Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Desalination
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/desal

Modeling of spiral wound membrane desalination modules and

plants – review and research priorities
A.J. Karabelas a,⁎, M. Kostoglou a,b, C.P. Koutsou a
a
Chemical Process and Energy Resources Institute, Centre for Research and Technology - Hellas, P.O. Box 60361, 6th km Charilaou-Thermi Road, Thermi, Thessaloniki, GR 570–01, Greece
b
Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

H I G H L I G H T S

• Systematic review presented of SWM-module modelling requirements and approaches

• Module geometric parameters play dominant role in SWM desalination performance
• The complicated SWM modeling problem characterized by spatio-temporal variability
• “Separation of scales” approach to global modelling demonstrated to be effective
• R&D priorities outlined regarding development of a global dynamic simulator

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Spiral Wound Membrane (SWM) modules are the basic components of modern desalination and water
Received 30 August 2014 treatment technology. To advance this technology, a comprehensive SWM-element model and related perfor-
Received in revised form 1 October 2014 mance simulator are indispensable tools. A flexible and efficient simulator is needed to optimize SWM modules,
Accepted 3 October 2014
and to be integrated into general-purpose software for designing and monitoring/controlling entire desalination
Available online 23 October 2014
plants. Desirable features of SWM-model are outlined first, considering practical constraints. Reviewing related
Keywords:
work, it is recognized that the complicated physico-chemical phenomena (and interactions) occurring in
Spiral-wound membrane (SWM) module SWM-modules extend over several length- and time-scales, thus rendering impossible direct solution of the
Desalination plants complete problem. Therefore, a tractable modeling-structure is needed, whereby properly correlated results of
Water treatment detailed studies (at small scale) on flow and mass transfer in spacer-filled channels, and sub-models representing
Comprehensive model the membrane function, are integrated into an appropriate modeling framework for a broad spatial domain, i.e.
Performance simulation for performance simulation of entire SWM modules. Available steady-state models are reviewed and investiga-
SWM design characteristics tions toward development of dynamic simulators are outlined. Typical results are discussed of detailed two-
dimensional distributions of process parameters, throughout the SWM-modules in a pressure vessel, for
steady-state operation. An overall assessment of simulating SWM-module performance and of design-
parameter effects, considering industry requirements, leads to suggestions on R&D priorities.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
1.1. The Spiral Wound Membrane (SWM) module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
1.2. The need for a comprehensive SWM model and related performance simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
1.3. Desirable features of comprehensive models – industry requirements and input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
1.4. Scope of this review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
2. The structure of an integrated membrane separation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
2.1. General model description – flow fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
2.2. Coupling of flow and concentration fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
2.3. Dealing with the complete problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: karabaj@cperi.certh.gr (A.J. Karabelas).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.10.002
0011-9164/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
166 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186

3. Investigations in a reduced spatial domain – feed spacer scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

3.1. Problem formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.1.1. Geometry of spacer-filled channel in 2D and 3D simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.1.2. Flow and mass transfer parameters in spacer-filled channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.2. Two-dimensional simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.2.1. Concentration polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.3. Three-dimensional simulations – proposed novel spacer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.3.1. Novel spacer geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.4. Experimental studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4. Development of a comprehensive integrated model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.1. Steady – state modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.2. Dynamic model development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5. Desalination plant modeling – performance simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.1. Outline of SWM module steady-state simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.2. Indicative results of parametric studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6. Discussion – R & D priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.1. Development of global model of SWM module performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.2. Comments on specific SWM design parameters and related research needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.2.1. Membrane envelope number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.2.2. Retentate-side spacer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.2.3. Permeate-side fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

1. Introduction issues related to membrane desalination technology can be found else-

1.1. The Spiral Wound Membrane (SWM) module
The membrane technology for water treatment has experienced tre-
mendous growth since its inception half a century ago (e.g. [1,2]), and it
is essential for achieving a sustainable global development. The Reverse
Osmosis (RO) membrane process is currently the undisputed leading
method, and the Spiral Wound Membrane (SWM) module the basic
component for building a very broad range of water treatment facilities,
for sea- and brackish-water desalination as well as purification of as-
sorted effluents for reuse. Johnson and Busch [3] have presented an illu-
minating account of technological developments and industrial
requirements that have led to the dominance of SWM modules in desa-
lination and water treatment applications. Other reviews on significant
where [4–8].
A typical SWM module is schematically shown in Fig. 1. A membrane
envelope is made of two sheets, glued at the three edges, with a fabric
filling the permeate channel. The open permeate-side of this envelope
is fixed on a perforated inner tube where the permeate is collected. Sev-
eral envelopes, separated by relatively thin net-type spacers, are tightly
wrapped around the perforated inner tube. Although the SWM module
was invented almost 50 years ago [2], the morphology of commercial
elements, including the recently developed large 16- and 18-inch ele-
ments, has remained essentially unchanged. Moreover, plans [9] for
even larger (24-inch) modules, are apparently based on the same
SWM morphology. During recent decades, very significant improve-
ments in SWM performance were due to improved membrane surface
characteristics [7]. Regarding the SWM module arrangement in plants,

