7.

1 Development and
human wellbeing
The term ‘human wellbeing’ refers to people’s quality of life. It takes
into account the extent to which an individual, family, or larger social
grouping (for example a community or even a whole country) can
be characterised as being healthy, happy and prosperous. There are
significant variations in the level of wellbeing experienced by people
between and within countries.

Development Developed and developing

‘Development’ is a contested term. How it is defined
depends on the beliefs people hold—their perspective or
worlds
Countries have traditionally been considered to be
view of the world. It can be defined as simply the outcome
developed or developing. This division is becoming
of economic growth or it can be understood in terms of
increasingly problematic, as some countries once described
a dynamic, socio-economic process, the aim of which is
as ‘developing’ have emerged as major economic powers
a sustained improvement in people’s quality of life (or
and their people enjoy a high level of wellbeing. A more
wellbeing) as perceived by those affected by change.
commonly used division now is that of ‘more developed’
countries, ‘less developed’ and ‘least developed’. This
Human wellbeing is often measured by the rate of
division is shown in Figure 7.1. The more developed world
economic growth. Such growth is driven by the
consumption of goods and services. Development policies
accounts for 1.24 billion people; the less developed, 5.8
billion; and the least developed, 876 million.
7.2 Too many of the world’s people still have an unacceptable Poverty
are often based on the belief that higher growth rates and standard of living. Poverty is the state of human beings who are poor; that is,
greater affluence increase people’s quality of life. If the gross they have little or no material means of surviving—little or
domestic product (GDP) is rising, we should all be better no food, shelter, clothes, healthcare, education and other
off, but experience, in both developed and developing physical means of living and improving their lives. Some
countries, shows that even when people have more money definitions of poverty are relative, rather than absolute.
and material possessions, they do not necessarily become The term ‘poverty reduction’ applies to measures that lift
happier or more satisfied with their lives. Other, non- 7.1 The more developed, less developed and least developed people out of poverty.
economic, factors also play a role. regions and countries SPOTLIGHT
Global inequalities
In early 2014, Oxfam, the international non-government
ACTIVITIES
aid agency, reported that the world’s 85 richest people
controlled wealth of $1.7 trillion, an amount equal to that Knowledge and understanding
held by the world’s poorest 3.5 billion people. In other 1 Explain what is meant by the term ‘human
words, a small group of people, just enough to fill a double- wellbeing’.
decker bus, had accumulated as much wealth as that 2 Define ‘development’.
shared by half the world’s people. This staggering figure 3 Distinguish between developed and developing
highlights the inequalities evident in the world today. The
countries. Explain why this distinction is becoming
wealth of the richest 1 per cent of the world’s population
difficult to sustain. What alternative terminology is
was about $110 trillion, 65 times the total wealth of the
bottom 50 per cent of the world’s population. used to overcome this problem?

Although poverty has been reduced, inequality has not. In

Applying and analysing
the 20 years between 1990 and 2010, the number of very
4 Construct an annotated mind map to illustrate the
poor fell by half (as a percentage of the total population) in
developing countries, from 43 per cent to 21 per cent—a characteristics of developing countries.
reduction of almost 1 billion people. Despite such gains,
N 1.1 billion of the world’s 7 billion people still live below Geographical skills
the internationally accepted extreme-poverty line of just 5 Study Figure 7.1. Describe the distribution of the
Least developed
Less developed $1.25 a day. world’s least developed countries.
More developed (advanced economies) 0 2000 4000 km

206 PEARSON geography 10 CHAPTER 7: Human wellbeing 207

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 7.1 Development and
human wellbeing
The term ‘human wellbeing’ refers to people’s quality of life. It takes
into account the extent to which an individual, family, or larger social
grouping (for example a community or even a whole country) can
be characterised as being healthy, happy and prosperous. There are
significant variations in the level of wellbeing experienced by people
between and within countries.

