesis in order
to perform the said functions;
however, open stomata could also
lead to the plant’s water loss.
The large surface area and high
surface-to-volume ratios of leaves to
optimize photosynthesis is also the cause of
the water loss. A plant’s high need for water
is a repercussion caused by the open
stomata, to have an abundant exchange of
carbon dioxide and oxygen for
photosynthesis. There should be a balance
that will enable a plant to catch light and
have a gas exchange while preventing
plant’s dehydration, this is mitigated by the
guard cells.
● Each stoma is lined by a pair of
guard cells that controls the opening
of the stomata. They control the
stoma’s diameter by changing the
shape, so, the gaps between the
guard cells either widens or narrows.
- Aquaporins, channel proteins
that allow water through the
membrane at a very high
rate, are a huge help in the
regulation of osmotic swelling
and shrinking of guard cells.
● Stomata are generally open during
the day to capture sunlight, and are
closed during the nighttime to
prevent water loss. Stomata open at
dawn due to three factors: light,
carbon dioxide depletion, and an
internal clock mechanism of guard
cells.
- Accumulation of K+ of guard cells is
stimulated by the light, so it
becomes turgid. This is due to the
illumination of blue-light receptors in
the plasma membrane of the guard
cells, proton pumps become active
due to the activation of these
bluelight receptors, so potassium
ions become absorbed.
- The depletion of carbon dioxide also
stimulates the stomata to open. The
depletion of carbon dioxide is due to
the leaf’s air spaces as a result of
photosynthesis. As concentrations of
the carbon dioxide decrease during
the day, the stomata progressively
open if sufficient water is supplied to
the leaf.
- The internal clock within the guard
cells ensures stomata continue its
routine of opening and closing. This
rhythm occurs even if the plant is
kept in a dark place. Circadian
rhythm is the term used for the
24-hour internal clocks that regulate
cyclic processes in all eukaryotes.
- Drought stress can also cause the
closing of the stomata. Hormone
 called abscisic acid (ABA) is
produced in roots and leaves in
response to deficiency in water, it
also signals guard cells to close the
stomata. This mechanism prevents
dehydration or wilting of the plant,
but it also restricts the absorption of
carbon dioxide that slows the
photosynthesis.
Body Fluid Regulation of Animals
● Regulating the body fluid of animal
tissues means there should be a
relative concentration of water and
solutes at a fairly narrow limit.
● Body fluids are water, plus
electrolytes, and non-electrolytes.
The electrolytes are the solutes that
dissociate into ions when dissolved
in water. Non-electrolytes are those
solutes that do not dissociate into
ions during dissolution.
HOMEOSTASIS- maintaining internal
balance or stability of the body.
OSMOREGULATION-process of
maintaining the balance of salt and water
across membranes within the body.
● Excretion is a very important
mechanism in animals that rids of
nitrogenous metabolites and other
metabolic waste products. Systems
for excretion and osmoregulation are
linked in many animals.
All animals need to balance water uptake
and loss, wherever their habitats are or
whatever type of waste they produce, their
body fluids should be regulated. If there’s
too much water, their cells would swell and
burst; if they lose too much water, cells
would shrivel and die.
● Cells in a hypertonic environment
tend to shrink due to loss of water. In
a hypotonic environment, cells tend
to swell due to intake of water. The
blood maintains an isotonic
environment so that cells neither
shrink or swell. Remember that
water moves from an area of low
concentration to an area of high
concentration.
OSMOSIS- Net movement of water across
a semipermeable membrane from an area
of lower solute concentration to an area of
higher solute concentration.
● If two solutions are separated by a
selectively permeable membrane
have the same osmolarity, they are
considered to be isotonic; when two
solutions differ in osmolarity and
there is a greater solute
concentration inside the cell, it is a
hypotonic solution; and, when there
is a greater concentration of solutes
outside the cell, it is a hypertonic
solution.
Animals can maintain water balance in two
ways: one is to be an osmoconformer (to be
isotonic with its surroundings, they are
marine animals), another way is to be an
osmoregulator (to control internal osmolarity
independent of its environment).
