Constitution of Biak na Bato- 1897, 01 November

- Revultionary Government
- 34 articles

1st Republic- 1899 Malolos Constitution, 21 January upon Malolos Congress

- Emilio Aguinaldo

- 39 articles, 14 Titles/ 101 articles

The Constitution of the Philippine Commonwealth/ Americam period- 1935, 08 February

- 1935-1944) President Manuel L. Quezon (Died in exile in the U.S.)

- (1944-1946) President: Sergio S. Osmeña, Sr. (Assumed the presidency upon the death of
Quezon while the Philippine Commonwealth government is in exile in the U.S.)
- 18 articles

2nd Republic The Road to Japanese-Sponsored Independence- 1943 Constitution, 20 June

- (1943-1945) President: Jose P. Laurel

- 12 articles

3rd Republic - July 4, 1946. The enactment of the Jones Law in 1916 (in which the U.S. Congress pledged independence
for the Philippines once Filipinos have proven their capability for self-government) and the Philippine Independence Act
of 1934 (popularly known as Tydings-McDuffie) which put in place a ten-year transition period during which the
Philippines had Commonwealth status.

- (1946-1948) President: Manuel L. Roxas (Died of a heart attack)

- 1948-1953) President: Elpidio R. Quirino (Assumed the remaining term & re-elected)
- (1953-1957) President: Ramon F. Magsaysay (Magsaysay died in an airplane crash on March
16, 1957 on Mt. Manunggal in Cebu)
- (1957-1961) President: Carlos P. Garcia (Assumed the remaining term and re-elected)
- (1961-1965) President: Diosdado P. Macapagal
- (1965-1972) President: Ferdinand E. Marcos (the first to win 2 presidential terms)

4th Republic (Martial Law, "The New Republic" & Parliamentary Government) - 1973 Constitution, 21 September

- 1972-1986) President: Ferdinand E. Marcos (unseated by the People Power Revolution)

- (Marcos died in exile in Hawaii on September 28, 1989 of Lupus complications)
- (1981-1986) Prime Minister Cesar E. A. Virata
- (1986) Vice-President: Arturo M. Tolentino (proclaimed but did not serve due to the revolt)
Pure, clean and safe drinking water isn’t available easily these days. Growing population, industrial development and
environmental degradation are all causes for this. Given this situation, it becomes even more important for us to be
aware of purification techniques and the available water purifiers in the market to ensure that our drinking water is
of good quality.

A lot of minerals are found naturally in water and are important for the human body but consuming an excess
amount of it can cause many diseases. A good water purifier removes the excess salts, suspended particles and
microbes, and retains its essential vitamins and minerals. With so many manufacturers in the water purification
industry these days, it is difficult to know which is good, which isn’t and which meets necessary standards.

Both water filters and water purifiers work on the same mechanical principle. They first suck up raw water which is
contaminated, filter out impurities ranging from sediments to micro-organisms and then dispense clean water.
However there is one big difference between the two – a purifier can remove viruses and bacteria that filters cannot
remove. Some purifiers use chemicals and others use an electro-static charge to kill or capture viruses.

Active Carbon filter: This kind of filter is used to purify soluble gases such as chlorine, carbon monoxide, nitrogen,
ammonia and organic material like dead algae, leaves or any other dead thing washed into a water body. The porous
nature of the carbon (charcoal) helps to absorb chlorine and pollutants such as pesticides. Generally, household carbon
filters come with a lining of activated silver that kills bacteria. (To read about technology that uses indigenous coal to
make activated carbon click here)

Bio-sand filter Source: Sourabh PhadkeBio-sand filter Source: Sourabh PhadkeBiosand filter: It is a concrete or plastic box
that is filled with layers of sand and gravel, which removes pathogens (micro-organisms in water that make us sick) and
suspended solids from contaminated water. Water (it should be free from dangerous chemicals since the filter cannot
remove most of the chemicals) is poured into the top of the filter and collected in a safe storage container. The
organisms which cause infectious. Bacteria and other micro organisms grow in the top 2cm of sand, which is called the
biolayer. The micro-organisms at the biolayer eat away the pathogens in the water thereby improving the water quality.
It removes suspended particles and pathogens and can filter 12-18 litres each batch.

Domestic Reverse Osmosis Filter System Source: Crystal ImpexDomestic Reverse Osmosis Filter System Source: Crystal
Impex

Reverse Osmosis filters: Reverse Osmosis (RO) system offers a multi-stage filtration of water by combining active carbon
and also particle filtration. Here, the tap water is made to pass through a membrane (a polymer film) that has very small-
sized pores and this weed out minerals and micro-organisms in water. The impurities collected are then flushed out
through an outlet pipe. A RO water purifier improves the taste of water but, it is difficult to say that the water will be
100 percent safe as at times due to holes (because of a manufacturing defect or due to wear-and-tear) in the filter, some
bacteria can get through the filter. RO filters are recommended for places where the problem with the water is its high
content of dissolved minerals. The darker side in a RO purifier is that there are chances that the membranes in these
filters drain out some of the necessary minerals too. Also, it requires a continuous water supply to function and can be
fixed to only one water tap. (To read more about RO click here)