CEPE2S: Earthquake Engineering

MODULE 2:
Elements of Seismology:
Earthquakes and Tectonics
Prepared by: Engr. Rizza P. Gamalinda
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 The Theory of
CONTINENTAL
DRIFT
Alfred Lothar Wegener
was a German polar researcher, geophysicist and
meteorologist.

During his lifetime he was

primarily known for his achievements
in meteorology and as a pioneer of
polar research, but today he is most
remembered as the originator
of CONTINENTAL DRIFT hypothesis
by suggesting in 1912 that
the continents are slowly drifting
around the Earth.
PANGAEA
“All the Earth”
 EVIDENCE?
1. The Apparent Fit of the Continents
 EVIDENCE?
1. The Apparent Fit of the Continents
2. Fossils Correlation
 EVIDENCE?
1. The Apparent Fit of the Continents
2. Fossils Correlation

3. Rock and Mountain Correlation

Mountain ranges with the same rock types, structures, and ages are now on opposite
sides of the Atlantic Ocean.

The Appalachians of the Eastern United States and Canada (left side) are just like
mountain ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain, and Norway (right side).
Wegener concluded that they formed as a single mountain range that was separated
as the continents drifted.
 EVIDENCE?
1. The Apparent Fit of the Continents
2. Fossils Correlation
3. Rock and Mountain Correlation
4. Paleoclimate Data
A glacier is a huge mass of ice that moves slowly over land. The term
“glacier” comes from the French word glace (glah-SAY), which means ice.
GLACIAL STRIATIONS are a series of long, straight, parallel lines or
grooves scratched onto a bedrock surface by rock fragments lodged in the
base of a moving glacier. They typically form on hard rock, such as
quartzite, that is relatively resistant to erosion.
BITUMINOUS COAL is an organic sedimentary rock formed by
diagenetic and sub metamorphic compression of peat bog material. It is formed
from the destructive distillation of plant remains under anaerobic conditions. It
results from burial and compression, and the driving off hydrogen and other
volatiles leaving behind fixed carbon, with varying amounts of sulfur, and other
elements.
 The Theory of
PLATE
TECTONICS
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg
MAJOR PLATES

These plates comprise the bulk of the continents and the Pacific Ocean. A major plate is any plate with an area greater
than 20 million km2.

1. African Plate – A major tectonic plate underlying Africa west of the East African Rift – 61,300,000 km2
2. Antarctic Plate – Tectonic plate containing the continent of Antarctica and extending outward under the
surrounding oceans – 60,900,000 km2
3. Eurasian Plate – Tectonic plate which includes most of the continent of Eurasia – 67,800,000 km2
4. Indo-Australian Plate – A major tectonic plate formed by the fusion of the Indian and Australian plates –
58,900,000 km2 often considered two plates:
i. Australian Plate – Major tectonic plate, originally a part of the ancient continent of Gondwana – 47,000,000
km2
ii. Indian Plate – A minor tectonic plate that got separated from Gondwana – 11,900,000 km2
5. North American Plate – Large tectonic plate including most of North America, Greenland and part of Siberia. –
75,900,000 km2
6. Pacific Plate – Oceanic tectonic plate under the Pacific Ocean – 103,300,000 km2
7. South American Plate – Major tectonic plate which includes most of South America and a large part of the south
Atlantic – 43,600,000 km2
MINOR PLATES
These smaller plates are often not shown on major plate maps, as the majority do not comprise significant land area. A
minor plate is any plate with an area less than 20 million km2 but greater than 1 million km2.

1. Somali Plate – Minor tectonic plate including the east coast of Africa and the adjoining seabed – 16,700,000 km2
2. Nazca Plate – Oceanic tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin – 15,600,000 km2
3. Indian Plate – A minor tectonic plate that got separated from Gondwana – 11,900,000 km2
4. Amurian Plate – A minor tectonic plate in eastern Asia
5. Sunda Plate – A minor tectonic plate including most of Southeast Asia
6. Philippine Sea Plate – oceanic tectonic plate to the east of the Philippines – 5,500,000 km2
7. Okhotsk Plate – Minor tectonic plate including the Sea of Okhotsk, the Kamchatka Peninsula, Sakhalin Island,
Tōhoku and Hokkaidō
8. Arabian Plate – Minor tectonic plate consisting mostly of the Arabian Peninsula, extending northward to
Mesopotamia and the Levant – 5,000,000 km2
9. Yangtze Plate – Small tectonic plate carrying the bulk of southern China
10. Caribbean Plate – A mostly oceanic tectonic plate including part of Central America and the Caribbean Sea –
3,300,000 km2
11. Cocos Plate – young oceanic tectonic plate beneath the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of Central America –
2,900,000 km2
12. Caroline Plate – Minor oceanic tectonic plate north of New Guinea – 1,700,000 km2
13. Scotia Plate – Minor oceanic tectonic plate between the South American and Antarctic Plates – 1,600,000 km2
14. Burma Plate – Minor tectonic plate in Southeast Asia – 1,100,000 km2
15. New Hebrides Plate – Minor tectonic plate in the Pacific Ocean near Vanuatu – 1,100,000 km2
“THE GREAT CHILEAN EARTHQUAKE”
Magnitude 9.5 May 22, 1960
Bio-Bio, Chile
“MORO GULF EARTHQUAKE” “MIDNIGHT KILLER”
Magnitude 7.9 August 17, 1976
near the town of Lebak, Sultan Kudarat
ADDITIONAL FACTS:
▪ The earliest earthquake for which we have descriptive information occurred in China
in 1177 B.C. The Chinese earthquake catalog describes several dozen large
earthquakes in China during the next few thousand years.

