Pentagon International college

Tinkune, KATHMANDU, NEPAL

A PROJECT WORK ON COMPUTER

SCIENCE

Submitted By: Submitted To:

Manish Sharma Mr. Birendra Mananadhar
Class: 11 ‘D6’
 Pentagon International College

CERTIFICATES

This is to certify that the “Project work on

Computer Science” has been completed successfully as
partial fulfillment of the subject “Computer Science (130)” as
mentioned of National Examinations Board (NEB) of grade
11by:
Name of Student:- Manish Sharma

………………………………. …………………………….
Internal Examiner External Examiner

Mr. Birendra Mananadhar

Faculty Member
Dept. of Computer Science
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is with great satisfaction and achievement that I have completed my
Lab Work. I take this opportunity to acknowledge each and every one
who contributed towards my work.

I express my sincere gratitude towards management team and all the

faculties of our college and Birendra Mananadhar, Department of
Computer Science, for his guidance and support.

I would like to thank National Examinations Board(NEB) for giving

me this opportunity to undertake this work.

I also convey my gratitude to all other members in the practical

examination panel and those who have contributed to this work directly
and indirectly.
 CANDIDATE DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work being presented in this report
entitled “Lab Work On Computer Science” is an authentic
record of my work carried in 2075 Year, under the supervision
of Birendra Mananadhar sir.

The matter embodied in this report has not been submitted by

me for the award of any other degree.
 Pentagon international college
KATHMANDU, NEPAL

Topic: “History of Computer”

Submitted By: Submitted To:

Manish Sharma Mr. Birendra Mananadhar

Class: 11 ‘D6’Science Faculty Member
Regd. No.: Dept. of Computer
Science

E
Contents
Computer:- ................................................................................................................................. 1
Character of computer:- ........................................................................................................ 1
# Speed:- ............................................................................................................................ 1
# Accuracy:- ........................................................................................................................ 1
# Diligence:- ....................................................................................................................... 1
# Versatility:- ...................................................................................................................... 1
# Storage:- .......................................................................................................................... 2
# Word length:- .................................................................................................................. 2
# Automatic:- ..................................................................................................................... 2
# Power of Remembering:- ................................................................................................ 2
Advantages of Computer:- ..................................................................................................... 2
Disadvantage of computer:- .................................................................................................. 2
Limitation of Computer:- ....................................................................................................... 3
Application areas of Computer:-............................................................................................ 3
# Education:- ...................................................................................................................... 3
# Industries:- ...................................................................................................................... 4
# Hospital:- ......................................................................................................................... 4
# Office:-............................................................................................................................. 4
# Advertisements:- ............................................................................................................. 4
# Science and Engineering:- ............................................................................................... 4
# Communication:-............................................................................................................. 4
# Research:- ....................................................................................................................... 5
# Library:- ........................................................................................................................... 5
# Insurance:- ...................................................................................................................... 5
# Weather Forecasting:- .................................................................................................... 5
# Military:- .......................................................................................................................... 5
# Airline Corporation:- ....................................................................................................... 5
# Bank:- .............................................................................................................................. 5
# Data processing:- ............................................................................................................ 5
# Modeling and Designing:- ............................................................................................... 6
# Business:- ........................................................................................................................ 6
History of Computer:- ............................................................................................................ 6

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 Mechanical Calculating Era:- .............................................................................................. 7
Electromechanical Era:- ................................................................................................... 11
Electronic Computer Era:- ................................................................................................ 12
Generation of Computers:- .................................................................................................. 14
Character of Generation of Computer:- .............................................................................. 15
# First generation computer:- .......................................................................................... 15
# Second generation computer:- ..................................................................................... 15
# Third generation computer:- ........................................................................................ 15
# Fourth generation computer:- ...................................................................................... 16
Classification of Computers:- ............................................................................................... 17
On the basic of work:- ...................................................................................................... 17
On the basic of Size:-........................................................................................................ 20
On the basic of Brand:- .................................................................................................... 23
On the basic of Model:- ................................................................................................... 24
On the basic of Purpose:-................................................................................................. 26
Mobile Computing:- ............................................................................................................. 26
Number System ....................................................................................................................... 27
Positional Number System:- ................................................................................................ 27
Non-Positional Number System:- ........................................................................................ 27
Decimal Number System:- ............................................................................................... 28
Binary Number System:- .................................................................................................. 28
Octal Number System:- .................................................................................................... 28
Hexadecimal Number System:-........................................................................................ 28
Conversion of Number Systems:- ........................................................................................ 28
Rule 1:- ............................................................................................................................. 28
Note:- ............................................................................................................................... 28
Binary Subtraction:- ............................................................................................................. 29
1’s complement method:- ............................................................................................... 29
2’s complement method:- ............................................................................................... 29
9’s complement method:- ............................................................................................... 30
10’s complement method:- ............................................................................................. 30
Boolean algebra and logic function:- ....................................................................................... 31
Boolean algebra:- ............................................................................................................. 31