Fig. 1. A view of the Spiral Wound Membrane (SWM) module for desalination, showing its configuration [3].
 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186
noteworthy improvements have been made (e.g. [10–12]), mostly to
accommodate the SWM elements in series within the pressure vessels
and avoid leaks, as well as to prevent module damage and to maintain
its integrity (i.e., by anti-telescoping devices, special connectors and
O-ring arrangement, etc).
In the compact design of SWM modules, packing a large membrane
surface area per unit volume leads to very narrow spacer-filled flow
channels (of gap less than 1 mm), which tend to aggravate operating
problems, i.e. friction losses, membrane fouling and scaling. Moreover,
this design poses serious challenges to investigators aiming to study in
detail SWM module performance. Specifically, despite recent progress
(e.g. [13,14]) detailed/local non-invasive measurements inside real
modules are almost impossible to make, thereby depriving investigators
of essential information. In fact, only data on average SWM operating
parameters (e.g. module-average flux, pressure drop) can be obtained
as well as information from post mortem module autopsies to deter-
mine membrane condition and fouling patterns; such information has
obvious limitations. Development of general-purpose SWM simulation
tools has been hindered by these difficulties, which (in addition to
other consequences) have had significant negative impact on the ap-
proaches followed to develop large size SWM modules. For instance, pa-
pers from industry (e.g. [15,16]) suggest that, in the development of
large size elements, time-consuming “trial-and-error” approaches
were taken, as apparently no reliable predictive design tools were avail-
able. Indeed, Yun et al. [15] reported that the specific flux [gal/ft2/day/
psi] of a new (under development) 16-inch element, using long-width
leaves, was found in a pilot to be clearly inferior to that of shorter leaves
as well as of standard 8-inch SWM elements; the longer width 16-inch
element under development (1st generation) also exhibited significant-
ly greater fouling. Lomax [16], in an interesting account of SWM indus-
trial developments, reported similar difficulties in early efforts to
develop 12-inch SWM elements. However, of particular interest to this
review is the paper by Johnson and Busch [3] where a comprehensive
industrial perspective on SWM module design parameters is provided,
including uncertainties and areas for improvement.
1.2. The need for a comprehensive SWM model and related performance
simulator
The general objective of modeling SWM modules is to develop an
appropriate computational tool (comprehensive, flexible, convenient
to use) enabling to simulate in a reliable manner the performance of in-
dividual SWM desalination modules (within the series of modules
housed in a pressure vessel) as well as of entire plants. Such a tool is
most useful to industry at the
equipment/module design and development stage, to run parametric
studies and assess the effect of SWM design characteristics on the
main process operating parameters [3,17];
plant design and performance optimization stage, helping to select the
best SWM types, the optimum plant configuration (e.g. [18]) as well
as optimum operating conditions for a specific water treatment task
(e.g.[19,20]);
plant operation stage, including plant detailed on-line monitoring
and control [21].
SWM models and related tools are also valuable in systematic re-
search activities involving comparative assessments on the importance
of various equipment design and operating variables on SWM perfor-
mance. These assessments facilitate prioritization of R&D activities,
aimed at equipment and process development.
The needs of industry in the aforementioned areas (including those
of SWM module manufacturers, of engineering firms and of plant
operators) are served in two ways:
a) Employing commercial software available by membrane manufac-
turers (ROSA, IMSDesign, Q+ Projection Software, etc.). These tools
167
use as input the SWM module geometric design and other parame-
ters of the particular brands marketed by those companies, which
render them quite inflexible for general users wishing to perform
detailed parametric studies. Moreover, no information is available
on the models and computer codes employed. The output of these
programs provides average quantities per SWM module in a pressure
vessel (i.e. pressure drop, permeate flux, salt rejection, solution prop-
erties), which seem to be adequate for basic engineering tasks and
for overall system analysis in a steady-state operating mode. The per-
formance of these codes is generally considered quite reliable for the
particular SWM module types to which they are applicable. Howev-
er, these commercial tools do not provide any information on the
two-dimensional distribution (throughout the membrane sheets)
of the key process parameters, such as local trans-membrane pres-
sure (TMP), permeate flux, flow velocities and pressure distribution
at the permeate side.
b) Using practical experience. There is, indeed, extensive practical ex-
perience in industry on all issues related to the design, fabrication
and operation of SWM modules and plants (e.g. [3,22]). This invalu-
able stock of information (mostly comprising plant operating data)
is used to successfully design large membrane plants. Moreover, it
serves the membrane industry to validate the respective commercial
codes, and to make other equipment and process improvements;
e.g. special arrangement of SWM modules to equalize flux distribu-
tion along the pressure vessels [23–25].
In parallel with industrial developments, rather extensive research
(reviewed herein) has laid the groundwork, and has contributed direct-
ly and indirectly to improvements in SWM module and plant design.
However, in the authors opinion, it is questionable whether sufficient
interaction has taken place between industry and research organiza-
tions, in exploiting each other’s competencies and attributes, toward
the development of much needed reliable models and advanced
simulators.
1.3. Desirable features of comprehensive models – industry requirements
and input
The key parameters and issues in the design and operation of SWM
modules and plants (to be fully accounted for by a reliable simulator)
comprise:
• Geometric SWM module design variables; these include mainly the
membrane sheet dimensions, the detailed geometrical characteristics
of feed-side spacer and of permeate side fabric.
• Membrane surface physico-chemical properties, including intrinsic spe-
cies rejection characteristics, surface energy, electrical charges.
• Operating system parameters, including the controlled design
variable (commonly the percentage permeate recovery at the
pressure-vessel level), and the spatial distribution of state vari-
ables (mainly TMP, axial feed-side velocity and pressure, retentate
and permeate properties).
• Inherent operating problems that lead to temporal variability of
SWM module and desalination plant performance; these problems
include organic and colloidal membrane fouling, biofouling and
scaling.
Accurate results from a SWM simulator, among other uses, should
facilitate meeting the main plant design and operation targets, i.e. the
minimization of unit product cost and of overall environmental impact,
including reduced specific energy consumption.
Considering the foregoing membrane process conditions and re-
quirements, the output of a comprehensive simulation tool should in-
clude: The spatial and temporal variation throughout the membrane
plant of all key process parameters, including the local TMP and permeate
flux as well as the permeate quality, under conditions of simultaneous
membrane fouling. A simulation tool with such features is currently
168 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186
unavailable, although significant efforts to develop one have been made
and are in progress. In planning and performing the SWM modeling
tasks, one should take advantage of the aforementioned industrial expe-
rience and requirements. As subsequently discussed, industrial experi-
ence, in addition to assisting in practical issues and facilitating
reasonable modeling simplifications, indicates that there are essential
limitations on the permissible range of SWM design parameter values,
mainly regarding the membrane sheet size and envelope arrangement,
as well as the characteristics of feed- and permeate-spacer.
1.4. Scope of this review
This paper aims to review relevant work leading to the development
of comprehensive models, which was carried out mostly during the past
20 years. It is recognized at the outset that the phenomena determining
the SWM performance extend over several length-scales both in space
and time; i.e. from physical-chemical processes occurring at the
micro-scale to the large scale of entire membrane sheets. Therefore,
studies (mostly local) on modeling flow and mass transfer in spacer-
filled channels are outlined first, followed by review of efforts to devel-
op integrated models for an entire membrane sheet or SWM module.
Available steady-state integrated models are reviewed, efforts to devel-
op dynamic simulators are summarized, and indicative simulation re-
sults are provided. Finally, a critical assessment of the state of the art
in modeling SWM module performance is summarized and R&D prior-
ities are outlined.
2. The structure of an integrated membrane separation model
2.1. General model description – flow fields
The aforementioned desirable features of a generalized SWM model
clearly suggest that the development of a comprehensive dynamic
Fig. 2. Structure of integrated model of desalination membrane module performance. Information flow between sub-models simulating processes at different length scales.
process simulator should be pursued. However, mathematical modeling
of the dynamic operation of SWM module is a very difficult task due to
the complexity of the underlying physical – chemical processes and of
its complicated geometric characteristics. The problem is literally speak-
ing a multi-scale one as it includes spatial scales from the microscale
(where molecular and fouling phenomena occur) to the large scale of
the entire membrane element. The temporal scales also vary between
short scale characterizing phenomena usually at the membrane surface
(e.g. solids attachment, nucleation) to that of long term SWM operation.
A general description of the integrated model, that accounts for all
the phenomena occurring within SWM, is provided in the following
with the aid of the information flow diagram of Fig. 2. Briefly, processes
at three length scales are grouped therein; i.e.
i) phenomena at the microscale mainly related to species interaction
with, and deposition on, the membranes, which impart a temporal var-
iability to the SWM module performance; ii) phenomena at a larger
scale (spacer scale), commonly represented by the “unit cell” of the
retentate spacer, and iii) processes at (a still larger) mesoscale, referring
to the membrane sheet. The “information-flow” between the phenom-
ena at these different scales, including the interaction between dis-
solved and/or dispersed species in the treated fluid, is marked in
Fig. 2. It is evident that if no depositing species are present, the system
is far from equilibrium (no scaling), and the intrinsic membrane proper-
ties do not change with time, then the phenomena (at the microscale)
are absent and the SWM module operates at steady-state conditions.
This is the (comparatively) easier case to model, where considerable
progress has been made as subsequently discussed.
Fig. 3 depicts the geometric domain, where the problem is defined,
comprising a planar membrane sheet and (due to symmetry) half a
retentate and half a permeate channel on either side of the membrane.
The consideration of this representative ‘elementary’ domain is based
on the realistic assumption that a SWM is comprised of a sufficiently
large number of sheets, so that one can safely ignore effects at the
 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186
Retentate Channel
Permeate Channel
Computational
Domain
Fig. 3. A view of the representative computational domain, for a stack of flat-sheet membranes, which includes half a retentate and permeate channel with a desalination
membrane in-between.
ends of the membrane stack. However, the real structure of the com-
mercial element introduces two complexities compared with the
above simple picture. The first complexity is the curvature of the SWM
sheets which may influence the flow fields in the retentate channel; it
should be noted that this effect has been dealt with in the literature
[26], with indications that it may not be significant. The second com-
plexity is related to the arrangement pattern between the sheets in
the element (especially near the permeate tube), which appears to be
more complicated than the simple planar sheet typically considered;
this effect has not been examined in the literature, to the best of the au-
thors knowledge.
Correctly modeling the flow fields at both retentate- and permeate-
side is essential. For the planar geometry considered, starting point to
formulate the retentate side problem are the Navier–Stokes equations
that must be solved in the flow field defined by the net-type spacers
and the flat membrane [27]. To formulate the permeate-side flow prob-
lem, porous media equations are considered since the size of spacer
voids is much smaller than the channel gap, so that the typical homog-
enization procedure for porous media can be applied. The two flow
fields are linked through Darcy’s law, integrated across the membrane
that separates the two flow channels. The formal boundary conditions
are the inlet pressure, the retentate outlet pressure and the permeate
outlet pressure. The difference between the inlet and permeate outlet
pressure drives the separation process whereas the difference between
the inlet- and retentate outlet-pressure drives the retentate flow. The
practical boundary conditions are the inlet and the permeate pressures
as well as the feed flow rate. The aforementioned system of equations
describes the purely hydrodynamic problem [27].
2.2. Coupling of flow and concentration fields
In parallel, the species conservation equations should be considered.
The concentration field of the ionic species is governed by the Stefan-
Maxwell equations [28]. Considering the small concentration of crystal-
lizing dissolved species (the only practical exception is NaCl) the use of
the equivalent Nernst-Planck equations is much more convenient [28].
Also the conditions of electro-neutrality and zero electrical current
must be taken into account [29]. The incorporation of appropriate
chemical equilibria relations in the transport equations is also needed.
The equilibria between the species can be determined from thermody-
namic considerations [30] (for which special codes exist [31]); however,
the transport dynamics can lead to deviation from equilibrium so the ki-
netic constants of the occurring reactions are needed, which are difficult
to determine [32,33].
There is a two-way coupling between the flow and concentration
fields; specifically, the concentration depends on the velocity through
the convection terms and (in turn) the velocity depends on concentra-
tion through the osmotic pressure which determines the wall flux. Typ-
ically, the membrane rejection of the ionic species is incomplete, thus a
certain amount can pass into the permeate channel. This phenomenon
is described through the so called rejection coefficient which is a local
characteristic of the membrane, and it is related to the membrane
physico-chemical properties (pore size distribution, charges) through
169
Membrane
z
y
lower scale theories, referred to as membrane transport models [34];
the term ‘transport’ here refers to permeation through the membrane.
From the practical point of view, the water permeance and the solute re-
jection are the most important measures of the membrane perfor-
mance. These quantities can be determined in principle from
membrane transport models. There are several approaches for the com-
putation of these quantities, ranging from empirical “black box” models
to mechanistic models taking into account the structural and physico-
chemical properties of the membrane. In the simplest case the parame-
ters can be assumed to be functions of temperature, pressure and
concentration. In the problem considered here, there is a spatial varia-
tion of the membrane parameters due to spatial distribution of concen-
tration and pressure; therefore, a membrane operation model is
necessary to transform intrinsic membrane properties to measured
quantities. A characteristic case is the one of constant rejection coeffi-
cient [35]; a distinction has to be made between the intrinsic (local) re-
jection coefficient which is a membrane property and the effective
(observed or global) coefficient which is a measured quantity and de-
pends on membrane operation. More complicated membrane transport
models relate rejection coefficient to water flux as well, as is the exten-
sively used Spiegler-Kedem model [34,36]; even more complex models
require solution of the conservation equations inside the pores of the
membrane [37]. A very recent review [34] provides a fairly thorough
critical assessment on membrane transport models. In any case, such a
model is employed in the boundary condition of solute on the surface
of the membrane.
The conservation equations must be solved for the permeate side as
well, accounting for the incompletely rejected ionic species. Conserva-
tion equations for non-ionic substances must be also considered (e.g.
organic macromolecules, microbial cells, colloidal particles). These sub-
stances are typically completely rejected by the RO membranes;
therefore, the corresponding conservation equations can include only
convection and diffusion terms.
2.3. Dealing with the complete problem
The above description (considering that no species deposition oc-
curs within the SWM module) provides a view of the pseudo-steady
conditions of membrane separation. In principle, the corresponding sys-
tem of equations can be solved to fully determine the flow fields in the
membrane module. However, mainly the geometric complexity of the
retentate side renders such direct attack on the problem practically im-
possible. For instance, taking into account that the ratio of the mem-
brane sheet length to the spacer “unit cell” [38] characteristic size is of
order 100, it is evident that the direct numerical simulation of the entire
membrane sheet requires the discretization of too many unit cells, i.e. of
order 10,000. Further, as subsequently discussed, the geometry of the
unit cell is quite complicated and a fine grid is required to obtain an ac-
curate numerical simulation; it is clear, therefore, that the direct numer-
ical solution of the conservation equations in the entire-sheet scale is
prohibitive. Consequently, efforts have focused to study in detail sepa-
rately the flow field and related phenomena at reduced length scale, no-
tably at the scale of the “unit cell” [38].
170 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186

Fig. 4. Spacer filament arrangements in a two-dimensional channel: a) zigzag, b) submerged, c) cavity in outer and inner wall [39].

3. Investigations in a reduced spatial domain – feed spacer scale
The most important flow field in the SWM module is that formed by
two neighboring membrane sheets separated by a thin net-type spacer;
the latter is in contact with the active membrane surfaces, where the
species separation process takes place. Therefore, the flow field detailed
characteristics directly affect the physico-chemical phenomena at the
membrane surface, which determine the effectiveness of separation.
This flow field, comprising a very narrow channel with the insert, is 3-
dimensional and quite complicated to investigate both theoretically
and experimentally. To get an improved understanding of the effect of
spacer types on fluid dynamics and mass transfer, numerous studies
have been performed with simplified 2-D geometries as well as with
the more realistic, yet more difficult, 3-D geometries [28]. Computation-
al and some experimental studies with such geometries will be briefly
reviewed in this section.
the channel height (H = 2D). Moreover, the distance between the par-
allel cylindrical filaments of the top and bottom row are commonly
equal (L1 = L2 = L). Consequently, in most studies the geometrical
characteristics are limited to the ratio of the filament distance over
their diameter (L/D), the crossing angle (β) and the flow attack angle
(α). In practice and in the majority of published works, the ratio L/D
varies between 5 and 12, whereas the angles α and β are in the range
0°–90° and 30°–120°, respectively. For practical reasons, it is advanta-
geous to have a symmetric flow field with respect to the mean
flow direction [38], i.e. α = 45°. Therefore, three geometric param-
eters are sufficient to describe the bi-planar spacers of Fig. 5 (diameter
L/D, crossing angle β, and spacer thickness commonly H = 2D).
3.1.2. Flow and mass transfer parameters in spacer-filled channels
The Reynolds number (Re) for flow in spacer-filled channels is de-
fined as