Development Developed and developing

‘Development’ is a contested term. How it is defined
depends on the beliefs people hold—their perspective or
worlds
Countries have traditionally been considered to be
view of the world. It can be defined as simply the outcome
developed or developing. This division is becoming
of economic growth or it can be understood in terms of
increasingly problematic, as some countries once described
a dynamic, socio-economic process, the aim of which is
as ‘developing’ have emerged as major economic powers
a sustained improvement in people’s quality of life (or
and their people enjoy a high level of wellbeing. A more
wellbeing) as perceived by those affected by change.
commonly used division now is that of ‘more developed’
countries, ‘less developed’ and ‘least developed’. This
Human wellbeing is often measured by the rate of
division is shown in Figure 7.1. The more developed world
economic growth. Such growth is driven by the
consumption of goods and services. Development policies
accounts for 1.24 billion people; the less developed, 5.8
billion; and the least developed, 876 million.
7.2 Too many of the world’s people still have an unacceptable Poverty
are often based on the belief that higher growth rates and standard of living. Poverty is the state of human beings who are poor; that is,
greater affluence increase people’s quality of life. If the gross they have little or no material means of surviving—little or
domestic product (GDP) is rising, we should all be better no food, shelter, clothes, healthcare, education and other
off, but experience, in both developed and developing physical means of living and improving their lives. Some
countries, shows that even when people have more money definitions of poverty are relative, rather than absolute.
and material possessions, they do not necessarily become The term ‘poverty reduction’ applies to measures that lift
happier or more satisfied with their lives. Other, non- 7.1 The more developed, less developed and least developed people out of poverty.
economic, factors also play a role. regions and countries SPOTLIGHT
Global inequalities
In early 2014, Oxfam, the international non-government
ACTIVITIES
aid agency, reported that the world’s 85 richest people
controlled wealth of $1.7 trillion, an amount equal to that Knowledge and understanding
held by the world’s poorest 3.5 billion people. In other 1 Explain what is meant by the term ‘human
words, a small group of people, just enough to fill a double- wellbeing’.
decker bus, had accumulated as much wealth as that 2 Define ‘development’.
shared by half the world’s people. This staggering figure 3 Distinguish between developed and developing
highlights the inequalities evident in the world today. The
countries. Explain why this distinction is becoming
wealth of the richest 1 per cent of the world’s population
difficult to sustain. What alternative terminology is
was about $110 trillion, 65 times the total wealth of the
bottom 50 per cent of the world’s population. used to overcome this problem?

Although poverty has been reduced, inequality has not. In

Applying and analysing
the 20 years between 1990 and 2010, the number of very
4 Construct an annotated mind map to illustrate the
poor fell by half (as a percentage of the total population) in
developing countries, from 43 per cent to 21 per cent—a characteristics of developing countries.
reduction of almost 1 billion people. Despite such gains,
N 1.1 billion of the world’s 7 billion people still live below Geographical skills
the internationally accepted extreme-poverty line of just 5 Study Figure 7.1. Describe the distribution of the
Least developed
Less developed $1.25 a day. world’s least developed countries.
More developed (advanced economies) 0 2000 4000 km

206 PEARSON geography 10 CHAPTER 7: Human wellbeing 207

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 7 .2 Measuring and mapping
human wellbeing
7.3 GNI per capita Generally people living in countries
with higher GNI per capita tend to have
longer life expectancies, higher literacy
rates, better access to safe water and
lower infant mortality rates.
A country’s GNI per
capita tends to be
closely linked with
other indicators
that measure the
social, economic
and environmental
Differences in human wellbeing between and within countries can be wellbeing of the
measured using a range of qualitative and quantitative indicators. country and its people.
When this data is mapped, spatial patterns emerge. These patterns,
the reasons for them and the ways in which they change over time are
of interest to geographers. Low- and middle-income
economies are sometimes referred
to as developing economies.