● Osmoregulation helps an animal to
live in environments that are
inhabitable for osmoconformers, like
freshwater and terrestrial habitats.
 Nitrogenous Wastes
● When proteins and nucleic acids are
broken apart for energy or converted
to carbohydrates or fats, enzymes
remove nitrogen in the form of
ammonia (NH3).
● Ammonia is a very toxic substance.
Its ion, ammonium (NH4+) interferes
with oxidative phosphorylation. Most
animals use energy to convert
ammonia into a less toxic
compound, like urea or uric acid
before excretion. They are ureotelic
(urea-excreting) animals and
uricotelic (uric acid-excreting)
animals. Some animals directly
excrete ammonia, they are called
ammonotelic animals, these include
crustaceans, cnidarians,
echinoderms, and other aquatic
animals.
● Uric acid is the form of nitrogenous
waste for insects, land snails,
reptiles, and birds excrete uric acid.
Uric acid is nontoxic and is not
readily dissolved in water. It is
excreted in a semisolid paste with
very little water loss. Compared to
urea, uric acid needs more energy to
be produced.
Processes of Excretion
● In the invertebrates, specifically for
the flatworms, they have excretory
systems called protonephridium
(plural, protonephridia). This
excretory system forms a network of
dead-end tubules. These tubules are
connected to external openings,
throughout the body it is branched,
the flatworm bodies lack coelom or
body cavity.
● For insects and other terrestrial
arthropods, the filtration step that is
common to other excretory systems
is absent. They instead have
transport epithelium that are called
Malpighian tubules that secrete
certain solutes and waste into the
lumen of the tubule. Their filtrate
passes through the digestive tract,
where most solutes are pumped
back into their hemolymph, and
water reabsorption through osmosis
follows.
● For many vertebrates and for other
chordates, they have a specialized
organ capable of osmoregulation
and regulating excretion, they are
the kidneys. Kidneys consist of
numerous tubules that are arranged
in a highly organized manner and
are closely associated with a
network of capillaries. Vertebrates’
excretory system also includes ducts
and other structures that release
urine out of the kidney, then the
body.
- Kidneys are the bean-shaped
organs that are
approximately 10 cm in
length. Along with organs for
transporting and storing
urine, they consist of the
excretory system of some
vertebrates. The urine that
the kidneys produced exits
through a duct called ureter.
These two ureters empty
their contents into the
urinary bladder. During the
urination of the organisms,
urine is expelled out of the
body through the urethra.

- Each kidney has an outer
renal cortex and an inner
renal medulla. These
regions are supplied with
blood from the renal artery
and then are drained by the
renal vein. Within the cortex
and medulla were the tightly
packed excretory tubules and
associated blood vessels in.
The inner renal pelvis
collects urine from the
excretory tubules and passes
it to the urinary bladder.
- The nephrons are the
functional units of the
vertebrate kidney. Embedded
in these are the renal cortex
and medulla. Most of these
are the cortical nephrons
which reach only a short
distance into the medulla.
The juxtamedullary
nephrons, however, extend
deep into the medulla.
Juxtamedullary nephrons are
essential for production of
urine that is hyperosmotic to
body fluids.
- Each nephron consists of a
single long tubule and a ball
of capillaries called the
glomerulus. There is a
cup-shaped swelling at the
blind end of the tubules, this
is called Bowman’s capsule
that surrounds the
glomerulus. The filtrate is
formed when blood pressure
forces fluid from the blood in
the glomerulus into the
lumen of Bowman’s capsule.
Processing occurs when the
filtrate passes through the
three major regions of
nephron: the proximal
tubule, the loop of Henle,
and the distal tubule. The
processed filtrate from many
nephrons is placed in a
collecting duct and
transports it to the renal
pelvis. Each nephron is
supplied with blood by an
afferent arteriole, an offshoot
of the renal artery that
branches and forms the
capillaries of the glomerulus.
The capillaries converge as
they leave the glomerulus,
forming an efferent arteriole.