3.1. Problem formulation DUρ

Re ¼ ð1Þ
μ
3.1.1. Geometry of spacer-filled channel in 2D and 3D simulations
The flow geometry in 2D simulations is a plane channel formed by
where ρ and μ are fluid density and viscosity and U is a characteristic ve-
the two flat membranes (of thickness H) wherein an array of parallel fil-
locity which could be either the effective velocity (Ueff), taking into ac-
aments is inserted with their axes in a direction normal to the mean
count the porosity of the channel, or the superficial velocity Uo (based
flow; the filaments are regularly spaced at a distance L. Various spacer
on empty channel). Of particular importance is the selection of an ap-
filament geometries have been used with cross-sections usually circular
propriate characteristic length D, which (in spacer-filled channels)
(of diameter D), square, triangular, elliptical, etc. The most frequently
could be the:
studied spacer configurations are the so-called (e.g. [39]) i) submerged,
ii) zigzag, iii) i-cavity and v) o-cavity, as shown in Fig. 4. The study of • hydraulic diameter, Dh
the particular geometric filament arrangements, regarding their relative • spacer filament diameter, Df
position with respect to the membrane walls (e.g. whether in contact or • channel height, H
not) provides insights into the function of real spacers.
The flow geometry considered in 3D simulations is an approxima-
tion of the narrow channels with spacers which are encountered in spi-
ral wound elements at the retentate side. The flow field geometry is
determined by the net-type bi-planar filament spacer, which is formed
by two layers of straight cylindrical filaments. In each layer the fila-
ments are parallel, having different orientation, and intersect at a char-
acteristic angle β, as shown in Fig. 5. In general, the geometric
characteristics of such spacers are as follows:
• Diameter of the top filament, D1
• Diameter of the bottom filament, D2
• Distance between the top cylindrical filaments, L1
• Distance between the bottom cylindrical filaments, L2
• Angle between crossing filaments, β
• Flow attack angle, α
In most studies, spacer geometrical characteristics are close to com-
mercially available spacers. Thus, the diameters of the top and bottom
cylindrical filaments are considered equal (D1 = D2 = D), and half of Fig. 5. Geometrical characteristics of retentate spacers used in 3D simulations.
 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186
In the case of hydraulic diameter Dh, account is taken of the channel
voidage ε, which is determined by the spacer characteristics. However,
as subsequently discussed, spacers of the same L/D ratio (and voidage
ε) form substantially different flow fields with different behavior if the
characteristic angle β is different. Therefore, merely using the hydraulic
diameter Dh to develop generalized correlations for friction losses and
mass transfer is inadequate, unless there is specification of the parame-
ter value for β (and α), for which the correlations (of experimental or
other data) are applicable. Unfortunately, the often quoted Schock and
Michel [40] correlations, using the hydraulic diameter Dh, have this sig-
nificant limitation and should not be used indiscriminately for any type
of spacer arrangement. Similarly, correlations using Re based on fila-
ment diameter, Df or channel gap H are incomplete unless L/D and β pa-
rameter values are specified.
Results are presented in terms of dimensionless quantities including
dimensionless pressure drop, Re number as well as Schmidt (Sc) and
Sherwood (Sh) numbers defined as:
μ greatly reduced Reynolds numbers (~150). Relevant to turbulence pro-
Sc ¼
ρ  Diff
kD
Sh ¼
Diff
where k is the mass transfer coefficient and Diff a relevant diffusion
coefficient.
Fluid dynamics and mass transfer in spacer-filled channels, is de-
scribed by the Navier–Stokes, continuity and mass balance equations,
considering Newtonian incompressible fluid:
∂u 1 2 ∂C 1
2
þ u:∇u ¼ −∇P þ ∇ u ; ∇:u ¼ 0 þ u:∇C ¼ ∇ C
∂t Re ∂t Re  Sc
For the problem at hand, permeation velocities are orders of magni-
tude smaller than the cross flow velocities, thus justifying the assump-
tion (for a basic solution to the fluid flow problem) that the
membrane surface is effectively impermeable where the no-slip bound-
ary condition can be applied. Greater attention should be given to
boundary conditions for the mass balance equations, where either con-
stant wall flux or constant wall concentration can be used.
As outlined in the foregoing section, a complete formulation should
account for membrane permeability and species rejection, so that the
retentate flow field is linked with that at permeate side. Therefore, the
local fluid velocity normal to the membrane (or the local permeate
flux Jv) must be related to the membrane properties. Although several
membrane transport models exist of varying complexity, for the pur-
pose of this discussion one can consider the commonly employed
Spiegler-Kedem model [34]
1 drical filaments. Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS) were performed
Jv ¼ ðΔP−σΔπ Þ
Rm μ
where Rm is the membrane resistance, ΔP is the trans-membrane pres-
sure, σ is the reflection coefficient (quantifying the rejection of ionic
species) and Δπ is the osmotic pressure. Details on the boundary condi-
tions at the membrane surfaces (Fig. 5) are provided in Fimbres-Weihs
and Wiley [28] for permeable and impermeable walls.
The regular pattern of the spacer geometry, i.e. a multitude of “unit
cells” symmetrically arranged, suggests that it is realistic to assume a
spatially periodic velocity field across the spacer-filled channel. Thus,
the periodic conditions have been successfully employed to describe
transport phenomena is such flow fields. This assumption leads to
much reduced computational load, allowing the use of very fine grid
to capture the detailed flow field and mass transfer features. In this
case, the flow is assumed to be periodic, with periodicity L in the x
and z directions (Fig. 5). Details on the implementation of the periodic
171
boundary conditions in the flow problem are provided in [38,41]. The
treatment of mass transfer with periodic boundary conditions (with
permeable or impermeable walls) is outlined in [28]. If periodicity is
not adopted, usual boundary conditions at the inlet, outlet, symmetry
planes and non-permeable walls such as spacer surfaces and channel
walls that are impermeable, are presented in detail elsewhere [28].
3.2. Two-dimensional simulations
The flow field is comparatively simple so that the currently available
very accurate direct numerical simulation methods render feasible de-
tailed flow description for Reynolds numbers on the order of a few thou-
sands, and certainly within the Re range of interest to membrane
processes. In early work, Karniadakis et al. [42] studied turbulence pro-
moters for heat transfer enhancement in a plane-channel, with a peri-
odic array of small-diameter cylinders. The latter was found to lead to
flow destabilization by essentially the same mechanisms as in an
empty channel (i.e. formation of Tollmien–Schlichting waves), but at
ð2Þ
motion are also the studies of Chen et al. [43] and Zovatto and
Pedrizzetti [44], where flow features and stability were studied for var-
ious geometric arrangements of a single cylinder in a plane-channel.
ð3Þ Kang and Chang [45], performed steady-state numerical simulations of
mass transfer in channel containing zig-zag and cavity type spacers.
The flow field was described as well as local Sherwood numbers at the
channel walls. Results of flow visualization experiments were reported
to be in good agreement with simulations for low Reynolds numbers.
Cao et al. [46] using turbulent modeling studied two-dimensional
flow in a short channel containing two cylinders at various arrange-
ments i.e. cavity, zigzag and submerged. High shear stress regions and
eddies were identified in the channel due to the cylindrical filaments
ð4Þ whereas mass transfer enhancement on the membrane was directly re-
lated to the high shear stresses, velocity fluctuations, and eddy forma-
tion. Pressure drop and overall mass transfer coefficients were
obtained for various inlet velocities.
Schwinge et al. [47] visualized the flow patterns for different fila-
ment configurations involving variations in mesh length, filament di-
ameter and for channel Reynolds numbers up to 1000. It was reported
that the onset of unsteadiness occurred at much smaller Re numbers
than in an empty narrow channel which depended on spacer configura-
tion and mesh length. Indicatively, this onset was found to occur at Re
numbers of 80, 300 and 400, for submerged, cavity and zigzag spacer
configurations, respectively. These authors also performed direct nu-
merical simulations of flow [48] and mass transfer [49] in channels con-
taining five cylinders. The effect of various configurations on flow
characteristics such as pressure drop, eddy formation, wall-shear stress-
es, and mass transfer was examined.
Koutsou et al. [41] studied transport phenomena in a two-
dimensional geometry containing a periodic array of submerged cylin-
ð5Þ
over a range of Reynolds numbers typical of membrane modules,
while periodic boundary conditions were applied, thus restricting the
computational domain to one unit cell. The results indicate that the
flow becomes unstable at a critical Reynolds number 60, and progres-
sively tends to a chaotic state. Above a Reynolds number 78 wall eddies
appear, conjugate to those shed by the cylinder. This distinct character-
istic of the flow in the channel wall is due to the interaction of the vor-
ticity shed by the cylinders with the vorticity layers created on the
channel walls. Statistical characteristics were obtained such as time-
averaged velocities, Reynolds stresses, wall-shear rates and pressure
drop.
Li et al. [39,50] applied a two-dimensional steady-state model and
various spacer configurations to study the effect of curvature of
spacer-filled channel on hydrodynamics [39] and particle deposition
[50]. An increase in channel curvature resulted in different profiles of
shear stress between the membrane surfaces, with the difference
172 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186

becoming more pronounced at higher inlet velocities [39]. Particle de-
position [50] was found to be strongly affected by flow distribution, de-
creasing in areas of high shear stress. Zigzag and submerged spacers
exhibited reduced curvature effect on particle deposition whereas
cavity-type spacers enhanced this effect and led to unequal deposition
of the colloidal material on the inner and outer membranes, which is ex-
pected to have negative practical consequences. Typical significant re-
sults of two dimensional simulations are summarised in Table 1.
3.2.1. Concentration polarization
The simpler 2D geometry facilitates studies of concentration polari-
zation, which are summarized in the following. Contributions in under-
standing transport and concentration polarization phenomena in
nanofiltration were made by Geraldes et al. [51–53]. Their simulations
were in accord with experimental observations of fluid flow, concentra-
tion polarization and solute rejection of nanofiltration membranes.
The studies relevant to spacers were limited to a 2D ladder-type config-
uration [51–53] and permeation through one membrane was consid-
ered. As in previous studies, overall mass transport enhancement and
concentration polarization reduction was observed for filaments at-
tached onto the membranes, compared to the opposite side of the chan-
nel, and to an empty channel. This result was also confirmed by Ahmad
et al. [54,55] who studied the effect of three 2D spacer configurations
(circular, square and triangle geometries touching one wall) on concen-
tration polarization and permeation under steady [54] and unsteady
[55] hydrodynamics. A spacer performance evaluation revealed that
for Re numbers prevailing in operating SWM modules (Re b 400) the cy-
lindrical filaments are associated with smaller concentration factor. In
parallel, the impact of different configurations (submerged and zigzag)
and of the spacing between square obstacles/filaments was studied by
Ma et al. [56,57] using the Petrov/Galerkin method for solving the con-
servation of momentum and mass equations. These studies suggested
that the zigzag configuration tends to reduce the concentration polariza-
tion and to improve the permeation flux.
Wardeh et al. [58] developed a 2D steady-state model to simulate per-
meation and concentration polarization for the same rectangular channel
used by Fletcher and Wiley [59]. Later these authors expanded the model
to investigate the effect of cylindrical submerged and zigzag spacer con-
figurations on permeation flux and concentration polarization. It is
reported that results on the pressure drop, salt mass fraction and perme-
ate flux dependence on Re number indicate that the zigzag type is more
economical and more efficient in reducing salt concentration at the
membrane surface compared to the submerged one. Very recently,
Amokrane et al. [60] presented an integrated modeling of the evolving
(in space and time) flow and concentration fields during water desalina-
tion in membrane spacer-filled channels. Submerged and zigzag spacer
filament two-dimensional configurations were employed, while perme-
ation was considered by both membrane surfaces. Time-averaged local
profiles of mass transfer coefficient and boundary layer thickness were
obtained and the effect of flow structure on the aforementioned param-
eters was elucidated. Evaluation of spacer configurations in terms of pres-
sure drop and mass transfer coefficient indicated that the zigzag
geometry had inferior performance. However, the undesirable effect of
contact lines between membrane and zigzag filaments on concentration
polarization (and possibly on fouling) was evident; this is a negative fea-
ture of the zigzag arrangement, to be considered in designing real 3D
spacers.
3.3. Three-dimensional simulations – proposed novel spacer
Several theoretical studies have focused on three-dimensional simu-
lations of spacer performance. Karode and Kumar [61] were apparently
the first to describe the 3-D structure of several commercial spacers and
the flow domain in a realistic manner. They simulated flow in a spacer-
filled channel similar to the one used by Da Costa et al. [62] in their ex-
periments; the channeling flow pattern observed before [63–65] could
be reproduced by their simulations. The spacers were evaluated in
terms of pressure drop and shear stress on the membrane surfaces.
However, this work was limited to steady state simulations with no indi-
cation of the Reynolds number range where steady state exists. It is
noted that the simulation of an extended flow field inevitably resulted
in a limited spatial resolution.
Santos et al. [66] performed a numerical and experimental study of
pressure drop in a channel filled with various ladder-type spacers; ex-
cellent agreement is reported between results of numerical simulations
and experimental data. To investigate the effect of channel hydrody-
namic conditions on wall shear stress, a modified friction factor was in-
troduced. In parallel, numerical simulation results indicated that the