Assessing human wellbeing are under-resourced. Other quantitative measures used

Human wellbeing can be measured using qualitative to measure economic growth are energy consumption
$ US
(subjective) measures of how people perceive the quality per capita and employment. Such production-based
25 000+
of the life they experience , or quantitative (objective) indicators can be used to rank countries on the basis of N
12 500–24 999
indicators, for example life expectancy, education levels their relative economic development. However, they tell us 5000–12 499
2000–4999
and income. very little about the spatial and social inequalities in the <2000 0 2000 4000 km
distribution of benefits derived from economic growth,
Qualitative indicators and they tell us nothing about the qualitative dimension of World’s 10 richest countries as measured by GNI per capita, 2013 World’s 10 poorest countries as measured by GNI per capita, 2013
The qualitative or subjective indicators of human human wellbeing. Rank Country GNI per capita (US$) Rank Country GNI per capita (US$)
1 Norway 98 860 10 Eritrea 450
wellbeing are those aspects of our standard of living
2 Switzerland 82 730 9 Uganda 440
that are difficult to measure, such as political freedoms, Composite quantitative measures 3 Luxembourg 76 960 8 Madagascar 430
social opportunities and guarantees of personal security. Several new indices have been introduced over the years 4 Denmark 59 770 7 Ethiopia 410
They include human rights, the nature of governing to provide a more accurate insight into human wellbeing. 5 Australia 59 570 6 Liberia 370
institutions, the quality of the environment, the level of These include a range of multiple component (or 6 Sweden 56 210 5 Niger 370
7 Canada 50 970 4 Malawi 320
social participation and access to leisure. These aspects composite) measures such as the Human Development
8 USA 50 120 3 Burundi 240
are about the capacity of the individual to exercise their Index (HDI), the Inequality-adjusted Human Development
9 Netherlands 48 250 2 Democratic Republic of the Congo 220
rights, especially economic, cultural and social rights. Index (IHDI), the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 10 Austria 48 160 1 Somalia 128
They involve the elimination of poverty, inequities, and the Gender-related Development Index (GDI).
Source: World Bank
suffering and injustice.
7.4 Human Development Index, 2013
Human Development Index
Quantitative indicators The HDI allows for a range of developmental factors to
There is a range of objective (measurable) indicators used be taken into account when measuring human wellbeing
to assess human wellbeing. or progress. These factors are income, life expectancy
and education. The index is not without its limitations.
Gross national product per capita While it allows for easy comparisons between countries
When many people think about human wellbeing, they on an aggregate of the indicators, it does not provide
often focus on economic growth. It is not surprising, an indication of the relative performance of each of the
therefore, that gross national product (GNP) per capita components. It also tells us little about inequalities in
is one of the most commonly used measures of human wellbeing within countries.
wellbeing. GNP per capita is the total value of goods and
services produced within a country in a particular year, Inequality-adjusted Human Development
together with income received from other countries Index
(for example interest and dividends), less similar The IHDI seeks to measure of the level of human wellbeing
payments made to other countries, divided by the and the level of inequality. Under conditions of perfect
country’s population. equality the IHDI is equal to the HDI, but falls below the
HDI if inequality rises. IHDI is a measure of the actual level N
Very high human development
The use of GNP has been criticised for failing to accurately of human development (taking into account inequality), High human development
measure economic activity, especially in developing while the HDI can be viewed as an index of the potential Medium development 0 2000 4000 km
countries, where much of the activity takes place outside human development that could be achieved if there is Low human development
the formal economy or where data collection processes no inequality. Source: Human Development Report, 2013

208 PEARSON geography 10 CHAPTER 7: Human wellbeing 209

M07_PGEOG10_SB_3903.indd 208-209 4/07/2014 12:57 pm

 7 .2 Measuring and mapping
human wellbeing
7.3 GNI per capita Generally people living in countries
with higher GNI per capita tend to have
longer life expectancies, higher literacy
rates, better access to safe water and
lower infant mortality rates.
A country’s GNI per
capita tends to be
closely linked with
other indicators
that measure the
social, economic
and environmental
Differences in human wellbeing between and within countries can be wellbeing of the
measured using a range of qualitative and quantitative indicators. country and its people.
When this data is mapped, spatial patterns emerge. These patterns,
the reasons for them and the ways in which they change over time are
of interest to geographers. Low- and middle-income
economies are sometimes referred
to as developing economies.