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 Digital logic:- .................................................................................................................... 31
Boolean variable and its values:- ......................................................................................... 31
Proposition:- ........................................................................................................................ 32
Negation:- ............................................................................................................................ 32
Prediction:-........................................................................................................................... 32
Operator:- ............................................................................................................................ 33
Operation:-........................................................................................................................... 33
Binary logic:- ........................................................................................................................ 33
AND .................................................................................................................................. 34
OR..................................................................................................................................... 34
NOT .................................................................................................................................. 34
Logical Gate (Electronic gate):- ............................................................................................ 35
AND Gate:- ....................................................................................................................... 35
OR Gate:- .......................................................................................................................... 36
Derived Gate:- ...................................................................................................................... 38
NAND Gate:- (AND + NOT) ............................................................................................... 38
NOR Gate- (OR + NOT) ..................................................................................................... 38
X – OR Gate:- (Exclusively OR) ......................................................................................... 39
X – NOR Gate:- (Exclusively NOR) .................................................................................... 39
De Morgan’s Theorm:- ......................................................................................................... 40
Truth table:- ..................................................................................................................... 40
Truth table:- ..................................................................................................................... 40
Duality Principle:- ................................................................................................................. 41
Laws:- ................................................................................................................................... 41
INPUT DEVICES ......................................................................................................................... 42
According to keys keyboard are again classified by ................................................................ 43
Type of mouse......................................................................................................................... 43

H
Computer:-
Computer is an electronic machine that accepts data through input devices, then process it
and give result as output to the user and also store data for long time.

Character of computer:-
1. Speed
2. Accuracy
3. Diligence
4. Versatility
5. Storage
6. Word length
7. Automatic
8. Power of Remembering

# Speed:-
The time taken to perform any task by a computer is known as Speed. The speed of
Computer is very fast. It takes very few second for doing any calculations that human being
take hour to complete. The speed of Computer is measured in terms of following fraction of
second as:-

i. Milliseconds
ii. Micro seconds
iii. Nano seconds
iv. Pico seconds

# Accuracy:-
The capacity of computer to give accurate result is known as Accuracy. The
Computer can perform accurate result each time. It can perform large number of task
without errors but it gives wrong results if the input is wrong known as GIGO (garbage in
garbage out).

# Diligence:-
The capacity of Computer to perform repetitive task free of
tiredness, lack of Concentration and fatigue is known as Diligence. It can perform any work
for hours without creating any error.

# Versatility:-
The capacity of Computer to perform more than one task at a same
time is known as Versatility .It can perform both simple and complex task. It can be used to
perform different task like office work, word processing, mathematical calculation, preparing
bills, preparing plan etc.

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# Storage:-
The capacity of Computer to store any data and information for long time is
known as Storage. Computers stores huge amount of data in its small memory and also
stores different media. We can easily search exact information on files. The smallest unit of
storage is bits (binary digit) which is occupied by “0” and “1”.

4 bits = 1 nibles

8 bits = 1 bytes

1024 bytes = 1 MB

1024 MB = 1 GB

1024 GB = 1 TB

Computer use binary number and increased by 210.

# Word length:-
The number of bits that a computer can process at a time in parallel
is called Word length. The word length of computer is mainly 32 bits or 64 bits.

# Automatic:-
Automatic means to perform work itself after providing once the set of
appropriate instruction and data. Computer is an automatic machine which performs work
without presence of user due to software and programs.

# Power of Remembering:-
Power of remembering means to remember large number
of data and instruction given by user or stored in their system. Computer can remember the
exact instruction for long time.

Advantages of Computer:-
i. It has large Operating speed.
ii. It can store large number of data.
iii. The electronic component used in computer is more reliable
iv. It communicate wirelessly
v. It gives same result if same data is given multiple time

Disadvantage of computer:-
i. It reduces the work of Labour
ii. It leads disorder of hands, eyes, neck. etc

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Limitation of Computer:-
i. It is non-intelligent machine
ii. It cannot memorize and recall as needed
iii. Instruction are needed to perform task
iv. It cannot run without electricity
v. It need repair and maintenance
vi. It is very expensive
vii. Skilled user is required to work

Application areas of Computer:-

i. Education
ii. Industries
iii. Hospital
iv. Science and Engineering
v. Research
vi. Office
vii. Library
viii. Weather Forecasting
ix. Airline Corporation
x. Bank
xi. Data processing
xii. Modeling and Designing

# Education:-
Computer is used as teaching and learning tools, result processing, keeping
the records of students. Computer is also used for Audio visual Classes as well as for online
study. It is also used for taking Computer based exam and also used for checking questions
too. Computer is also used for making different educational projects.

Computers have its dominant use in the education field which can
significantly enhance performance in learning. Even distance learning is made productive
and effective through internet and video-based classes. Researchers have massive usage of
these computers in their work from the starting to till the end of their scholarly work.

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# Industries:-
Computer is used in industries for Industrial research, processing budgets,
keeping records of staffs, raw materials, products etc. it is also used for operating different
machines in Industries and maintaining all the required condition for production of goods. It
is also used for keeping the records of delivery of goods and making the composition of
goods and so on.

# Hospital:-
Computer is used in Hospital for keeping the records of patients and medicines
in pharmacy. It is also used for operating different machines like X-ray Machines, CT scanner,
etc. It is also used for making reports of patients. It is used for research in health. It also
keeps the records of all the equipment in Hospital.

Most of the medical information can now be digitized from

the prescription to reports. Computation in the field of medicine allows us to offer varied
miraculous therapies to the patients. ECG’s, radiotherapy wasn’t possible without
computers.