Branches of this vessel form
the peritubular capillaries,
which surround the proximal
and distal tubules. Other
branches extend downward
and form the vasa recta,
hairpin-shaped capillaries
that serve the renal medulla
and surround the loop of
Henle.
 Module 8: The Chemical and Nervous
Control in Plants
● Auxin
The term auxin is derived from the Greek
word auxein, which means "to grow." Auxins
are the main hormones responsible for cell
elongation in phototropism and
gravitropism. They also control the
differentiation of meristem into vascular
tissue, and promote leaf development and
arrangement. While many synthetic auxins
are used as herbicides, IAA is the only
naturally occurring auxin that shows
physiological activity.
● Cytokinins
The effect of cytokinins was first reported
when it was found that adding the liquid
endosperm of coconuts to developing plant
embryos in culture stimulated their growth.
The stimulating growth factor was found to
be cytokinin, a hormone that promotes
cytokinesis (cell division). Almost 200
naturally occurring or synthetic cytokinins
are known to date. Cytokinins are most
abundant in growing tissues, such as roots,
embryos, and fruits, where cell division is
occurring.
● Gibberellins
Gibberellins (GAs) are a group of about 125
closely related plant hormones that
stimulate shoot elongation, seed
germination, and fruit and flower maturation.
GAs are synthesized in the root and stem
apical meristems, young leaves, and seed
embryos.
● Brassinosteroids
Brassinostreoids are steroids similar to
animal’s cholesterols and sex hormones.
These hormone promotes cell elongation
and division in stem segments and
seedlings at a very low concentration of
10-12 M. They also slow down leaf
abscission and promote the differentiation of
xylem. These effects are so qualitatively
similar to those of auxin that it took years for
plant physiologists to determine that
brassinosteroids were not types of auxins.
● Abscisic Acid
The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) was
first discovered as the agent that causes the
abscission or dropping of cotton bolls. ABA
accumulates as a response to stressful
environmental conditions, such as
dehydration, cold temperatures, or
shortened day lengths. Its activity counters
many of the growth-promoting effects of
GAs and auxins. ABA inhibits stem
elongation and induces dormancy in lateral
buds. ABA induces dormancy in seeds by
blocking germination and promoting the
synthesis of storage proteins. Plants
adapted to temperate climates require a
long period of cold temperature before
seeds germinate. This mechanism protects
young plants from sprouting too early during
unseasonably warm weather in winter.
● Ethylene
Ethylene is associated with fruit ripening,
flower wilting, and leaf fall. Aging tissues
(especially senescing leaves) and nodes of
stems produce ethylene. The best-known
effect of the hormone, however, is the
promotion of fruit ripening. Ethylene
stimulates the conversion of starch and
acids to sugars.
Plant Responses to Light
Photomorphogenesis is the growth and
development of plants in response to light.
This allows the optimization of their use of
light and space. Photoperiodism is the
ability of plants to track time through the use
of light.
● Plants are able to tell the time of the
year by sensing and using various
wavelengths of sunlight.
 ● Phototropism is a directional
response that allows plants to grow
towards, or even away from, light.
The sensing of light in the
environment is important to plants
because this is a crucial ability for
growth, survival, and competition.
Plant response to light is mediated
by different photoreceptors, which
are a protein covalently bonded to a
light-absorbing pigment called a
chromophore. The combination of
these two are called
chromoprotein.
Plant sensory photoreceptors absorb light in
these regions of the light spectrum because
of the quality of light available in the daylight
spectrum. In terrestrial habitats, light
absorption by chlorophylls is most abundant
in the blue and red light regions of the light
spectrum.
The Phytochrome and the Red Light
Response
Phytochromes are a family of
chromoproteins with a linear tetrapyrrole
chromophore (similar to chlorophylls). They
have photo-interconvertible forms: Pr and
Pfr. Pr is the one that absorbs red light at
about 667 nm and is then converted to Pfr.
Pfr absorbs far-red light at about 730 nm
and then it will be immediately transformed
into Pr.