WHY DO EARTHQUAKES OCCUR IN CENTRAL LUZON?

▪ Central Luzon, which includes Zambales and Pampanga, is one of the seismically
active areas in the country because of the Philippine Fault, Iba Fault, East Zambales
Fault, and Manila Trench, which are the main earthquake generators that can affect
the area. In addition, there are other nearby local faults, which may be covered by
recent deposits, and may be sources of small- to moderate-magnitude earthquakes.
2019 PHILIPPINE EARTHQUAKE
6.1 MAGNITUDE April 22, 2019
6.4 MAGNITUDE April 23, 2019
SEISMIC HAZARDS
is associated with the potential effect of an
earthquake in a particular area.
GROUND SHAKING – If an earthquake generates a large enough shaking
intensity, structures like buildings, bridges and dams can be severely
damaged, and cliffs and sloping ground destabilized.

MITIGATION: Avoid sites which are near major fault lines during site
planning.
STRUCTURAL HAZARDS – hazards caused by improper design, incorrect
detailing, and construction malpractices.

MITIGATION: Follow the provisions set by the code about seismic design
and prepare a well-detailed structural plan and make sure that everything is
properly implemented during construction.
 TAIPEI 101
Formerly known as
“TAIPEI WORLD FINANCIAL
CENTER”
in Xinyi District, Taipei, Taiwan
has 662 tone (730-ton) counter giant pendulum to
act as a counterweight inside the 508 m building.
 TUNED MASS DAMPER
also called a "HARMONIC ABSORBER",
is a device mounted to a specific location
in a structure, to reduce the amplitude of
vibration to an acceptable level whenever
a strong lateral force such as an
earthquake or high winds hit.
SABIHA GÖKÇEN
INTERNATIONAL
AIRPORT
 300 separate
It uses

isolators that can reduce

the side-to-side effect of the
earthquake puts on it by 80%.
LIQUEFACTION HAZARDS – Liquefaction is a phenomenon by which soil (normally
loose saturated sand deposit) lose strength and stiffness during an earthquake where
the soil behaves like liquid causing considerable settling and tilting of the overlying
structures.

MITIGATION: Provide drainage wells; Apply horizontal compaction of soil by vibro-

flotation or jet grouting; If feasible, remove liquefiable layer.
LANDSLIDE HAZARDS – hazards caused by slope failures in steep or hilly
areas.
MITIGATION: Monitor possible slope failure; Apply soil nailing; Provide
properly designed retaining walls or apply jet grouting.
TSUNAMI HAZARDS – hazards caused by giant sea waves generated by under the
sea earthquakes which are shallow seated and strong enough to disturb and displace
the water over it.
MITIGATION: Provide tsunami warning system; Provide breakwaters and tsunami
forests; Make a proper orientation of the buildings to produce good water steering;
Structures must be located on higher grounds.
KASUKABE FLOOD TANK
The G-Cans storm drain was built with the capacity to drain 7,000 cubic feet of water per second.
This water is then pumped away from homes and businesses and into the Edogawa River
 DISCOVERING
EARTH’S INTERIOR
Seismic waves are used to
study the interior of the
Earth.

• Travel through Earth’s

interior during
earthquakes
• Altered by type of
material they move
• Changes in speed and
direction measured
when passing through
different layers
A seismic wave is an elastic wave generated by an impulse such
as an earthquake or an explosion.
 BODY WAVES

▪ PRIMARY or P-WAVES – also

known as compressional
waves and longitudinal waves
which are the fastest kind of
seismic wave and can move
through solid rock or fluids.
 BODY WAVES

▪ SECONDARY or S-WAVES –
also known as transverse
waves are waves that are
typically slower than a P-Wave
and can only move through solid
rock and not through any liquid
medium. However, these waves
are stronger as it moves various
rock particles up and down, or
side to side perpendicular to the
direction that the wave is
travelling.
SURFACE WAVES

▪ LOVE WAVES – the fastest

surface wave as it moves the
ground from side-to-side. These
waves are confined to the
surface of the crust and moves
entirely in a horizontal motion.
SURFACE WAVES