Table 1
Summary of results from numerical 2-D simulations of flow in channels with transverse filaments.

Authors Simulations Geometry Significant Results

Kang and Chang [45] 2D, Steady State - Zigzag - Flow features description
- cavity - Local Sh number calculation
Cao et al. [46] 2D, Transient - cavity - Pressure drop
k-ε Turbulence model - zigzag - Overall mass transfer coefficients
- submerged
Schwinge et al. [46] 2D, Transient - single cylindrical filament adjacent to - Effect of spacer configuration on
a membrane wall transition to unsteadiness
- single cylindrical filament placed at
the center of membrane channel
- cavity
- zigzag
- submerged
Schwinge et al. [48,49] 2D, Steady (?) - single cylindrical filament adjacent Effect of spacer geometry on pressure drop,
to a membrane wall eddy formation, wall-shear stresses,
- single cylindrical filament placed at and mass transfer
the center of membrane channel
- cavity
- zigzag
- submerged
Koutsou et al. [41] 2D, Transient, periodic Submerged - Temporal and spatial fluid flow description
boundary conditions - Time-averaged local shear stress
- Pressure drop correlation
Yu-Ling Li et al. [39,50] 2D, Steady State - submerged Effect of curvature on pressure drop,
- zigzag shear stress and particle deposition
- i-cavity
- o-cavity
 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186
modified friction factor could be used for selecting the best spacer ge-
ometry in terms of mass transfer efficiency.
Li et al. [67,68] presented results on flow and mass transfer, by
performing three-dimensional direct numerical simulations in a geom-
etry closely representing membrane spacers. Periodic boundary condi-
tions were employed, which enabled them to simulate just one unit
cell of the spacer. The effect of spacer geometrical characteristics
(mesh size and angles α and β) was studied in terms of Sh and power
number Pn; results suggested optimum performance when the flow at-
tack angle was 30° and the spacing between filaments (ratio L/H) was 4.
Although no information regarding spatial and temporal resolution of
computations was provided, experimental data of average mass transfer
coefficients appeared to agree with their simulations [68,69].
Ranade et al. [70] applied a 3D transient model to study the effect of
curvature on hydrodynamics of spacer filled channels. Various commer-
cial spacers were examined, in a unit cell approach, and the results were
validated with the measurements of Da Costa et al. [71]. This study re-
sults showed that pressure drop and velocity profiles of spacer-filled
flat and curved channels were not significantly different, in agreement
with the results of Yu-Ling Li et al. [39,50]. However, Ranade et al. [70]
did not calculate the shear stress on the membrane walls for which
Yu-Ling Li et al. [39,50] show that there is a difference between the
two membrane surfaces with increasing curvature.
Koutsou et al. [38,72] performed direct numerical simulations to
study in detail the flow field development [38] and mass transfer in
spacer-filled channels [72]. Realistic spacer geometries were considered
in a rather broad range of geometric parameters L/D and angle β. The re-
sults clearly suggest that unsteadiness appears at relatively low Reyn-
olds numbers (Re = 35–45) depending on spacer geometry [38]. The
simulated temporal evolution of the flow field shows that the main
characteristics are: a free vortex at the center of the unit cell, aligned
with the direction of the men flow, and closed recirculation zones at-
tached to the spacer filaments (Fig. 6). The effect of spacer geometry
on time-averaged spatial distributions of shear stress [38] and of mass
transfer coefficient [72] on the membrane surface is examined and cor-
relations are developed of pressure drop and Sh number with Re and Sc
numbers. Comparison of these numerical predictions and correlations
with extensive measurements show very good agreement [38,72].
Later in an assessment of spacer performance, Koutsou and Karabelas
[17] suggested that the less dense spacers (i.e. L/D = 12), with filament
crossing angles β greater than 90°, may hold advantages over other
commonly used spacer geometries. The correlations obtained in these
studies [38,72] are employed in the general SWM modeling framework
outlined in foregoing sections.
Fimbres-Weihs and Wiley [73] presented a numerical study of
mass transfer in 3D spacer-filled channels; a single spacer was used,
Fig. 6. A snapshot of the flow field in a unit cell of a spacer filled channel, depicting its main characteristics. Results of direct numerical simulation [38].
173
with L/D = 6.67, with orientation angle α 45° and 90°. Using a typical
Schmidt number (Sc = 600) and a Reynolds number range up to 200,
the regions of high mass transfer were found to correlate mainly with
those regions where the fluid flow is directed towards the wall; the re-
lation between 3D flow effects, pressure drop and mass transfer was in-
vestigated. Interestingly, the exponent of Sh number dependence on Re
number is reported to be 0.59. Shakaib et al. [74,75] employed a 3D,
steady state model to study hydrodynamics [74] and mass transfer
[75]. They investigated two types of spacer geometries; i.e. diamond
and submerged with various filament spacings, thickness and flow at-
tack angles. The critical Re number at which flow becomes unsteady
was reported to be as low as 75 when filament spacing and flow attack
angles are small, increasing to more than 200 for larger flow attack an-
gles [74]. Regarding pressure drop, the effect of spacer filament thick-
ness was found to be more pronounced compared to that of spacing
[75]. The effect of spacer configuration is also evident on shear stress
and mass transfer coefficient, which tend to increase for small filament
spacing and flow attack angles [75].
Li et al. [76] performed a CFD analysis to study the validity and effect
of periodic boundary conditions (PCB) in spacer filled channels; they
calculated the pressure drop of various types of unit cells and compared
the results with corresponding experimental data. It was reported that
not all PBC types, presented in the literature, were suitable for analyzing
the fluid flow behaviour and pressure drop predictions, although some
good results by the method of PBCs were obtained, using a sufficient
number of unit cells. Srivathsan et al. [77] recently studied various spac-
er geometric characteristics and proposed correlations of friction factor
and Sh number with Re number. Although the results, regarding Sh
number, do not seem to agree with other published works [67,72,73]
and the data are relatively limited, the interesting feature of this work
is that the ratio of spacer thickness to distance between filaments is in-
cluded in the correlations.
Lau et al. [78] applied the approach of Ahmad et al. [55] in a 3-D
model to study the effect of filament-intersection angle β and orienta-
tion angle α on hydrodynamics and concentration polarization.
Evaluation of spacers in terms of specific power consumption and con-
centration polarization factor indicated that a spacer with α = 120° and
β = 30ο provided optimum performance. However, the fact that this
spacer is placed asymmetrically with respect to the direction of mean
flow (α ≠ 45°) is expected to introduce different behavior between
the two membrane surfaces in terms of concentration polarization
and membrane fouling, possibly negatively impacting on membrane
life-time. Gurreri et al. [79] used 3D CFD to investigate concentration
polarization and pressure drop in spacer filled channels for electro-
dialysis operations of brackish-, river- and sea-water. Various woven
and crossing-filament commercial spacers were used, with thickness
174 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186

between 280 and 508 μm and different spacer orientation angles α. The
results suggested that woven spacers were associated with higher po-
larization factor at any given normalized pumping power Pn, whereas
for all spacers examined, a flow attack angle α = 45° resulted in more
efficient mixing compared to the 90° case.
Significant results of 3D simulations are summarized in Table 2.
3.3.1. Novel spacer geometries
Recently, in efforts to further optimize the flow and mass transfer
conditions in feed water channels, innovative spacer configurations
have been proposed [70,80–83]. These spacers are characterised by
multilayer designs [80,81] or modified filaments/strands [70,81,82].
Schwinge et al. [80] proposed a multi-layer spacer which presumably
leads to improved flux compared with the conventional 2-layer spacer,
at both identical mesh length and identical hydraulic diameter. Al-
though the proposed spacer leads to increased pressure drop, the au-
thors report that an economic evaluation of that spacer performance
appeared promising; however, they recognized the difficulties associat-
ed with fabrication of the proposed novel spacer.
Li et al. [81], examined various innovative spacers with modified fil-
aments, twisted tapes and multi-layer structures. The performance of
these spacer configurations was tested only experimentally, due to nu-
merical difficulties related to these fairly complicated geometries. Addi-
tionally, the same authors proposed what they considered as novel
optimal multi-layer spacer, comprising non-woven nets in the outer
layers and twisted tapes in the middle-layer, which was reported to en-
hance Sh number by ~30% compared to an optimal conventional spacer
proposed in a previous work [68,69].
Ranade and Kumar [70], using numerical simulations, analyzed the
effect of several different filament profiles for two-layer spacers. The
cross-section of the strands comprising those spacers was fairly compli-
cated. As expected, they found that the shapes of spacer strands signif-
icantly affect the behavior of fluid flow around them. Furthermore, one
of the cases they simulated was considered to hold notable potential for
reducing pressure drop while maintaining a comparatively high level of
wall shear rate.
Liu et al. [83], have proposed another spacer configuration which is
considered to perform as a static mixer within planar flow channels.
Fluid adjacent to the top and bottom boundaries of the flow channel ap-
pears to move to the middle and be replaced by fluid from the middle of
the flow channel. The authors claim that this static-mixing spacer
(contrasted to conventional spacers) offers comparable or better mass
transfer performance at the same power input.
In general, the above studies on novel spacers offer useful insights on
the effect of filament/strand shape, and of the spacer geometric arrange-
ment in the channel, on the feed-side flow field and mass transfer. How-
ever, a criticism can be leveled against most of them in that they tend to
totally disregard the important issues of a) the technical and economic
feasibility of fabricating spacers with complicated filament shapes, and
b) the behavior of such spacers (commonly made of relatively soft plas-
tic material) under the significant normal stresses imposed on them
during both SWM manufacturing and operation. As also subsequently
discussed, one should be concerned whether the assumed nominal
channel gaps in SWM modules can be achieved and whether potential
damage of the membrane, in contact with possibly sharp edges of the
spacer, can result due to such compressive stresses on the membrane.
3.4. Experimental studies
In the foregoing sections on 2D and 3D simulations, the experimen-
tal work performed to test and/or validate the numerical results was
briefly outlined. However, several additional experimental studies
exist with spacer-filled channels, with or without membranes, which
deal with hydrodynamics, pressure drop and mass transport [40,
63–65,84–86]. In an often quoted work, Schock and Miquel [40] studied
various commercial spacers and developed dimensionless correlations
for pressure drop and mass transfer coefficients. Permeate channel
spacers were also taken into account in that study. Generalized correla-
tions of the usual form f = a1Reb and Sh = a2RecScd, were obtained for
the friction factor and Sherwood number, using a hydraulic diameter
as the characteristic length; however, for reasons outlined in the pre-
ceding Section 1.2, care should be exercised in the application of those
popular correlations because they do not take into account the spacer
geometric parameter angle β, which was found in more recent studies
(e.g. [38,72]) to affect the flow field. Additionally, the choice of a depen-
dence of Sh number on Sc number to the power 0.25 was rather arbi-
trary, whereas more recent advance simulation and experimental
results suggest that the dependence is much stronger (i.e. Sc exponent
around 0.4 [72]). As expected, spacer-filled channels exhibited signifi-
cantly higher mass transfer rates compared to empty channels over
the same range of Reynolds numbers, but at increased pressure drop.
However, significant differences could not be discerned between the