# Office:-
Computer is used in office for keeping the records of daily transaction and also
for making plan and policies for the office. It is also used for preparing reports, storing
records, deleting records, updating records etc.

# Advertisements:-
Computer is used in Advertisement for advertising different
information with the help of different medium. It is also used for making and designing
Newspaper too. Computer helps to make different articles. With computers, advertising
professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads
with the goal of selling more products.

# Science and Engineering:-

As per the title, computers aid in designing buildings,
magazines, prints, newspapers, books and many others. The construction layouts are
designed beautifully on system using different tools and software’s.

# Communication:-
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or
speech that is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is
meant for. Some main areas in this category are: Chatting, E-mail, Usenet, FTP, Video-
conferencing and Telnet.

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# Research:-
Computer is an essential tool for research, whether for academic purpose
or for commercial purpose. Computers play a major role today in every field of scientific
research from genetic engineering to astrophysics research.

# Library:-
Library Computers: Usage. The primary use of library computer
systems/computer resources is for academic, educational, and research purposes. The
primary users of the Library's computer system/computer resources are current Santiago
Canyon College (SCC) students.

# Insurance:-
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of
computers. The insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking firms are widely
using computers for their concerns.

# Weather Forecasting:-
Throughout history, numerous techniques and experiments were
performed by meteorologists to predict the weather with greater efficacy over time. ...
The use of computer models became widespread mainly throughout the 1960s, as the
first weather satellites were launched.

# Military:-
Computers are the main tools which help in developing missiles and other
equipment in the deference system. Designing and the maintenance are possible only
through computers. Computer builds the links between the soldiers and commanders
through the satellite. Construction of weapons and controlling their function is not possible
without the aid of computers. The list of the criminals and the records of the cops are
maintained regularly in the system.

# Airline Corporation:-
This computer-based reservation system allows you to easily
modify travel arrangements at any airport, and even to use multiple airline companies over
the course of a single trip. ... Uses of Computers software in Airline Systems
In airline system, computers software are used to control passenger aircrafts and vehicles.

# Bank:-
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide the
facilities of:- Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances,
deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

# Data processing:-
Data processing, Manipulation of data by a computer. It includes the
conversion of raw data to machine-readable form, flow of data through the CPU and

5
memory to output devices, and formatting or transformation of output. Any use of
computers to perform defined operations on data can be included under data processing.

# Modeling and Designing:-

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computers (or
workstations) to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. ...
The term CADD (for Computer Aided Design and Drafting) is also used. Its use in designing
electronic systems is known as electronic design automation (EDA).

# Business:-
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability,
or versatility which made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for: Payroll calculations, Sales
analysis, Budgeting, Financial forecasting, Managing employees database and Maintenance
of stocks etc.

History of Computer:-
The development of personal computer has taken a long period of
time to extend the use of computer at present days. There were not the advanced technologies
in the ancient days. So it passed through a several phases to become this phase at present
days.

The development of commuter from

ancient days to present days can be classified into 3 Era which are as follows.

Mechanical Calculation Era Electro- mechanical Era Electronic Computers Era

1. Abacus 10. Mark – I 12. ENIAC

2. Napier’s Bone 11. ABC 13. EDVAC

3. Slide Rule 14. EDSAC

4. Pascaline 15. UNIVAC

5.Stepped Reckoner

6. Jacquard’s Loom

6
 7.Difference & Analytical Engine

8. Lady Augusta Ada

9. Tabulating Machine

Mechanical Calculating Era:-

i. Abacus
ii. Napier’s bone
iii. Slide Rule
iv. Pascaline
v. Leibniz Machine
vi. Charles Babbage Machines
vii. Difference Engine
viii. Analytical Engine
ix. Hollerith Machine

# Abacus:-
The abacus (plural abaci or abacuses), also called a counting frame, is a
calculating tool that was in use in Europe, China and Russia, centuries before the adoption of
the written Hindu–Arabic numeral system.The exact origin of the abacus is still unknown.
Today, abacuses are often constructed as a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires, but
originally they were beans or stones moved in grooves in sand or on tablets of wood, stone,
or metal. It is used for mathematical calculation such as addition, subtraction, multiplication
etc.

# Napier’s Bone:-
Napier's bones is a manually-operated calculating device created by
John Napier of Merchiston, Scotland for calculation of products and quotients of numbers.

7
The method was based on Arab mathematics and the lattice multiplication used by Matrakci
Nasuh in the Umdet-ul Hisab and Fibonacci's work in his Liber Abaci.

# Slide Rule:-
The slide rule, also known colloquially in the United States as a slipstick,
is a mechanical analog computer.The slide rule is used primarily
for multiplication and division, and also for functions such
as exponents, roots, logarithms and trigonometry, but typically not for addition or
subtraction. Though similar in name and appearance to a standard ruler, the slide rule is not
meant to be used for measuring length or drawing straight lines.

# Pascaline:-
Pascaline, also called Arithmetic Machine, the first calculator or adding
machine to be produced in any quantity and actually used. The Pascaline was designed and
built by the French mathematician-philosopher Blaise Pascal between 1642 and 1644.

8
# Leibniz Machine:-
The step reckoner (or stepped reckoner) was a digital
mechanical calculator invented by the German mathematician Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz around 1672 and completed in 1694. The name comes from the translation
of the German term for its operating mechanism, Staffelwalze, meaning 'stepped drum'.