● Red light absorption triggers
massive change to the
chromophore, it alters the
conformation and activity of the
phytochrome protein to which it is
bound. Pfr is the physiologically
active form of the protein; thus, red
light exposure of phytochromes
yields physiological activity; while,
exposure to farred light inhibits
phytochrome activity. Together, they
make up the phytochrome system.
● The phytochrome system acts as a
biological light switch. This monitors
the level, intensity, duration, and
color of the environmental light. By
shining far-red light on a sample, it
can easily reverse the effect of the
red light, this converts the
chromoprotein to the inactive Pr
form. Also, Pfr can slowly revert to
Pr in the dark, or break down over
time. In all instances, the
physiological response induced by
red light is reversed.
● Full sunlight contains more red light
than far-red light. Since chlorophylls
tend to absorb more red light, any
plant that is in the shade, near the
forest floor will have their leaves be
exposed to red-depleted, far-red
enriched light, this light slows
growth. The nearest non-shaded
areas on the forest floor will have
more red light, leaves exposed to
red light have activated Pfr form to
induce growth.
● Plants also sense the change in
season through the phytochrome
system. Photoperiodism is a
biological response to the timing and
duration of day and night. This
controls flowering, setting of winter
buds, and the vegetative growth. It is
very crucial for plants to detect
seasonal changes. Temperature and
light intensity could also be
indicators, however, they are not as
reliable day length detection,
because they may vary from one
year to another.
 The Blue light Response
Phototropism is the directional bending of
a plant towards or away from a light source,
this is a plant response to the blue
wavelengths of light. Positive phototropism
happens when the growth of a plant is
towards a light source; negative
phototropism is the plant’s growth away
from the sun.
● Phototropins are protein-based
receptors which are responsible for
the mediation of the phototropic
response.
- Phototropins consist of a protein
portion and a light-absorbing portion,
called the chromophore. In these
receptors, the chromophore is
covalently-bound molecules of flavin,
so these belong to the flavoprotein
class of proteins. Phototropins also
control chloroplast movement,
opening and closing of leaves, and
the opening of the stomata.
● Cryptochromes are another form of
blue-light absorbing photoreceptors
that also contain a flavin-based
chromophore. Cryptochromes set
the plants' 24-hour activity cycle,
also known as its circadian rhythm,
using blue light cues.
the slightest touch, it could trigger a quick
coiling. Cells in contact with a support
surface contract, whereas cells on the
opposite side of the support expand.
Thigmonastic response is a touch response
independent of the stimulus’ direction.
Response Against Herbivores and
Pathogens
Plants face two foes, these are herbivores
and pathogens. Herbivores consume plants
for nutrition, they do this by actively chewing
on them. Pathogens cause disease in
plants, like fungi, bacteria, and nematodes,
live off of the plant and damage its tissues.
Plants have developed strategies to
discourage and kill attackers. Plant’s first
line of defense is their bark and waxy cuticle
that serve as the barriers. Plant adaptations
against herbivores include thorns and
spines which are modified branches and
leaves, respectively. Plants also produce
substances that induce allergic reactions.

Plant Responses to Gravity

Gravitropism will assure plants will grow
upward, so it can grow towards sunlight.
Negative gravitropism is the growth of shoot
apical tip upward, and growth of roots
downward is positive gravitropism.

Response to Touch and Wind

Thigmotropism is the movement of a plant
subjected to constant directional pressure.
Tendrils are one example; they have a very
touch sensitive meristematic region. With
 Module 9: The Chemical and Nervous
Control in Animals
Vertebrate nervous systems are more
complex, centralized, and specialized, they
are of a basic structure: central nervous
system which contains the brain and spinal
cord, and peripheral nervous system that
composes the peripheral sensory and motor
nerves.
● Nervous system is made up of
neurons, these are specialized cells
that transmit and receive chemical
and electrical signals, and glia,
which are the cells that provide
support functions for the neurons by
playing an information processing
role that is complementary to
neurons. Neurons are often
compared to electrical wires, they
transmit signals from one place to
another; glia is often compared to
the electricians who ensure wires go
to the correct places, maintain these
wires, and take down wires that are
broken. There is great diversity in
the types of neurons and glia that
are present in different parts of the
nervous system.