▪ RAYLEIGH WAVES – these

waves roll along the ground just
like a wave which rolls across a
lake or an ocean. It is the
slowest type of wave but often
the most destructive.
WAVE TYPE PARTICLE MOTION TYPICAL VELOCITY OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
Alternating compressions (“pushes”) P motion travels fastest in materials, so the P-
VP ~ 5 – 7 km/s in typical Earth’s
P Waves and dilations (“pulls”) which are wave is the first-arriving energy on a
crust; >~ 8 km/s in Earth’s
Compressional directed in the same direction as the seismogram. Generally smaller and higher
mantle and core; ~1.5 km/s in
Primary wave is propagating (along the ray frequency than the S and Surface-waves. P
water; ~0.3 km/s in air.
Longitudinal path); and therefore, perpendicular to waves in a liquid or gas are pressure waves,
the wavefront. including sound waves.
Alternating transverse motions VS ~ 3 – 4 km/s in typical Earth’s
S Waves S-waves do not travel through fluids, so do not
(perpendicular to the direction of crust; exist in Earth’s outer core (inferred to be primarily
Shear propagation, and the ray path);
>~ 4.5 km/s in Earth’s mantle; liquid iron) or in air or water or molten rock
Secondary commonly approximately polarized
~ 2.5-3.0 km/s in (solid) inner (magma). S waves travel slower than P waves in
Transverse such that particle motion is in vertical
core. a solid and, therefore, arrive after the P wave.
or horizontal planes.
Love waves exist because of the Earth’s
VL ~ 2.0 - 4.4 km/s in the Earth surface. They are largest at the surface and
L Waves depending on frequency of the decrease in amplitude with depth. Love waves
Transverse horizontal motion,
propagating wave, and therefore are dispersive, that is, the wave velocity is
Love perpendicular to the direction of
the depth of penetration of the dependent on frequency, generally with low
Surface waves propagation and generally parallel to
waves. In general, the Love frequencies propagating at higher velocity. Depth
Long waves the Earth’s surface.
waves travel slightly faster than of penetration of the Love waves is also
the Rayleigh waves. dependent on frequency, with lower frequencies
penetrating to greater depth.
Rayleigh waves are also dispersive and the
R Waves Motion is both in the direction of VR ~ 2.0 - 4.2 km/s in the Earth amplitudes generally decrease with depth in the
Rayleigh propagation and perpendicular (in a depending on frequency of the Earth. Appearance and particle motion are similar
Surface waves vertical plane), and “phased” so that propagating wave, and therefore to water waves. Depth of penetration of the
Long waves the motion is generally elliptical – the depth of penetration of the Rayleigh waves is also dependent on frequency,
Ground roll either prograde or retrograde. waves. with lower frequencies penetrating to greater
depth.
 HOW IS AN EARTHQUAKE’S EPICENTER
LOCATED?
1. Three seismograph
stations are needed to
locate the epicenter of
an earthquake

2. Use distances of
earthquake from three
observatories.

3. The intersection of the

circles locates the
epicenter.
CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
where two plates are colliding.

WHERE OCEANIC CRUST MEETS CONTINENTAL CRUST.

The denser oceanic plate is subducted, often forming a
mountain range on the continent.

WHERE OCEANIC CRUST MEETS OCEAN CRUST.

Island arcs and oceanic trenches occur when both plates are
made of oceanic crust. Zones of active seafloor spreading
can also occur behind the island arc, known as back-arc
basins. These are often associated with submarine
volcanoes.

WHERE CONTINENTAL CRUST MEETS CONTINENTAL

CRUST.
Both continental crusts are too light to subduct so a continent-
continent collision occurs, creating especially large mountain
ranges..
The ANDES MOUNTAINS extend through 7 states including
Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Colombia.
These ranges are split into 3 sections: the Northern Andes, Central Andes, and the Southern Andes.
In southwestern Alaska, those two plates
meet head on, and the Pacific plate sinks
beneath the North American plate. In this
subduction zone, some of the ocean
plate melts and the molten rock pushes
to the surface in a string of 40 active
volcanoes, forming the ALEUTIAN
ISLANDS.
 ISLANDS OF THE FOUR MOUNTAINS

CARLISLE TANA

CLEVELAND

HERBERT
The MARIANA TRENCH, in the Pacific Ocean, is the deepest location on Earth.
According to the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), the United States has jurisdiction over
the trench and its resources. Scientists use a variety of technologies to overcome the
challenges of deep-sea exploration and explore the Trench.
The HIMALAYAS stretch across the northeastern portion
of India. They cover approximately 1,500 mi (2,400 km)
and pass through the nations of India, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, China, Bhutan and Nepal.
DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
where two plates are moving apart.

ON LAND
Divergent boundaries within continents initially
produce rifts, which produce rift valleys.
 DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
where two plates are moving apart.

UNDER THE SEA

The most active divergent plate boundaries are between oceanic plates and are
often called mid-oceanic ridges.
The MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE is a mid-ocean ridge located along the floor of
the Atlantic Ocean, and part of the longest mountain range in the world.
the East African rift
in Kenya and
Ethiopia
 TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES
where plates slide passed each other.

The relative motion of the plates is horizontal. They can occur

underwater or on land, and crust is neither destroyed nor created.

Because of friction, the plates cannot simply glide past each other.
Rather, stress builds up in both plates and when it exceeds the threshold
of the rocks, the energy is released – causing earthquakes.
The SAN ANDREAS FAULT is a
continental transform fault that
extends roughly 1,200 kilometers
through California. It forms the
tectonic boundary between the
Pacific Plate and the North
American Plate, and its motion is
right-lateral strike-slip.