# Charles Babbage Machines:-

# Difference Engine:-
A difference engine created by Charles Babbage is an automatic
mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions. Its name is derived from

9
the method of divided differences, a way to interpolate or tabulate functions by using a
small set of polynomial cs.

# Analytical Engine:-
The Analytical Engine was a proposed mechanical general-
purpose computer designed by English mathematician and computer pioneer Charles
Babbage. It was first described in 1837 as the successor to Babbage's difference engine, a
design for a simpler mechanical computer.

10
# Hollerith Machine:-
The tabulating machine was an electromechanical
machine designed to assist in summarizing information stored on punched cards. Invented
by Herman Hollerith, the machine was developed to help process data for the 1890 U.S.
Census.

Electromechanical Era:-
i. Mark I
ii. ABC (Atanasoft Berry Computer)

# Mark I:-
The IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), called Mark
I by Harvard University’s staff, was a general purpose electromechanical computer that was
used in the war effort during the last part of World War II.

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# ABC (Atanasoft Berry Computer):-
The Atanasoff–Berry computer (ABC) was the first
automatic electronic digital computer, an early electronic digital computing device that has
remained somewhat obscure. The ABC's priority is debated among historians of computer
technology, because it was neither programmable, nor Turing-complete.

Electronic Computer Era:-

i. ENIAC (1946-1947)
ii. EDVAC (1947-1952)
iii. EDSAC (1947-1949)
iv. UNIVAC-1 (1950-1951)

# ENIAC (1946-1947):-
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was
amongst the earliest electronic general-purpose computers made. It was Turing-complete,
digital and able to solve "a large class of numerical problems" through reprogramming.

12
Although ENIAC was designed and primarily used to calculate artilleryfiring tables for
the United States Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory, its first program was a study of the
feasibility of the thermonuclear weapon.

# EDVAC (1947-1952):-
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was
one of the earliest electronic computers. Unlike its predecessor the ENIAC, it
was binary rather than decimal, and was designed to be a stored-program computer.
ENIAC inventors John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert proposed the EDVAC's construction in
August 1944. A contract to build the new computer was signed in April 1946 with an initial
budget of US$100,000. EDVAC was delivered to the Ballistics Research Laboratory in 1949.
The Ballistic Research Laboratory became a part of the US Army Research Laboratory in
1942.

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# EDSAC (1947-1949):-
The Electronic delay storage automatic calculator (EDSAC)
[1]
was an early British computer. Inspired by John von Neumann's seminal First Draft of a
Report on the EDVAC, the machine was constructed by Maurice Wilkes and his team at
the University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in England. EDSAC was the second
electronic digital stored-program computer to go into regular service.

# UNIVAC-1 (1950-1951):-
UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) is a line of
electronic digital stored-program computers starting with the products of the Eckert–
Mauchly Computer Corporation. Later the name was applied to a division of the Remington
Randcompany and successor organizations.

Generation of Computers:-
The classification of computer on the basis of their development of processor
is known as Generation of computer. The computer is classified into following generations:-

i. First Generation Computer (1945-1954)

ii. Second Generation Computer (1955-1964)
iii. Third Generation Computer (1965-1979)
iv. Fourth Generation Computer (1980-Present)
v. Fifth Generation Computer (Present-beyond)

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Character of Generation of Computer:-
# First generation computer:-
Developed : 1945-1954

Based : Vaccum tube

Size : Very large

Language : Machine language

Input : Punch card

Output : Printout display

Main memory : Acoustic delay line

Secondary memory : Magnetic Drum

Speed : few kilohertz

Program : No

Uses : Scientific reserches

# Second generation computer:-

Developed : 1955-1964

Based : Transistor

Size : Smallar than First generation

Language : Assembly language

Input : Punch card

Output : Printouts

Main memory : Magnetic core

Secondary memory : Magnetic disk

Speed : Micro second

Program :

Uses : Scientific Purpose

# Third generation computer:-

Developed : 1965-1979

Based : Integerated Circuit (I.C)

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 Size : Smallar than Second generation

Language : High level language

Input : Keyboard

Output : Monitor

Main memory : Semiconductor memory

Secondary memory :Magnetics disk

Speed : Nano second

Program : Multi programming

# Fourth generation computer:-

Developed : 1980-present

Based : Microprocessor

Size : smallar than Third generation

Language : different programming language

Input : different input devices

Output : different output devices

Main memory : Magnetic disk, Optical disk

Secondary memory : Portable storage device

Speed : Pico second

Program :

# Fifth generation computer:-

Developed : present-beyond

Based : Biochips

Size : smallar than Fourth generation

Language : Natural language

Input : Speech & graphics image

Output : Speech & graphics

Main memory :

Secondary memory :

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 Speed :

Program :

Based on : Parallel processing

Classification of Computers:-
Computers are classified according to working principle, size, brand and
model. A single computer can be microcomputer on the basis of size, IBM compatible on the
basis of the brand, AT computer on the basis of model and digital computer on the basis of
working principle.

On the basic of work:-

i. Analog Computer
ii. Digital Computer
iii. Hybrid Computer

Analog Computer:-

An analog computer or analogue computer is a type of computer that uses the continuously
changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic
quantities to model the problem being solved.