Assessing human wellbeing are under-resourced. Other quantitative measures used

Human wellbeing can be measured using qualitative to measure economic growth are energy consumption
$ US
(subjective) measures of how people perceive the quality per capita and employment. Such production-based
25 000+
of the life they experience , or quantitative (objective) indicators can be used to rank countries on the basis of N
12 500–24 999
indicators, for example life expectancy, education levels their relative economic development. However, they tell us 5000–12 499
2000–4999
and income. very little about the spatial and social inequalities in the <2000 0 2000 4000 km
distribution of benefits derived from economic growth,
Qualitative indicators and they tell us nothing about the qualitative dimension of World’s 10 richest countries as measured by GNI per capita, 2013 World’s 10 poorest countries as measured by GNI per capita, 2013
The qualitative or subjective indicators of human human wellbeing. Rank Country GNI per capita (US$) Rank Country GNI per capita (US$)
1 Norway 98 860 10 Eritrea 450
wellbeing are those aspects of our standard of living
2 Switzerland 82 730 9 Uganda 440
that are difficult to measure, such as political freedoms, Composite quantitative measures 3 Luxembourg 76 960 8 Madagascar 430
social opportunities and guarantees of personal security. Several new indices have been introduced over the years 4 Denmark 59 770 7 Ethiopia 410
They include human rights, the nature of governing to provide a more accurate insight into human wellbeing. 5 Australia 59 570 6 Liberia 370
institutions, the quality of the environment, the level of These include a range of multiple component (or 6 Sweden 56 210 5 Niger 370
7 Canada 50 970 4 Malawi 320
social participation and access to leisure. These aspects composite) measures such as the Human Development
8 USA 50 120 3 Burundi 240
are about the capacity of the individual to exercise their Index (HDI), the Inequality-adjusted Human Development
9 Netherlands 48 250 2 Democratic Republic of the Congo 220
rights, especially economic, cultural and social rights. Index (IHDI), the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 10 Austria 48 160 1 Somalia 128
They involve the elimination of poverty, inequities, and the Gender-related Development Index (GDI).
Source: World Bank
suffering and injustice.
7.4 Human Development Index, 2013
Human Development Index
Quantitative indicators The HDI allows for a range of developmental factors to
There is a range of objective (measurable) indicators used be taken into account when measuring human wellbeing
to assess human wellbeing. or progress. These factors are income, life expectancy
and education. The index is not without its limitations.
Gross national product per capita While it allows for easy comparisons between countries
When many people think about human wellbeing, they on an aggregate of the indicators, it does not provide
often focus on economic growth. It is not surprising, an indication of the relative performance of each of the
therefore, that gross national product (GNP) per capita components. It also tells us little about inequalities in
is one of the most commonly used measures of human wellbeing within countries.
wellbeing. GNP per capita is the total value of goods and
services produced within a country in a particular year, Inequality-adjusted Human Development
together with income received from other countries Index
(for example interest and dividends), less similar The IHDI seeks to measure of the level of human wellbeing
payments made to other countries, divided by the and the level of inequality. Under conditions of perfect
country’s population. equality the IHDI is equal to the HDI, but falls below the
HDI if inequality rises. IHDI is a measure of the actual level N
Very high human development
The use of GNP has been criticised for failing to accurately of human development (taking into account inequality), High human development
measure economic activity, especially in developing while the HDI can be viewed as an index of the potential Medium development 0 2000 4000 km
countries, where much of the activity takes place outside human development that could be achieved if there is Low human development
the formal economy or where data collection processes no inequality. Source: Human Development Report, 2013

208 PEARSON geography 10 CHAPTER 7: Human wellbeing 209

M07_PGEOG10_SB_3903.indd 208-209 4/07/2014 12:57 pm

 HDI Rank Country Inequality-adjusted Country 7.5 HDI and IHDI by rank, Multidimensional Poverty Index Gender-related Development Index
2012 HDI rank 2012 2012 The MPI was developed in 2010 by the United Nations The GDI ‘discounts’ the HDI for gender inequalities in its
Development Programme and the Oxford Poverty and component indicators and the Gender Empowerment
1 Norway 1 Norway
Human Development Initiative. It uses a range of factors, Measure (GEM), which measures gender inequality in
2 Australia 2 Australia beyond just income-based criteria, including nutrition and terms of political and economic participation by women,
3 USA 3 Sweden child mortality; years at school and percentage of children for example the number of female politicians and
completing five years at school; percentage of households participation in the labour force and types or work.
4 Netherlands 4 Netherlands
with electricity, proper sanitation, access to safe drinking
5 Germany 5 Germany water; and factors such as the type of household flooring 7.6 Gender-related Development Index
6 Sweden 6 Ireland and the type of cooking fuel used.
6 Ireland 7 Switzerland
8 Switzerland 8 Iceland
9 Canada 9 Denmark
10 South Korea 10 Slovenia
11 Iceland 11 Finland
12 Denmark 12 Austria
13 Israel 13 Canada
14 Belgium 14 Czech Republic
15 Austria 15 Belgium
16 France 16 USA
17 Slovenia 17 Luxembourg Most

18 Finland 18 France
N
19 Spain 19 UK
20 Italy 20 Spain Least
0 2000 4000 km
21 Luxembourg 21 Israel
22 UK 22 Slovakia
ACTIVITIES
…

28 Slovakia 24 Italy Knowledge and understanding 9 Study Figures 7.3 and 7.4. Write a sentence or two
1 Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative data. outlining any significant differences in the pattern of
28 South Korea
2 Explain why geographers are interested in mapping human wellbeing illustrated by GNI per capita and
such data. the HDI.
Table 7.5 shows the HDI ranking for the top twenty-two 3 List the various quantitative measures of human 10 Study Figure 7.5. Identify those countries whose:
rated countries compared to their inequality-adjusted wellbeing. Explain what each seeks to measure. a IHDI is considerably below its 2012 HDI rank
ranking. While the United States of America has the third- 4 Explain what is meant by the term ‘composite b IHDI is considerably above its 2012 HDI rank.
highest HDI, its ranking dropped to 16 when it was adjusted measure’.
for income, health and educational inequality. 5 Outline the disadvantages of relying on a narrow Investigating
measure such as GNP per capita. 11 Undertake research to complete the following table.
6 Explain what the IHDI seeks to measure.
Country GNI Life HDI IHDI MPI
SPOTLIGHT 7 Outline the qualitative measure typically used to
measure human wellbeing.
per expectancy
capita
Millennium Development Goals
• promote gender equality and empowering women
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are a set of Australia
• reduce child mortality Geographical skills
targets established by the United Nations following the
• improve maternal health 8 Study Figure 7.3. With the aid of an atlas, describe Mexico
Millennium Summit in 2000. The member nations of the UN,
• combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases the distribution of countries classified as:
together with a large number of international organisations, Turkey
• ensure environmental sustainability a ‘high income’
committed to achieve the goals by 2015. The goals were to:
• develop global partnerships for development. Uganda
• eradicate poverty and hunger b ‘low income’.
• achieve universal primary education Each goal was accompanied by a specific set of targets. Niger