NEURONS
- Act as basic reflexes to more
complicated behaviors such as
finding food and courting mates.
- The highly specialized organization
of the neurons allows them to
receive and transmit information.
Cell Body: (soma) contains most of its
organelles, including the nucleus.
Dendrites: together with the cell body,
these two receive signals from other
neurons.
Axon: often longer than dendrites, it is an
extension that transmits signals to other
cells.
- The cone-shaped base of an axon is
called the axon hillock, this is
where the signal typically travels
down the axon. Near its other end,
the axon divides into several
branches, and each branched end
transmits information to other cells at
a junction called a synapse.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers
called neurotransmitters pass the
information from the transmitting neurons to
the receiver cell.
Vertebrate neurons and most invertebrate
neurons need supporting cells called glial
cells, or glia. Glial cells are more numerous
than neurons in the mammalian brain by
upto 50-folds. Glia nourishes neurons,
insulates the axons of neurons, and
regulates the extracellular fluid surrounding
the neurons; they also sometimes function
in replenishing certain neurons in
transmitting information.
Some axons are covered with myelin which
insulates them to minimize dissipation of
electrical signals as they travel down the
axon, this also speeds up the conduction.
This insulation is important as axons can be
a meter long in humans, from the base of
the spine and to the tip of their toes. Myelin
sheath is not part of the neurons, and they
have gaps that are called nodes of Ranvier
which are sites where signals are recharged
as it travels down the axon.
 Information Processing
There are three stages in this process:
sensory input, integration, and motor output.
The central nervous system (CNS) which
is composed by the brain and the
longitudinal nerve cord are where the
integration happens. The neurons which
carry information into and out of the CNS
are of the (PNS). Nerves are such neurons
bundled together.
Neurons Resting Potential
- The attraction of the opposite
charges across the plasma
membrane is a potential energy, the
charge difference, or the voltage is
called membrane potential.
- Neurons at rest, its membrane
potential is at resting potential
which is typically between -60 and
-80 millivolts. The inputs from other
neurons or some stimuli trigger the
change in the membrane potential in
neurons that act as signals, to
transmit information.
Neurons Action Potential
- At the excitatory synapses, the
opening allows positive ions to enter
the neuron and this results in the
depolarization of the membrane—a
decrease in the difference in voltage
between the inside and outside of
the neuron.
- Refractory period, at which there is
no possible action potential to occur
because sodium channels will
remain closed.
- The diffusion of K+ out of the cell
hyperpolarizes the cell, in that the
membrane potential becomes more
negative than the cell's normal
resting potential.
Propagation of Action Potential
Flow of ions through these channels,
particularly the Na+ channels,
regenerates the action potential over
and over again along the axon. This
‘jumping’ of the action potential from
one node to the next is called
saltatory conduction.
Synaptic communication of
neurons
Synapses or gaps are places where
information is transmitted from one
neuron to another. Synapses usually
form between axon terminals and
dendritic spines, but there are also
axon-to-axon, dendrite-to-dendrite, and
axon-to-soma synapses.
Presynaptic neurons are the
neurons that transmit signals;
neurons that receive are the
postsynaptic neurons. There are
also two types of synapses:
chemical and electrical.
The depolarization is known as the
excitatory postsynaptic potential
(EPSP) and it makes the
postsynaptic neuron likelier to
launch an action potential. The
release of neurotransmitters at the
inhibitory synapses causes the
inhibitory synaptic potentials
(IPSPs), there is a hyperpolarization
of the presynaptic membrane.
Signal Summation
A single EPSP can be strong enough to
induce an action potential in the
postsynaptic neuron, but often multiple
presynaptic inputs must create EPSPs
around the same time for the
postsynaptic neuron to be sufficiently
depolarized to fire an action potential,
the process is called summation. This
process happens at the axon hillock.