Characteristics of analog computer:-

 It works on continuous data.

 It is specific to a particular task. Hence, it is not versatile.

 Accuracy of analog computer is not so high in computerized to digital computer.

 Generally, analog computer does not have storage capacity as it works on real time basis.

 It also gives the output in the form curve line or graph so it may not be meaningful to all.

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Digital Computer:-

Digital computer, any of a class of devices capable of solving problems by processing

information in discrete form. It operates on data, including magnitudes, letters, and
symbols, that are expressed in binary code—i.e., using only the two digits 0 and 1.

Characteristics of Digital computer:-

 It works on discontinuous or discrete data.
 It works by counting the values rather than measuring.
 It is a general purpose computer. Hence, it is versatile.
 The accuracy of digital computer is very high i.e. always 100%.
 It has large storage capacity and faster processing speed.
 It is completely flexible computer and it can be easily reprogrammed according to the
requirement of user.

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Hybrid Computer:-

Hybrid computers are computers that exhibit features of analog

computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller
and provides logical and numerical operations, while the analog component often serves as
a solver of differential equations and other mathematically complex equations.

The characteristics of Hybrid computer are as follows:

 It works on continuous as well as discrete values.

 It converts the analog values to digital values and not versatile computer.

 It is not easily reprogrammable computer.

 It is of very high cost.

 The examples of hybrid computers are modem, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Image), CT

scan etc.

The practical Examples of hybrid computers are:

 During rocket launching process, the analog computer measures the speed of the rocket,

temperature and pressure of atmosphere. These measurements are then converted into

digital computer to analyze the data for taking appropriate steps on lunching.

 In hospital, analog devices measure the temperature and blood pressure of patients. Then

these measurements are converted into digital signal and fed to the digital computer that

monitors the patient’s vital information

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On the basic of Size:-
i. Super Computer
ii. Mainframe Computer
iii. Mini Computer
iv. Micro Computer

Super Computer:-

A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared to a general-

purpose computer. The performance of a supercomputer is commonly measured in floating-
point operations per second (FLOPS) instead of million instructions per second (MIPS).

Applications of super computer in real life situation are as follows:

 It can be used to forecast the weather and global climate.

 It is used in military research and defense system.
 It is used in Automobile, Aircrafts and Spacecrafts designing.
 It is used for encoding and decoding the sensitive information.
 It is used in seismograph, plasma and nuclear research.
 It is used for the study of DNA and genetics engineering.

Examples of Super Computer:

Year Super computer Location

2002 NEC Earth Simulator Earth Simulator Center, Yokohama, Japan

2005 IBM Blue Gene / L DoE/ US National Nuclear Security Administration,

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, California ,

USA

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Mainframe Computer:-

Mainframe computers or mainframes (colloquially referred to as "big iron")

are computers used primarily by large organizations for critical applications; bulk data
processing, such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning;
and transaction processing.

It is second largest computer which covers about 1000 sq. feet. It is a general purpose computer
which has been designed for large scale data processing. It is also very expensive and high
speed computer system. It supports large numbers of computer terminal with separate input and
output unit in each terminal so that about 100 or more persons can work in this computer at a
time. Time sharing techniques is used to access the same computer at the same time by multiple
users.

Mainframe computers are used in large organizations such as insurance company and banks,
where many people frequently need to use the same data. In a traditional mainframe computer,
each user accesses the mainframe resources through a device called a terminal. There are two
types of terminal: a dumb terminal does not process or store data. It has simply an input output
devices where as an intelligent terminal can perform some processing operations, but it usually
does not have any storage.

Examples of mainframe computers: IBM 1401, IBM 7090, ICL 2950/10 etc.

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Mini Computer:-

A minicomputer, or colloquially mini, is a class of smaller computers that was developed in

the mid-1960s and sold for much less than mainframe and mid-size computers from IBM and
its direct competitors.

It is the medium – sized general purpose computer which was first released
in 1960s. Minicomputer got its name because of small size in comparison to other computer of
those days. The capabilities of a minicomputer are somewhere between those of mainframe and
personal computers. For this reason, minicomputers are also called midrange computers. It
covers about 10 sq. ft. Its CPU can be connected up to 50 terminals so that up to 50 persons can
work in this computer at a time. It is used in medium size organization and co-operation like
bank, insurance company, reservation center etc. Examples of minicomputer: Prime series,
AS/400, AP-3 etc

Micro Computer:-

A macro (short for "macroinstruction", from Greek μακρός 'long') in computer science is a
rule or pattern that specifies how a certain input sequence (often a sequence of characters)
should be mapped to a replacement output sequence (also often a sequence of characters)
according to a defined procedure.

Microprocessor is a small silicon chip which is made integrating millions of components. It is

also called personal computer because it can be used only by a single person at a time. It is

22
easy to handle so it is used in different application areas such as school, college, home, cyber
etc. Microcomputers are of various types. For example: Desktop computer, Laptop Computer,
Notebook, Palmtop computer, Pocket PC etc.

The examples of microcomputer are IBM PC, Apple /Macintosh etc.

On the basic of Brand:-

i. IBM PC
ii. IBM Compatible
iii. Apple/Macintosh

IBM PC:-
The IBM Personal Computer, commonly known as the IBM PC, is the original
version and progenitor of the IBM PC compatible hardware platform. It is IBM model
number 5150, and was introduced on August 12, 1981. It was created by a team of
engineers and designers under the direction of Don Estridge of the IBM Entry Systems
Division in Boca Raton, Florida.