Table 2
Summary of results from 3-D simulations in channels with spacers.

Authors Simulations Geometry Significant results

Karode and Kumar [61]
Santos et al. [66]
Li et al. [67–69]
Ranade et al. [70]
Koutsou et al. [38,72]
Fimbres-Weihs and Wiley
[73]
Shakaib et al. [74,75]
3D, Steady-State Various symmetric and asymmetric - Total drag as a function of Re number
commercial spacers - Average shear rate as a function of inlet velocity
- Validation with experiments
3D, Transient Ladder-type - Friction factor as a function of Re and Pn numbers
- Spatially averaged Sh number as a function of Pn number
3D, periodic boundary L/h = 2, 4, 6, 8,10 - Sh number as a function of Pn
conditions α = 0,15,30,45ο - Pn as a function of Re number
β = 60,120ο - Validation with experiments
- 3D, Transient Various commercial and novel - Contributions of viscous stress to the overall pressure drop
- Periodic BC spacers - Drag coefficient as a function of Re number
- k-ε Turbulence model - Axial velocity profiles
- 3D, Transient L/D = 6,8,10,12 - Description of the temporal evolution of the flow field
- Periodic BC β = 90,60,120ο characteristics
- Pressure drop dependence correlations on Re number
- Sh number dependence correlations on Re and Sc numbers
- 3D, Steady State L/D = 6.67 - Dependence of friction factor on Re number
- Periodic BC α = 45, 90ο - Overall Sh dependence on Re number
β = 90ο - Dependence of energy losses due to form drag on Reynolds number
- Dependence of energy losses due to viscous drag on Reynolds
number
- 3D, steady state Diamond shaped - Pressure drop and Sh numbers for various spacer configurations
-Periodic BC -submerged
 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186
various spacers used in their tests, an observation that can be disputed
on the basis of other similar studies (e.g. [38,72]).
Kuroda et al. [84] measured pressure drop and mass transfer coeffi-
cients (by an electrochemical technique) in channels with impermeable
walls. Correlations were obtained of the form indicated above, with at-
tempts to relate the coefficients a1 and a2, with the spacer geometrical
characteristics. However, their results appear to neglect the effect of
spacer orientation with respect to the mean flow, as outlined above.
The latter suggest that if spacer filaments are roughly aligned with the
mean flow, lower pressure drop and mass transfer coefficients are ob-
tained. This is born out in the experiments of Winograd et al. [85], per-
formed in an electrochemical cell, as well as in the pressure drop
measurements of Farkova [86] and of Zimmerer and Kottke [63]. Fur-
thermore, it was shown in the latter paper that the overall flow pattern
changes with orientation of the filaments between the extremes of a
zig-zag (or corkscrew) and a channeling pattern, where the flow is
constrained by the cell side walls. Similar behavior is exhibited in the
flow experiments of Feron and Solt [64], with various idealized and re-
alistic spacer geometries. Belfort and Guter [65] tested various commer-
cial spacers for electrodialysis use, and evaluated them in terms of
porosity, dead flow areas, stack resistance and pressure drop, proposing
some optimal configurations. Their flow visualization experiments re-
vealed interesting flow features, notably the existence of a vortex
screw-like motion which is considered to reduce the thickness of con-
centration boundary layer.
Significant work has been carried out by Fane, Wiley and coworkers
[62,71,87–90], including experiments with commercial and custom-
made spacers to obtain pressure drop and flux [62,71,87] as well as
mass transfer coefficients of UF membranes [62,71]. Studies of solute re-
jection and coupling between concentrate and permeate channels were
also performed that took into account variable fluid properties due to
concentration polarization [88,89], fouling observations with micro-
particles in spacer-filled channels [89], as well as economic evaluation
of various spacer configurations [62,71,87]. Working with idealized ge-
ometries comprised of a set of parallel filaments, as well as with a vari-
ety of commercial spacers, Da Costa et al. [90] concluded that the
presence of spacers can increase flux by a factor greater than 7. In addi-
tion, they showed that filaments attached to the membrane and trans-
verse to the mean flow (the ladder-type spacer) are more effective in
reducing concentration polarization than filaments aligned with the
flow [87]. They also suggested that an optimum mesh length exists
[87]. In a more recent study of membrane fouling with microparticles,
Neal et al. [89] observed that fouling was more pronounced when the
filaments were oriented transversely to the mean flow. These conflict-
ing tendencies depending on feed-water properties, suggest that differ-
ent fouling species (i.e. organic compounds, colloids or aggregates and
microparticles) may interact differently with the spacers; therefore, a
universally optimal spacer for all types of SWM modules (treating vari-
ous types of feed waters) likely does not exist.
Sablani et al. [91] investigated the influence of spacer thickness on
permeate flux in spiral wound modules. Their results show an increase
in flux with increasing spacer thickness, as one might expect. Balster
et al. [92] using the limiting current technique studied standard non-
woven and multi-layer net spacers aiming at reducing concentration
polarization and improving electrodialysis processes. The multi-layer
spacer configurations exhibited significant mass transfer enhancement.
Experimental efforts have been invested to determine the flow
conditions close to membrane surface in spacer-filled channels.
Gimmelshtein and Semiat [93] have employed particle image
velocimetry (PIV) to measure local velocity and estimate the magnitude
of a mixing index (MI) within a unit cell of spacer net. Significant flow
direction changes were observed near the spacer filaments (acting as
obstacles to be bypassed), which resulted in increased MI in these
areas. Recently, Gao et al. [94] used Doppler optical coherence tomogra-
phy (OCT) to characterize the velocity profile normal to the membrane
surface by visualizing the flow patterns inside a unit cell of the spacer in
175
an experimental module. The orientation of the spacer towards the bulk
flow direction was considered. The results indicate that there are two
major mechanisms inside the spacer interstices: a) tangential flows
mainly driven by the bulk motion; b) development of eddies, which
can generate significant flows normal to the membrane surface and cre-
ate disturbances in these regions. These mechanisms and spatial flow
distribution in the channel are in general accord with the detailed
flow simulations of Koutsou et al. [38] (e.g. Fig. 6), certainly governed
by spacer geometric characteristics and filament orientation in relation
to mean flow direction.
Rodrigues et al. [95] studied the entrance effects on Sh number
across a narrow rectangular spacer-filled channel, by measuring elec-
trochemically the overall Sh number for Re numbers up to 500. Addi-
tionally, they showed that in the transitional flow regime, above a
critical Reynolds number, mass-transfer entrance effects are negligible,
suggesting that periodic boundary conditions may be appropriate for
flow and mass-transfer CFD computations in spacer- filled channels in
the transitional regime. However, for laminar flow the periodic bound-
ary condition should be used with care because strong mass-transfer
entrance effects may prevail, depending on the spacer geometry.
4. Development of a comprehensive integrated model
4.1. Steady – state modeling
Early efforts to model the flow field throughout a membrane sheet
are reviewed in [96]. At present, the best (and perhaps the only) way
to attack the full problem (without compromising the description of
the essential physico-chemical phenomena involved) is the so-called
“scale separation” approach, which is justified due to the smallness of
the ratio of cell size over the sheet size. This approach is analogous to
the (well known in the field of transport phenomena) homogenization
procedure or to the multiple scale expansion procedure [97]. These pro-
cedures are well established for linear phenomena [97]. A discussion
on their application to the non-linear intrinsically transient flows, aris-
ing due to the presence of spacers, can be found in [27]. In the range
of flow rates of practical interest, the flow unsteadiness that appears
due to the net-type spacers (e.g. [38]) introduces a time scale to the
problem. Occasionally, this type of flow is characterized as “turbulent”
(and the spacers as “turbulence promoters”) but it is preferable to retain
the term unsteady (or intrinsically transient) laminar flow since turbu-
lence is associated with disparate size ranges between the smallest
eddies and the channel size. Moreover, advanced numerical simulations
clearly show [38] that in the range of flow rates of practical interest (and
related Reynolds numbers) an unsteady flow prevails, which is much
closer to transition than to fully developed turbulent flow. A homogeni-
zation procedure can be employed that effectively “eliminates” the in-
trinsic time scale of flow fluctuations by considering a time scale
larger than the latter, but much smaller than the time scale of the
SWM module operation. Additionally, through this approach, the de-
pendencies in the vertical direction (normal to the membrane surface)
are eliminated, leaving two spatial directions for the problem which
correspond to the length and the width of the membrane sheet.
Before proceeding further, a brief overview will be made of simula-
tion approaches not based on the foregoing scale separation. Attempts
for direct simulation of the entire problem (including all phenomena)
have been made only in two dimensions and not for the entire sheet
length [98–100]. Another approach is the simulation of several three
dimensional unit cells [101]; in that case the intrinsic flow dynamics is
ignored by solving the steady state flow equations instead of the time-
dependent ones. In any case, such simulations are not expected to
cover the complete sheet and they are useful only to support/validate
the scale separation approach. The transfer of information from the
spacer scale to the entire sheet scale can be done in two ways:
(i) using a representative domain-portion, including several unit cells,
to extract generalized constitutive-type expressions for key parameters
176 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186
(e.g. [27]) and (ii) using a single unit cell with periodic boundary condi-
tions (e. g. [35,38]).
A typical mesoscale clean-membrane model (i.e. steady-state at an
appropriate intermediate time scale) consists of equations describing
the solvent/water and solute conservation in retentate and permeate
sides, the pressure in both sides, the membrane transport model, and
a relation between the average (mixing cup) solute concentration and
its concentration on the membrane surface (both at retentate side).
The difference between these two concentrations is due to the so-
called concentration polarization phenomenon. The “communication”
of information between the spacers scale and the mesoscale is imple-
mented through relations for the friction factor and mass transfer coef-
ficient in the retentate channel. The former expressions are used in the
mesoscale model for pressure drop determination and the latter to
account for concentration polarization. Typically, the membrane opera-
tion models used in the literature deal with the analysis of experimental
data so they focus on particular aspects of the process depending on the
particular experimental design considered.
The consideration of spacers at the mesoscale varies; i.e. in some
cases the presence of spacers is completely ignored as an approximation
[102,103]. Another approximation is that of using an empirical velocity
profile to account for the presence of spacers. Unfortunately, the partic-
ular approach overestimates concentration polarization as it is not rep-
resentative of the real effect of spacers on mass transfer [104,105]. In the
general case, the constitutive relations discussed above are used to ade-
quately account for the effect of spacers. In case of insignificant pressure
drop in the permeate side, the retentate problem is purely one-
dimensional [106]. However, if there is significant permeate-side pres-
sure drop, the wall flux is two-dimensional and the model is two dimen-
sional as well. The majority of mesoscale models consider the “1 + 1
direction” approximation, that is, the retentate side exhibits variations
only along the main flow direction and the permeate side displays var-
iations only transverse to the main flow direction [107–111]. A formal
proof for the validity of such an approach for the pure hydrodynamic
problem is given in [112]. The linearization of the concentration polari-
zation relation (a quite valid assumption due to the spacer-induced en-
hanced mass transfer) allows analytical manipulation of the governing
equations, leading to simplified models [113,114]. It is worth noting
that in most of the two-dimensional models of the membrane operation
in the literature, no spatial distribution of quantities is presented since
the focus is on integral quantities for parameter extraction from exper-
imental quantities and global optimization [107,108,110,111]. A fully
two-dimensional semiformal modeling framework for membrane oper-
ation has been presented in [35], where several results for spatial distri-
bution of variables in steady-state (i.e. clean membrane) operation are
presented.
4.2. Dynamic model development
The preceding discussion refers to the absence of any type of mate-
rial accumulation in the membrane element. However, material accu-
mulation can occur through four different mechanisms and introduces
new time scales to the problem; a classification of fouling mechanisms
can be made on the basis of the type of the depositing species. The
first accumulation/fouling mechanism is the so-called organic fouling,
whereby a gel-type layer is created from organic macromolecules trans-
ferred with the flow onto the membrane. The local fouling layer growth
rate is usually taken simply proportional to the local wall flux [115,116].
The properties of this layer depend on the trans-membrane pressure
(TMP) as well as on the instantaneous flux and they determine the
wall flow. The relevant studies are usually focused on the organic foul-
ing layer main properties (i.e. the specific cake resistance or permeabil-
ity) accounting also for cake compressibility, and disregarding any
possible small scale non-uniformities [117]. Such a representative
local organic-layer thickness is non-uniform throughout the membrane
sheet but appears to have the tendency to become spatially more
uniform as time proceeds (auto-regulation tendency) [118]. Moreover,
the growth of the fouling layer naturally tends to modify the flow and
concentration fields in the retentate channel and the phenomenon of
cake-enhanced concentration polarization is considered to emerge
[119].
The second accumulation/fouling mechanism, which is more com-
plicated (at least from the geometric point of view), is referred to as
scaling i.e. the formation of solid deposits on the membrane due to
local supersaturation of sparingly soluble inorganic salts. This is brought
about by the rejection of species by the membrane, leading to local con-
centration increase of dissolved compounds and thus to local supersat-
uration, which triggers the well-known precipitation sequence of
nucleation and particle growth [120]. Initially, scaling occurs in a
completely localized pattern (i.e. in the form of distinct particles), con-
trary to organic fouling where the accumulated mass is rather uniformly
distributed on the membrane from the outset. Several complexities
exist regarding scaling. The major one is that additional nucleation
and growth of particles can concurrently take place in the bulk of the
liquid (typically close to the wall due to higher concentration [32]). In
that case, the new particles can either stick to the membrane surface,
where they can be considered as part of developing scale, or they can re-
main detached and free to move [32]. The latter case is more difficult to
be treated since such particles grow in the flow by consuming ionic spe-
cies and reducing supersaturation. The reported scaling modeling stud-
ies vary from simple super-saturation computation [121,122] to
detailed nucleation-growth models [123]. The chemistry considered is
more complicated for simple scaling models [124,125] and simpler for
more complex ones [126]. An attempt to use benchmark dead-end fil-
tration experiments in order to extract scaling model parameters and
to use them in modeling spiral wound module encountered difficulties
[123]; specifically, supersaturation values appeared to be much larger in
dead-end experiments than in cross flow spiral wound experiments
[33]. The dead end scaling data appear to be compatible with the classi-
cal nucleation-growth approach [123] but this is not the case for the low
supersaturation cross flow data [33]. There are several possible reasons
for the incapability of the classical nucleation theory to describe these
results. To name a few, one may attribute such differences to the non-
uniform distribution of surface energies on the membrane and to mod-
ern ideas such as the concept of pre-nucleation clusters for homoge-
neous and heterogeneous nucleation [127,128]. It will be added that
the nucleation- growth model has been used in spacer scale model
[129] and in mesoscale model [32]. However, clearly the improvement
of modeling scaling (especially incipient) is an open research subject.
Another mass accumulation mechanism, detrimental to the mem-
brane operation, is biofouling, i.e. growth of microbial colonies on the
membrane and spacer surfaces. It is by far the most complicated fouling
mechanism to be modeled. A very detailed spatially distributed biomass
growth model has been considered both in two [130] and three dimen-
sions [131] of spacer geometry (for representative sheet portions),
which have led to very interesting results of biofilm profiles in the
retentate channel [131]. Such results have not been incorporated to me-
soscale membrane-operation models yet, a difficult task of high priority
nevertheless. Finally, the fourth mechanism is the so-called colloidal
fouling which has been extensively studied in the literature [132]. It is
noted that this type of fouling involves particles (mostly inorganic), en-
tering the membrane module with the feed-flow. These particles are
generally considered inert, with respect to the existing ionic species, al-
though (depending on their type) they may contribute to heteroge-
neous nucleation of sparingly soluble salts, if other conditions also
favor it [33,120]. As these colloidal particles are seldom encountered
alone in operating plants [22], they tend to interact with the aforemen-
tioned foulants in still unclear ways that are a significant topic of inves-
tigation. Commonly such inorganic particles, of colloidal size or larger,
are identified in membrane autopsies together with other foulants
(e.g. [133]), generating uncertainty on their true origin and true contri-
bution to the overall fouling process.
 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186 177

