Notation: Logical Connectives

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Definition 1. The symbol “” means “and”. (For example, “x = 2  x is a prime.” means
“x = 2 and x is a prime.”)

Definition 2. The symbol “” means “or”. (For example, “x is an even number  x is a prime.”
means “x is an even number or x is a prime.”)

This sense of “or” allows both conditions to be true. It means that at least one condition is true,
and that it is possible that in fact both conditions are true. In the example given above, the
number 2 in fact satisfies both conditions. In many cases, however, it will be obvious that only
one condition can be true, as in the statement “x = 2  x = 3”. (x cannot be both 2 and 3 at the
same time.)

Definition 3. If each of S and V is a statement, then “S  V” means “S implies V”

(synonymously: “if S, then V”; “S only if V”; “V if S”) (For example, x = 5  x is a prime.)

Axiom 1. If S is a statement, then S  S. (Colloquially, “Every statement implies itself.”)

Definition 4. If each of S and V is a statement, then “S  V” means “V  S”.

Definition 5. If each of S and V is a statement, then “S  V” means ““S  V”  “S  V””, and

is read “S if, and only if, V”. (synonymously: “S is inferentially equivalent to V”) (For example,
x = 2  x is an even prime.)

Definition 6. A tautology is a statement that is always true. (For example, the statement “x = x”
is always true, and is therefore a tautology.)

The letter “T” is customarily reserved for a statement known to be true, and the letter “F” is
customarily reserved for a statement known to be false.

Definition 7. A set is an entity determined solely by membership. (For example, the set
containing precisely the members 5 and 7 is equal to the set containing precisely the members
7 and 5.) (A member of a set is synonymously called an element of the set.)

In some cases, a set may be given in roster form (that is, list form). Roster form is given by
explicitly listing the members, in any order, between curly braces, for example, {5, 7}. Note that
{5, 7} = {7, 5}. Infinite sets, and finite sets that are very large, can be specified only by
description, for example, “the set of primes”. The formal way of specifying a set by means of
description is given by this example: {x | x is a prime}, which is the formal way of specifying the
set of primes. It is read, “the set to which x belongs if, and only if, x is a prime”, or, more
informally, “the set of x such that x is a prime”.

Set membership is not affected by redundant entries in a set given in roster form. For example,
the set {7, 5, 5, 7, 5} is equal to the set {5, 7}. (When the term “set” is used in a way in which
redundant entries are significant, the term “set” is an abbreviation for an “indexed set”,
sometimes called a “multiset”.)

Membership in a set is denoted by the symbol “” (read “epsilon”). When used in this way, “”
is read “is a member of”. For example, “5  H” is read “5 is a member of H”.)

Definition 8. A set containing exactly one element is called a singleton. (For example, the set of
even primes is a singleton, because it is equal to the set {2}.)
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Definition 9. A set A is said to be a subset of a set B, denoted by “A  B” if, and only if, every
member of A is a member of B. (synonymously: x  A  x  B)

“Q.E.D.” is an expression from Latin meaning “that which was to be proved”.

Theorem 1. Every set is a subset of itself.

Proof: Suppose A is a set. By Axiom 1, x  A  x  A. Thus, by Definition 9, A  A. Q.E.D.

Definition 10. A set A is said to be a proper subset of a set B, denoted by “A  B” if, and only if,
A  B and A  B.

Definition 11. A set is said to be infinite if, and only if, it can be put into one-to-one
correspondence with a proper subset of itself. (For example, the set of counting numbers
1, 2, 3, ... is infinite, because it can be placed in one-to-one correspondence with the positive
even numbers 2, 4, 6, ... .)

Definition 12. The set containing no members is called the empty set (synonymously: the null
set).

Definition 13. The symbol “” denotes the empty set.

Since the empty set in roster notation is { }, we have  = { }.

Theorem 2. The null set has no proper subset.

Proof: Suppose that A is a proper subset of . Then  contains a member x that does not belong
to A. But then  is not empty, a contradiction. Thus,  has no proper subset. Q.E.D.

Definition 14. The primal singleton is {}.

Axiom 2. If F is a false statement and S is any statement, then F  S is a true statement.

(Colloquially, “A false statement implies anything.”) (This axiom is known as the Axiom of
Material Implication.)

Theorem 3. The null set is a subset of every set.

Proof: Suppose that A is a set.
Case 1. A = . Then by Theorem 1,   A.
Case 2. A  . Suppose x  . Since  has no members, “x  ” is a false statement. Then by
the Axiom of Material Implication, this implies anything. In particular, this implies “x  A”.
Since x    x  A, then, by Definition 9,   A. Q.E.D.

Axiom 3. If T is a true statement and S is a statement, then S  T is a true statement.

(Colloquially, “Anything implies a true statement.” In particular, a false statement implies any
given true statement. This fact has great propaganda value, as the naive realist believes that
(P  T)  P. However, even the devil tells the truth when it suits his purpose.)

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