IBM Compatible:-
IBM PC compatible computers are computers similar to the
original IBM PC, XT, and AT, able to use the same software and expansion cards. Such
computers used to be referred to as PC clones, or IBM clones.

23
Apple/Macintosh:-
` The Macintosh (pronounced as /ˈmækɪntɒʃ/ MAK-in-tosh; branded
as Mac since 1998) is a family of personal computers designed, manufactured, and sold
by Apple Inc. since January 1984. The original Macintosh was the first mass-market personal
computer that featured a graphical user interface, built-in screen and mouse.[1] Apple sold
the Macintosh alongside its popular Apple II family of computers for almost ten years before
they were discontinued in 1993.

On the basic of Model:-

i. XT ( Extended Technology )
ii. AT ( Advanced Technology )
iii. PS/2 ( Personal System-2 )

XT (Extended Technology):-
The IBM Personal Computer XT, often shortened to theIBM XT, PC XT,
or simply XT, is a version of the IBM PC with a built-in hard drive. It was released as IBM
Machine Type number 5160 on March 8, 1983. Apart from the hard drive, it was essentially
the same as the original PC, with only minor improvements. The XT was mainly intended as

24
an enhanced IBM PC for business users. Later floppy-only models would effectively replace
the original model 5150 PC. A corresponding 3270 PC featuring 3270 terminal emulation was
released later in October 1983. XT stands for extended Technology.

AT (Advanced Technology):-
Advanced Tech Computers (ATC) takes the time to understand you and
your business to satisfy your computing and networking needs. Our goal is to provide you
with the best service, computer repair, sales, upgrades, and consultation for your computers
(PC) and laptops. It is good to keep your computers up to date and maintained. Maintenance
is the key! We enjoy working with new people, and we look forward to providing you with
custom computer solutions

PS/2 (Personal System-2):-

The Personal System/2 or PS/2 is IBM's third generation
of personal computers. Released in 1987, it officially replaced the IBM PC, XT, AT, and PC
Convertible in IBM's lineup. Many of the PS/2's innovations, such as the 16550 UART (serial
port), 1440 KB 3.5-inch floppy disk format, Model M Keyboard layout, 72-pin SIMMs,
the PS/2 keyboard and mouse ports, and the VGA video standard, went on to become
standards in the broader PC market.

25
On the basic of Purpose:-
i. General Purpose Computer
ii. Specific Purpose Computer

General Purpose Computer:-

A general-purpose computer is one that, given the appropriate
application and required time, should be able to perform most common computing tasks.
Personalcomputers, including desktops, notebooks, smartphones and tablets, are all
examples of general-purpose computers.

Specific Purpose Computer:-

Special-Purpose Computers. As the name states, aSpecial-Purpose
Computer are designed to be taskspecific and most of the times their job is to solve
one particular problem. They are also known as dedicated computers, because they are
dedicated to perfom a single task over and over again.

Mobile Computing:-
Mobile Computing is a generic term that refers to a variety of devices that
allow people to access data and information from wherever they are.

26
 Sometimes referred to as “human computer
interaction” It transports data, voice, and video over a network via a mobile device.

In other word; Mobile computing is human-computer interaction by which a

computer is expected to be transported during normal usage, which allows for transmission
of data, voice and video. It involves Mobile communication, Mobile hardware, and mobile
software.

Number System
A number system is a collection of various symbols which are called digits. It defines how a
number can be represented using distinct symbols.

There are several number systems used in past. It can be categorized into two
groups:-

i. Positional Number System

ii. Non-Positional Number System

Positional Number System:-

The number system which follows place value system is known as Positional
Number System.

For example:-

i. Binary number
ii. Decimal number
iii. Octal number
iv. Hexadecimal number

System Base Symbols Examples

Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 124
Binary 2 0,1 (10100)₂
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (1525)₈
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F (125AD)₁₀

Non-Positional Number System:-

The number system which does not follow place value system is known as
Non-Positional Number System.

For example:- Roman number system

Symbols Value

27
 III 3
V 5
X 10
L 50

Decimal Number System:-

The number system which has base 10 and consist of 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9 is
known as Decimal Number System. It is also known as Denary.

For example:-1233, 6568, 5667, 79489 etc.

Binary Number System:-

The number system which has base 2 and consists of 0 and 1 is known as Binary
Number System. It is also known as language of Electricity, where 1 = voltage and 0 = no
voltage.

For example :- (10110)₂, (101100)₂,(10111000)₂ etc.

Octal Number System:-

The number system which has base 8 and consists of 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 is known as Octal
Number System.

For example:- (1234)₈ , (46666)₈ ,(1564)₈ etc.

Hexadecimal Number System:-

The number system which has base 16 and consist of 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 ,9,A,B,C,D,E
and F is known as Hexadecimal Number System. Where A=10,B=11,C=12,D=13,E=14,F=15.

For examples:- (12AEC)₁₆ ,(55BDB)₁₆ etc.

Conversion of Number Systems:-

Rule 1:-

Other base Decimal

(2, 8, 16)  (10)

Note:-
i. This rule is used only wherever there is base 10 in any of side.