The majority of the modeling work is restricted to the case of a single
solute or multiple solutes behaving independently of each other. Never-
theless, recent work on multi-component systems has shown that inter-
actions between solutes may be significant and can even lead to
negative rejection; it appears, therefore, necessary to account for inter-
action between solutes [134,135]. There is also interdependence be-
tween the aforementioned four mechanisms of mass accumulation on
the membrane that must be considered in a comprehensive modeling
attempt. For instance, it has been found that the composition of dis-
solved inorganic salts in the feedwater (e.g. Ca ions) tends to modify sig-
nificantly the organic layer properties [117] whereas conversely the
presence of the fouling layer tends to modify the surface properties
and correspondingly the nucleation and crystal growth phenomena re-
lated to scaling (e.g.[136]). Sub-models for these interdependencies
should be eventually derived and incorporated in the mesoscale
model in order to better understand and assess their effect on the mem-
brane operation.
5. Desalination plant modeling – performance simulations
5.1. Outline of SWM module steady-state simulator
An advanced simulator for SWM-module steady-state operation has
been developed, based on the modeling framework described in pre-
ceding sections, and details on the theoretical background have been re-
ported elsewhere [35]; here the main features are summarized. It is re-
iterated that several simplifications and approximations are employed
in order to develop a robust and efficient mathematical model appropri-
ate for realistic design and optimization applications. However, these
simplifications are of a mathematical type and not physical [27,112],
so that the final “model” retains all the parametric dependency of the
original detailed model. The rectangular computational domain of
Fig. 3 is employed, ignoring the effect of the leaf curvature. The periodic
flow structure considered at the “unit cell” scale is exploited and de-
tailed results are obtained for the flow and mass transfer problem
using advanced CFD codes [38,72]. These computational results are cod-
ified in the form of correlations for friction factor and mass transfer co-
efficients [38,72] which are incorporated in the integrated meso-scale
model; separate correlations are introduced for different feed-spacer
characteristics, i.e. L/D and angle β. Provided that the definition of
spacer geometric parameters and of dimensionless quantities (Re, Sh,
Sc, ΔP/ΔL) are the same, one can introduce in the software the particular
correlations applicable (at spacer scale) to any type of spacer including
novel designs; the latter can be obtained through advanced simulations.
Therefore, no empirical correlations or parameter values are used.
The leaf-scale (meso-scale) equations have as state variables quanti-
ties averaged over the channel thickness/gap to render them compati-
ble with the correlations obtained from sub-grid modeling at unit cell
scale. The sub-grid constitutive correlations serve to connect pressure
with flow and wall- with bulk-concentration in the retentate channel.
The local wall flux depends on TMP and on wall concentration at both
retentate and permeate sides. The boundary conditions are the inlet
pressure and concentration and the outlet (retentate and permeate)
pressures. The smooth variation of the state variables permits high accu-
racy using second order finite differences even in a coarse grid. To en-
sure convergence, some highly non-linear equations arising from the
discretization (e.g. wall concentration equations) are treated separately
from the rest of the system using one-dimensional root capturing tech-
basic single membrane-leaf algorithm coded in Visual basic and all the
input and output data in Excel sheets communicating with the code.
Therefore, computations involving several SWM elements in series are
readily performed to simulate the performance of a pressure vessel;
moreover, incorporation of this simulator into a general-purpose soft-
ware can be implemented for performance predictions of an entire
SWM-module train of a desalination plant, or other similar processing
unit.
5.2. Indicative results of parametric studies
Typical results are included herein (presented in detail elsewhere
[138,139]), regarding the performance of a pressure vessel, with seven
8-inch RO-membrane modules, in order to demonstrate, and comment
on, the capabilities of the current state of the art steady-state simulator.
The input data for the parametric studies are summarized in Table 3.
Three sets of SWM module design parameter values are considered:
The “reference case” with small number of envelopes (N = 15), relative-
ly thin and dense feed-spacer (28 mil, L/D = 8), conventional angle
β = 90° and permeate-fabric permeability kp = 2.0× 10− 10 m2; the
“best case” with large envelope number N = 30, a relatively thick and
less-dense feed-spacer (34 mil, L/D = 12), angle β = 105° and higher
permeate-fabric permeability kp = 5.0×10−10 m2; a set with interme-
diate parameter values (N = 20, 34 mil, L/D = 12, β = 105°, kp =
3.5×10−10 m2).
Fig. 7 shows axial profiles of productivity per module along the pres-
sure vessel for brackish- and sea-water desalination, under constant
permeate recovery 70% and 50%, respectively. Comparison is also made
with predictions using commercial software (“ROSA” by Dow [140]),
corresponding to Dow commercial elements BW30-400 and
SW30HRLE-400i for brackish and sea-water, respectively. It is interest-
ing that these profiles are very close, for all cases, for the operating
mode of constant recovery. The flux level in the case of brackish water
(Fig. 7a) is maintained at rather high level, along the vessel, due to the
much smaller (compared to seawater) retentate osmotic pressure;
this type of concave profile is expected [138]. On the contrary, for sea-
water desalination the productivity is reduced very significantly along
the vessel due to the much higher osmotic pressure, and the well-
known [138] convex profile is observed.
The effect of SWM design parameters is evident in Fig. 8, where the
one-dimensional profiles of pressure drop per module, the cross flow
velocity at module inlet and the mean permeate concentration per
module are plotted. As discussed in detail elsewhere [138,139] the effect
of envelope number and of feed-spacer thickness are very significant,
especially with regard to pressure drop (Fig. 8a). The new finding
from the recent parametric studies [138,139] was the quite strong effect
Table 3
Range of parameter values employed in parametric study of SWM module performance
[137].
Feed water characteristics Brackish Seawater
Salinity 2000 ppm 40,000 ppm
Operating parameters Brackish Seawater
Feed flow rate, Q 10 m3/h 9.8 m3/h
Recovery, R 70% 50%
Module design parameters
Membrane resistance, Rm Brackish Seawater
0.9×1014 m−1 3.04×1014 m−1
Membrane area, A 37 m 2