210 PEARSON geography 10 CHAPTER 7: Human wellbeing 211

M07_PGEOG10_SB_3903.indd 210-211 4/07/2014 12:57 pm

 HDI Rank Country Inequality-adjusted Country 7.5 HDI and IHDI by rank, Multidimensional Poverty Index Gender-related Development Index
2012 HDI rank 2012 2012 The MPI was developed in 2010 by the United Nations The GDI ‘discounts’ the HDI for gender inequalities in its
Development Programme and the Oxford Poverty and component indicators and the Gender Empowerment
1 Norway 1 Norway
Human Development Initiative. It uses a range of factors, Measure (GEM), which measures gender inequality in
2 Australia 2 Australia beyond just income-based criteria, including nutrition and terms of political and economic participation by women,
3 USA 3 Sweden child mortality; years at school and percentage of children for example the number of female politicians and
completing five years at school; percentage of households participation in the labour force and types or work.
4 Netherlands 4 Netherlands
with electricity, proper sanitation, access to safe drinking
5 Germany 5 Germany water; and factors such as the type of household flooring 7.6 Gender-related Development Index
6 Sweden 6 Ireland and the type of cooking fuel used.
6 Ireland 7 Switzerland
8 Switzerland 8 Iceland
9 Canada 9 Denmark
10 South Korea 10 Slovenia
11 Iceland 11 Finland
12 Denmark 12 Austria
13 Israel 13 Canada
14 Belgium 14 Czech Republic
15 Austria 15 Belgium
16 France 16 USA
17 Slovenia 17 Luxembourg Most

18 Finland 18 France
N
19 Spain 19 UK
20 Italy 20 Spain Least
0 2000 4000 km
21 Luxembourg 21 Israel
22 UK 22 Slovakia
ACTIVITIES
…

28 Slovakia 24 Italy Knowledge and understanding 9 Study Figures 7.3 and 7.4. Write a sentence or two
1 Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative data. outlining any significant differences in the pattern of
28 South Korea
2 Explain why geographers are interested in mapping human wellbeing illustrated by GNI per capita and
such data. the HDI.
Table 7.5 shows the HDI ranking for the top twenty-two 3 List the various quantitative measures of human 10 Study Figure 7.5. Identify those countries whose:
rated countries compared to their inequality-adjusted wellbeing. Explain what each seeks to measure. a IHDI is considerably below its 2012 HDI rank
ranking. While the United States of America has the third- 4 Explain what is meant by the term ‘composite b IHDI is considerably above its 2012 HDI rank.
highest HDI, its ranking dropped to 16 when it was adjusted measure’.
for income, health and educational inequality. 5 Outline the disadvantages of relying on a narrow Investigating
measure such as GNP per capita. 11 Undertake research to complete the following table.
6 Explain what the IHDI seeks to measure.
Country GNI Life HDI IHDI MPI
SPOTLIGHT 7 Outline the qualitative measure typically used to
measure human wellbeing.
per expectancy
capita
Millennium Development Goals
• promote gender equality and empowering women
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are a set of Australia
• reduce child mortality Geographical skills
targets established by the United Nations following the
• improve maternal health 8 Study Figure 7.3. With the aid of an atlas, describe Mexico
Millennium Summit in 2000. The member nations of the UN,
• combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases the distribution of countries classified as:
together with a large number of international organisations, Turkey
• ensure environmental sustainability a ‘high income’
committed to achieve the goals by 2015. The goals were to:
• develop global partnerships for development. Uganda
• eradicate poverty and hunger b ‘low income’.
• achieve universal primary education Each goal was accompanied by a specific set of targets. Niger

210 PEARSON geography 10 CHAPTER 7: Human wellbeing 211

M07_PGEOG10_SB_3903.indd 210-211 4/07/2014 12:57 pm