28
 ii. The calculation is always done by other bases (2,8,16) i.e never by 10.

Convert the following:

1. (10101)2 = (?)10
Soln,
(10101)2 = 1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20
= 1 x 16 + 0 x 8 + 1 x 4 + 0 x 2 + 1 x 1
= 16 + 4 + 1
(10101)2 = (21)10

2. (10101)8 = (?)10

Binary Subtraction:-
1’s complement method:-
Step 1: Make equal bits

Step 2: Complement the Subtrahend (negative no)

Step 3: add minuend and complemented subtrahend

Step 4: If there is overflow (or extra) bits

Yes: remove it and add on the same no. to get answer.

No: complement and negate to get answer.

2’s complement method:-

Step 1: make equal bits

Step 2: Complement the Subtrahend (negative no) and add 1 in complemented

Subtrahend

Step 3: add minuend and 2’S complemented subtrahend

Step 4: If there is overflow (or extra) bits

Yes: remove it to get answer.

No: 2’S complement and negate to get answer.

29
9’s complement method:-
Step 1: make equal bits

Step 2: make 9’S complement of subtrahend

Step 3: add minuend and 9’S complemented subtrahend

Step 4: If there is overflow (or extra) bits

Yes: remove it and add on the same no. to get answer

No: complement and negate to get answer.

10’s complement method:-

Step 1: make equal bits

Step 2: make 9’S complement of subtrahend and add 1 in complemented

Subtrahend

Step 3: add minuend and 10’S complemented subtrahend

Step 4: If there is overflow (or extra) bits

Yes: remove it and add on the same no. to get answer

No: 9’S complement and negate to get answer.

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Boolean algebra and logic function:-
Boolean algebra:-
It is a set of rules, laws and theorem by which logical
expression can be expressed symbolically in equation form and manipulated mathematically.

It is developed by George Bool in 1854.

Digital logic:-
Binary logic in the field of computer science is called Digital Logic.

It is at heart of the operation of all modern digital computer.

It is used in:-

i. Computer Programming
ii. Set Theory
iii. Statistics
 Boolean algebra is the branch of mathematics that deals with the study of Boolean
variable, Boolean operation and binary number 0 and 1.
 Boolean function is an expression formed with binary variables, binary operators OR
and AND, unary operator NOT, parentheses and equal sign.
Example: -
Boolean function F1 = (abc’)
The function F1 = 1 if a = 1, b = 1 and c’ = 1 otherwise F = 0.

Boolean variable and its values:-

In Boolean algebra the values of variable may be
represented as :-

i. TRUE or YES or ON or HIGH represents the value

ii. FALSE or NO or OFF or LOW represents the value
 The operations are the functions of one or more Boolean variables in Boolean
algebra which are known as basic operations of Boolean algebra.
Which are:-
i. AND is represented by x . y
ii. OR is represented by x + y
iii. NOT is represented by x’
Where x and y are Boolean variables.

Operator

4+3=7 Operation

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 Operand

Proposition 4+3

Fixed value

Prediction x+y

Conditional

(value not fixed)

Proposition:-
It is a declarative statement that can either be true or false but not both.

For example:-

i. 410 + 310 = 710

ii. 410 + 310 = 810

Note:- Question and exclamation ae not proposition

For example:-

i. What is your name 

ii. Oh what a hot day 

Negation:-
It is an operation that takes a proposition to another proposition “not”,
written, which is interpreted as being true when is false and false when is true. So, it is unary
operator (single-argument)

or, simply the action o logical operation of negating

or making negative.

For example:-

Prediction:-
Something that is affirmed or denied of the subject in a proposition
in logic is known as predicate.

32
For example:-

Operator:-
It is a symbol or sign which causes specific mathematical or logical
manipulation be performed.

Some operator and symbol are:-

Operator Symbol
Addition +
Subtraction -
Multiplication *
Division /
Relation >, <, <=, >=
Logical AND, OR,NOT

Operation:-
Operation is the process of acting operator upon data.

For example:-

3 + 2 = 5 (addition operation)

2x3=6

Operand:-

The value which is to be operated in operation to give the result is called Operand.

For example:-

3+2=5

In this 2 and 3 is operand.

Binary logic:-
It deals with variables that takes two discrete values and with operations
that assume logical meaning.

The variable may be called as true and false

or yes and no, on or off etc.

33
The binary logic to be introduced in this section is equivalent to an algebra is called Boolean
algebra.

AND
This operation is represented by dot.

For example:- x  y = z

Exp 1 Exp 2 Result

0 0 0

1 0 0

0 1 0

1 1 1

OR
This operation is represented by a plus (+) sign .

For example:-

X+y=z

Exp 1 Exp 2 Result

0 0 0

1 0 1

0 1 1

1 1 1

NOT
This operation is represented by a Prime (also bar)

For example:-

X‘=Z

Exp 1 Result

T F

F T

34
Logical Gate (Electronic gate):-
Electronic switch that accept one or more input and give a single
result (output).

Basic Gate:- There are three basic gate:-

i. AND
ii. OR
iii. NOT

AND Gate:-
It gives result True if all the inputs are True otherwise False.

Symbol:-

Expression:- Z = A  B

Truth table:-
A B Z=AB
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

35
Venn Diagram:-

A B C R=A B C
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1

OR Gate:-
It gives result True if anyone of the inputs are True otherwise False.