niques [35]. Number of envelopes, N 15, 20, 30

In the code, the inlet flow is an input (as in practice) and not the out- Membrane sheet length, L 0.96 m
Membrane sheet width, W A/(2×N×L) m
let retentate flow. It is provided in the algorithm to first estimate/assign
Retentate spacer geometry G-1: L/D = 8, β = 90ο
for each element an initial outlet retentate pressure (using an approxi- G-2: L/D = 12, β = 105ο
mate solution) and then, guessing iteratively outlet pressures, to con- Retentate channel gap, hr 0.71 mm (28 mil)
verge to the required inlet flow rate [35]. To simulate an entire 0.86 mm (34 mil)
pressure vessel, the output of each element is taken as input to the Permeate channel gap, hp 0.23 mm
Permeate spacer lateral permeability, k 2.0, 3.5, 5.0×10−10 m2
next one. The entire procedure is completely automated, having the
178 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186

Fig. 7. Axial profiles of productivity per module along a pressure vessel comprising seven
SWM modules. (a) Brackish water desalination. (b) Seawater desalination.

of permeate-fabric permeability, especially for the case of brackish

water desalination, which requires additional attention in optimization
studies. Fig. 8b shows that, as expected, the thicker feed-spacer (associ-
ated with smaller pressure drop) leads to smaller cross-flow velocities;
however, the benefits from reduced energy consumption may be
off-set by an inferior performance of these spacers if fouling takes
place, which is considered to be mitigated by increased velocities. Inter-
estingly, Fig. 8c indicates that the permeate quality, under the condi-
tions examined, is not significantly affected by the SWM module
design parameters, which is apparently due to the counter-acting ef-
fects of particular spacer design parameters, as explained elsewhere
[139].
Fig. 9 depicts the pressure profiles at the retentate side for the cases
of brackish and sea-water desalination, which correspond to the same
conditions as those of Figs. 7 and 8. It is interesting that, under these
conditions, the pressure drop in the pressure vessel, which is directly
proportional to the energy expenditure for the desalination process, is
so much dependent on SWM design parameters; indeed, there is an ap-
proximately 50% reduction in pressure drop between “reference” and
“best” case. Of course, as subsequently discussed, in simulations to opti-
mize SWM module, these results will be somewhat modified, because
the real modules with the “best” set of design parameters, will have
somewhat smaller total active membrane area due to thicker feed-
spacer and more “glue-lines”.
The preceding computational results provide the “one-dimensional”
profiles, as is the case with commonly used commercial programs. How-
ever, of particular interest are the spatial distributions of all the process
parameters throughout the pressure vessel, helpful in better
understanding the function of SWM modules and in optimizing
their performance. Such typical distributions for the “reference” and
an “intermediate” case are included in Figs. 10, 11 and 12, for the
trans-membrane pressure (TMP), the permeate-channel pressure, and
the membrane -surface concentration at the retentate side, respectively.
These distributions, for the 1st, 4th and 7th element in the pressure ves-
sel, clearly exhibit the influence of the SWM module design parameters
on the desalination process. These results are discussed at greater length
Fig. 8. Brackish water desalination. Average performance characteristics of each SWM
element in a 7-element pressure vessel. a) Pressure drop, b) cross flow velocity at element
inlet and c) mean permeate concentration. Input data in Table 3.
elsewhere [139], and only brief comments on the salient features of dis-
tributions are made:
The TMP for the shorter envelopes with thicker feed-spacer (34 mil,
N = 20, Fig. 10) is much more uniform. TMP uniformity leads to uni-
form flux distribution (not shown here to economize space) with no
high local flux values. Since high local fluxes cause high rates of foul-
ing [132,142,143], the SWM-modules with design-parameter values
leading to flux uniformity hold definite advantages. Noteworthy is
the greater TMP non-uniformity of the leading elements, which are
known in practice to suffer from fouling more than the rest.
The significantly different pressure distributions in the permeate
channels (Fig. 11) is clearly due to the effect of the lateral permeabil-
ity kp of the permeate-fabric and of envelope width; i.e. fewer (and
larger) envelopes with smaller fabric permeability kp are associated
with greater pressure drop in the permeate channel than envelopes
of smaller width and higher permeability kp. It is also interesting to
observe that the pressure distributions exhibit insignificant variabil-
ity in the axial (x) direction, varying only in the lateral flow direction.
 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186
Fig. 9. Retentate pressure profiles along a 7-SWM element pressure vessel for (a) brackish
water and (b) sea water desalination. Input data in Table 3.
The distribution of membrane surface concentration (Fig. 12) is in-
dicative of the magnitude and variation of concentration polarization
throughout the vessel. One would expect [139] the trend of uniform
wall concentration in the leading elements, and the non-uniformity
at the tail elements. Moreover, for the two sets of parameters com-
pared, the differences in the SWM geometry do not appear to signif-
icantly affect concentration polarization.
6. Discussion – R & D priorities
6.1. Development of global model of SWM module performance
Overall the model (and related simulator) for predictions of SWM
performance at steady state is considered quite satisfactory, linking the
detailed geometric features of SWM modules (spacers, sheet dimen-
sions, etc.) and operating variables to SWM module performance. The
same modeling framework can be used to develop a dynamic simulator.
Some areas that need attention are outlined:
• A more elaborate sub-model to account in more detail for interactions
(at the membrane surface) and rejection of all ionic species in the
treated water. Such sub-models may have to be developed for partic-
ular types of membranes, based on complete characterization of their
intrinsic ionic species rejection. These surface characterizations
should preferably be comprehensive (including other physical-
chemical surface properties, relevant to fouling and scaling phenome-
na) to facilitate the development of a dynamic simulator.
• A sub-model to account for non-uniformities of the channel gap of the
spiral-wound membrane envelopes. Such non-uniformities tend to
develop during fabrication, i.e. wrapping the envelopes around the
permeate tube, and could be tackled by a modified state-steady
model. Another type of channel non-uniformity (more difficult to
tackle) tends to develop even at low level of fouling. There is a subtle
point regarding this problem in that the channel gap is reduced due to
fouling, while the size of the spacer remains unchanged, thus
179
preventing to invoke geometric similarity and use existing constitu-
tive relations for the transport phenomena in the modified channel.
In line with the general SWM modeling (“separation of scales”) ap-
proach outlined in this paper, it appears that computational fluid dy-
namics unit cell calculations, for the channel geometric patterns
arising from the aforementioned effects, are necessary; subsequently,
these results can be incorporated into the overall modeling frame-
work.
• Appropriate level sub-models for all the fouling mechanisms should
be further developed based on constitutive relations to be incorporat-
ed to the mesoscale model, thus, allowing simulation of the dynamic
membrane operation. It should be stressed that such a dynamic
model is of crucial importance for practical as well as theoretical appli-
cations. Regarding the latter, a global dynamic model can reveal inter-
actions between the aforementioned complicated phenomena in the
real module geometry which are not obvious by considering their in-
teraction at a local level.
6.2. Comments on specific SWM design parameters and related
research needs
The influence on module performance of all SWM geometrical de-
sign parameters is very significant, clearly suggesting that in developing
optimum SWM elements for particular separation tasks, all these parame-
ters should be taken into account in addition to the practical constraints
imposed by the SWM overall size and fabrication. In recent papers [138,
139], a discussion is presented on the ranges of these geometric design
parameters and on their desirable and possible extension for SWM op-
timization. In the following, additional remarks are made from the per-
spective of simulating SWM module performance.
6.2.1. Membrane envelope number
Theoretically, for a constant total module membrane area, the SWM
performance tends to improve with increasing number of envelopes.
However, the upper limit of the envelope number N (akin to a
“constrained optimum”) is imposed by a combination of practical limi-
tations, including the external SWM element diameter, the thickness of
materials used (i.e. of the membrane and both spacers), and the in-
creased loss of active membrane area by the glue lines (in the case of
large envelope number N). Another factor (seldom discussed – if ever
– in literature) is related to difficulties (and possible local membrane-
channel non-uniformities) in adapting numerous envelopes around
the, relatively small-diameter, permeate tube. Detailed parametric stud-
ies, with a reliable simulator discussed herein, can be most helpful in
assessing the impact of the aforementioned factors in maximizing the
envelope number.
6.2.2. Retentate-side spacer
In addition to the reviewed detailed studies, use of integrated SWM-
module simulators has provided improved overall understanding on
the impact of thickness and morphology of feed-spacers on SWM ele-
ment performance [138], clearly suggesting that the issue of retentate
spacer improvements is still open, as also recognized by industry ex-
perts [3]. At present, the prevailing approach to optimize spacer thick-
ness (for fixed feed flow) is based on balancing energy benefits
(achieved with thicker spacer and greater gap) against reduction of
cross-flow, of shear stresses and mass transfer rates (related to thick
spacers); the latter can lead to increased concentration polarization ef-
fects and inferior fouling performance. Regarding the other retentate
spacer geometrical parameters (i.e. L/D and angle β), theoretical predic-
tions supported by experiments [38,72] suggest that relatively less
dense spacers (e.g. L/D N 8 and β N 90°) are advantageous. However,
as Johnson and Busch [3] report, in practice the less dense spacers
(with a reduced number of contact points of spacer per unit membrane
surface area) tend to cause an undesirable reduction of permeate size
gap (called “nesting”) due to normal stresses during the tight wrapping
180 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186

Fig. 10. Brackish water desalination. Spatial distributions of trans-membrane pressure. Comparison of SWM module performance for two sets of design parameters; i.e. “reference” and
“intermediate”. a) 1st element, b) 4th element, c) 7th element, in a pressure vessel operating under constant water recovery 70%.
 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186 181