Symbol:-

Expression:- R = A + B

Truth table:-
A B R=A+B
0 0 0

36
 1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

Venn Diagram:-

A B C R=A+B+C
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

Symbol:-

NOT Gate:-
It complement the input. It takes single input.

Symbol:-

Expression:- R = A’

Truth table:-
A B

37
 0 1
1 0

Venn Diagram:-

Derived Gate:-
There are Four types of derived Gates:-

i. NAND Gate
ii. NOR Gate
iii. X – OR Gate
iv. X – NOR Gate

NAND Gate:- (AND + NOT)

It gives result True if anyone of the results are False and when all inputs are
true, result will be False.

Symbol:-

Expression:- R = (A  B)’

Truth table:-
A B AB R = (A  B)’
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
Venn Diagram:-

NOR Gate- (OR + NOT)

It gives result True if all the inputs are False otherwise False result.

38
Symbol:-

Expression:- R = (A + B)’

Truth table:-
A B A+B R = (A + B)’
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1

Venn Diagram:-

X – OR Gate:- (Exclusively OR)

It gives result True if all the inputs are not same otherwise False result.

Symbol:-

Expression:- R = A’  B + A  B’

Truth table:-
A B A’ A’  B B’ A  B’ R = A’  B + A  B’
0 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0

Venn Diagram:-

X – NOR Gate:- (Exclusively NOR)

It gives result True if all the inputs are same otherwise False result.

39
Symbol:-

Expression:- R = A  B + A’  B’

Truth table:-
A B AB A’ B’ A’  B’ R = A  B + A’  B’
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1

Venn Diagram:-

De Morgan’s Theorm:-
i. (A +B)’ = A’  B’
ii. (A  B)’ = A’ + B’

Truth table:-
A B A+B (A + B)’ A’ B‘ A’  B’
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0

From the above table 4th and 7th table are equivalent, Hence De Morgan’s I theorm proved.

Truth table:-
A B AB ( A  B)’ A’ B‘ A’ + B’
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0

From the above table 4th and 7th table are equivalent, Hence De Morgan’s II theorm proved.

Draw the Circuit diagram:-

i. ABC’D + AB’D + AC(BD)’

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Duality Principle:-
 +

+ 

0 1
1 0

For example:-

(X’ + 1)  (Y  X)

= (X’  0) + (Y + X)

 Duality Principle of Boolean algebra is derived by:-

i. Replacing AND operator by OR.
ii. Replacing OR operator by AND.
iii. All 1 are changed into 0.
iv. All 0 are changed into 1.
v. All variables are not changed.
vi. All component are not changed.

Laws:-
1. A + A = A
AA=A
2. A + 1 = 1
A0=0
3. (A)’ = A
4. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(A  B)  C = A  (B  C)

5. (A + B)’ = A’ B’
(A  B)’ = A’+ B’

6. A + (A  B) = A
A  (A + B) = A

7. A + 0 =A
A 1=A

8. A + B = B + A

41
 A  B=B  A

9. A + A’ = 1
A  A’ = 0

10. A + (B  C) = (A + B)  (A + C)
A  (B +C) = (A  B) + (A  C)

INPUT DEVICES

1. Keyboard:

Keyboard is an input device. It enables users to enter data into a computer.

Computer keyboards are similar to typewriter keyboards but contain
additional keys. When the user types a character, electronic circuits in the
keyboard translate into bit charges. They travel to a buffer, the when they
appear in the buffer, and processor sends it to the RAM. At the same time,
the processor instructs the monitor to put the character on the screen.

42
Keyboard consist the following keys.

 Alphabetic keys.
 Numeric keys.
 Function keys.
 Control keys etc.
According to keys keyboard are again classified by

 XT ( Extended keyboard ) : 85 keys

 AT (Advanced keyboard) : 101 keys
 Enhanced keyboard : 103 or more keys

2. Mouse:

A mouse is a pointing device it is held in one hand and move across a flat
surface. A mouse may have two or three buttons. Mouse is one of the most
widely used input devices of the computer. We can select the command
draw pictures; edit text etc by pressing the mouse button.

Type of mouse
43
 Mechanical Mouse
 Optical Mouse

One type of mouse has a round ball under the bottom of the mouse that
rolls and turns by wheels which control the direction of the pointer on the
screen. This is called mechanical Mouse. Another type of mouse uses an
optical system to the track the movement of the mouse. This is called
optical mouse. Laptop computers use touch pads, buttons and other devices
to control the pointer.

3. Microphone

It is an input device of computer it is used for recording voice and sound.

It is mainly used for voice mail, video chat, conferencing etc.

4. Joystick

44
A joystick is also pointing device. It is used to move the cursor on a CRT
screen A Joystick is a stick which has spherical ball at its lower end as well
as upper end. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The Joystick can
be moved right or left, forward or backyard. The electronic circuitry inside
the joystick detects and measures the displacement of the joystick from its
central position, the information is sent to the processor jousting is used in
games.

5. Scanner

Scanner is a device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting,

or an object, and converts it to a digital image. The resulting image can be
stored in a file as Bit Map or JPEG (Junction photographic exports Group),
displayed on a screen, and manipulated by programs. User can not directly
edit text that has been scanned.

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46