Fig. 11. Brackish water desalination. Spatial distributions of pressure in the permeate side channels. Comparison of SWM module performance for two sets of design parameters; i.e.
“reference” and “intermediate”. a) 1st element, b) 4th element, c) 7th element, in a pressure vessel operating under constant recovery 70%.
182 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186

Fig. 12. Brackish water desalination. Spatial distributions of salt concentration at the membrane surface, in retentate channel. Comparison of SWM module performance for two sets of
design parameters; i.e. “reference” and “intermediate”. a) 1st element, b) 4th element, c) 7th element, in a pressure vessel operating under constant recovery 70%.
 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186
of envelopes. Using the criterion of “minimum contact points” points in
the direction of denser spacers with reduced ratio L/D. Another spacer
characteristic worth exploring is the spacer filament cross-section
(whether circular, oval, other) and its arrangement/orientation with re-
spect to the mean flow direction, which appear to affect the retentate-
side flow field [99]. Nevertheless, for assessing the performance of any
type of novel spacer design, the approach suggested in the context of
global SWM modeling is straightforward; i.e. one should perform nu-
merical simulations at the spacer (or “unit cell”) scale and derive corre-
lations (preferably validated with experiments), at least for pressure
drop and mass transfer coefficient, within a sufficiently broad design pa-
rameter range, to be incorporated in the SWM modeling framework for
simulations at full scale.
6.2.3. Permeate-side fabric
Parametric studies [138,139] suggest that the characteristics of the
permeate fabric (i.e. its thickness and lateral permeability kp) play a
very significant role in overall SWM performance, by directly influenc-
ing the TMP distribution throughout the membrane sheets. This effect
is much more pronounced in the case of low pressure SWM modules
(compared to high pressure desalination elements), where somewhat
higher fluxes are employed, leading to greater flow rates and pressure
drop in the permeate channels. The range of aforementioned
permeate-fabric parameters has been very inadequately studied so far
[141], especially under the conditions prevailing in real SWM modules.
Two issues require particular attention: a) The permeate spacer effective
thickness during SWM element operation, when normal stresses are
exerted on the spacer by both neighboring high-pressure retentate
channels, appears to be significantly smaller [141] than that under no
pressure; therefore, more work is needed to clarify this issue and to ex-
amine under what conditions (feed pressure, material properties) there
may be undesirable spacer–membrane interaction (i.e. compaction/
compression) causing permeate channel reduction/modification,
which would have a negative impact on permeate flow and SWM per-
formance. b) The weaving pattern of the currently used fabric (e.g.
that examined in [141]), characterized by a kind of small parallel “chan-
nels” in one direction, suggests that there may be a significant difference
of the lateral permeability kp in directions parallel and normal to the
channels direction, with impact on module performance [139]. Both is-
sues warrant detailed R&D study, which can be greatly facilitated by
employing a reliable SWM simulator.
7. Conclusions
The development of a reliable performance simulator of a mem-
brane train, or of an entire water treatment RO/NF plant, is relatively
straightforward provided an appropriate software tool is available for
dynamic simulation of an individual SWM module. Such a SWM simula-
tor (with sound theoretical underpinning) should be accurate, flexible
(accounting for all important design and operating parameters) and
computationally convenient, i.e. not particularly demanding and readily
adaptable to general computational frameworks for various purposes
(e.g. [18–20,137]). The length scale of SWM (of order 1 m) is referred
to as meso-scale, compared to the large scale of a membrane plant, or
part thereof.
The SWM module performance (to be simulated) largely depends
on mechanisms and phenomena occurring at the molecular scale and
nano-scale; i.e. ionic species rejection by the membrane, interaction of
organic macromolecules with (and deposition on) the membrane, local-
ized nucleation/crystallization of salts on the membrane, etc. However,
these phenomena are strongly affected by processes at larger length
scales, notably those related to the flow field at the feed-side channels
of the SWM module; this intermediate scale is determined by the
retentate-side spacer (which is commonly of regular, net-type, mor-
phology), thus termed spacer scale. Therefore, the problem at hand is a
183
multi-scale one and its complete formulation should fully account for
phenomena at the smaller scales.
The SWM performance, aside from the controlled process variables
(mainly feed pressure and flow rate), depends on two classes of param-
eters: a) Those representing the detailed geometric characteristics and
membrane properties of the module, and b) the feed-water composi-
tion (physical, chemical, biological) and temperature. The interaction
of these two classes of parameters and of other process parameters at
spacer-scale (related to transport phenomena), renders the general
mathematical modeling problem extremely complicated; in addition
to other complications, the deposition of species on the membrane sur-
face introduces time scales and temporal variability to the SWM module
and plant performance (well known in practice and undesirable).
Therefore, an adequately formulated comprehensive model of SWM-
module operation is impossible to solve directly by present-day means.
This paper suggests that a very good strategy to attack the full
problem (perhaps the only one available) is to implement the technique
of “separation of scales”, which is rather well known in science and en-
gineering. This approach entails a) detailed studies of phenomena at
small scales (locally) and development of constitutive type expressions,
relating appropriate “process parameters” (species mass transfer rates,
deposition rates, friction losses, etc.) with parameters describing the
“process environment” (pressure, local flow velocities, shear stresses,
etc.); b) an appropriate mathematical modeling framework at the
meso-scale, allowing integration of the sub-models accurately describ-
ing the phenomena occurring at the smaller scales. It is noted that this
strategy can be employed to develop the relatively easier simulator of
steady-state operation (i.e. with no material accumulation in the SWM
module and with constant membrane intrinsic properties) as well as a
dynamic simulator adequately accounting for the aforementioned com-
plicated interactions of species and mechanisms.
In reviewing the state of the art, the effectiveness of the above type
of steady-state modeling framework is demonstrated, where phenome-
na at the spacer scale are incorporated through accurate correlations
(akin to constitutive expressions) developed by performing detailed
studies at the spacer “unit cell” level. Even though mathematical simpli-
fications are made, the important attribute of this modeling approach is
that the physically correct parametric inter-dependencies are retained
and that no arbitrarily fixed empirical parameter of any type is used.
Very satisfactory results obtained recently from realistic parametric
studies [138,139] are encouraging even though additional research
work is needed.
The SWM module morphology and its detailed geometric design pa-
rameters essentially determine the performance of the module itself
and of the entire membrane plants. Comments follow on these impor-
tant parameters.
- The number N of envelopes per SWM element, for fixed module O.D.
directly affects the performance, so that short envelopes (large
N) are preferable and N should be increased to the maximum possi-
ble extent. However, practical type limitations related to the fabrica-
tion of the SWM module (e.g. accommodation of the envelopes at/
around the small diameter permeate tube, “glue-lines”) place con-
straints on maximization of N.
- Retentate spacers play a well-known dominant role. Despite the fact
that a great deal of useful work has been carried out, mostly using
advanced numerical methods, there is scope for further pursuing de-
tailed (well designed) studies at both theoretical and experimental
level, to better understand the spacer morphology effects on the
flow field and related transport phenomena. Such investigations
should be done both with clean feed-fluids, and under concurrent
deposition of foulants on the membrane and on the spacers. These
studies, especially with well-characterized foulant species, can
offer improved understanding of mechanisms involved as well as
the much needed constitutive expressions to facilitate the develop-
ment of a SWM-module dynamic simulator.
184 A.J. Karabelas et al. / Desalination 356 (2015) 165–186
- The permeate fabric and its impact on SWM performance (with few
exceptions [40,141]) have been essentially neglected in relevant lit-
erature, even though its importance is apparently appreciated by the
module manufacturers ([3,10]). Recent parametric studies confirm
empirically known trends, additionally showing that the permeate-
fabric lateral permeability and thickness have a comparatively great-
er effect on low pressure membrane operations (i.e. in brackish
water desalination). In optimizing permeate fabric properties, it is
desirable to maximize its lateral permeability and thickness for pres-
sure drop reduction; however, in doing so, there is negative impact
on cost and indirectly on total membrane area. The permeability is
generally increased with increasing the fabric porosity, which (on
the contrary) negatively affects fabric stiffness and its capability to
support the membrane against the imposed significant compressive
forces. Research is needed to investigate these counteracting effects
and to correctly account for them in a reliable SWM simulator.
In reviewing research work performed on SWM geometric pa-
rameters, to set priorities for future R&D, one should not fail to ob-
serve that there is often a significant discrepancy between the real
conditions (of SWM module fabrication and operation) and those
employed in research studies. During fabrication (involving enve-
lope wrapping around the permeate tube), the imposed normal
stresses on the net-type plastic spacers are fairly high, and can po-
tentially deform them and/or damage the flexible membrane (in par-
ticular the sensitive active surface layer). This review reveals that in
studies on novel feed-spacer designs, efforts made to optimize the
fluid mechanical aspects of the process have often led to suggested
spacer morphologies (with complicated cross-sections of strands,
also involving sharp edges) which in practice would be either highly
deformable (resulting in a drastic reduction of the nominal channel
gap), or (if made of rigid material) would damage the membrane at
the contact areas between spacer/membrane. Somewhat similar
considerations are applicable to the case of permeate fabric which
has to support the membrane against the rather large operating
pressure. The above factors, aside from their great practical signifi-
cance, have a significant impact on the realistic simulation of SWM
module performance, as shown in this paper. Indeed, specifying the
correct geometric parameters (e.g. channel gaps at both sides of
the membrane, feed-spacer deformability, fabric permeability) is of
the utmost importance in SWM module and overall plant optimiza-
tion studies.
In taking an overall view of the factors determining the membrane
module and plant performance, it is very likely that there is no single
set of “optimum” SWM design parameter values, and that particular
“near optimum” SWM modules should be determined for particular
classes of water treatment tasks; i.e. specific types of feed-waters and
permeate characteristics (quality, degree of recovery, etc.). Industry
has already taken such steps by offering SWM modules with different
design characteristics for different applications. Nevertheless, a reliable
dynamic SWM module simulator (unavailable at present) would be of
great help in realistic optimization studies. Current R&D activities to de-
velop very large SWM modules as well as high permeability membranes
render such a tool indispensable.
There are significant challenges faced by researchers aiming to de-
velop a reliable SWM dynamic simulator, with features described in
this paper. Although systematic steps have been taken toward that
goal (e.g. [118]), there is a need for a great deal of additional work.
The general approach and modeling framework outlined herein appears
to be very appropriate as a basis. However, particular emphasis should
be placed on work mainly at small scale a) to improve understanding
of mechanisms and of their interaction, and b) to develop constitutive
type expressions accurately representing those mechanisms and relat-
ing properties of membrane and foulants’ with the other process and
controlled parameters (essentially the local flow field properties). It is
hoped that the quite extensive ongoing research work carried out in
the areas of organic and colloidal fouling, biofouling, and scaling (as
well as in related areas) will be properly focused to provide the input
needed to develop reliable simulation tools.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution by Professor S.G.
Yiantsios, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Aristotle Univ. of Thessaloniki,
to some aspects of work presented herein, particularly in the area of ad-
vanced numerical simulations.
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