Architecture and Organization

ARCHITECTURE AND ORGANIZATION
Jeruz E. Claudel
Khryss Leanne B. Omnes
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LAGUNA UNIVERSITY
Vision
Laguna University shall be a socially responsive educational institution of

choice providing holistically developed individuals in the Asia-Pacific Region.
Mission
Laguna University is committed to produce academically prepared and

technically skilled individuals who are socially and morally upright.
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Course Code: CS2110
Course Description: This course introduces students to the theory of

formal languages and automata, a subject which forms the foundation of
language parsing and modern linguistic syntax. Topics covered include
regular languages, context-free languages and Type O languages, as well as
their automata counterparts: deterministic and non-deterministic finite-
state automata, push-down automata, and Turing machines. Additional
topics includes: scanning and parsing algorithms and/or the basics of
computational complexity theory.
Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of this course, the students should be able to:
 Describe various data representations and explain how arithmetic and

logical operations are performed by the computers
 Define organization of digital computers and explain the basic principles
and operations of different components
 Evaluate the performance of CPU, memory and I/O operations.
 Design a basic computer system using the major components.
 Write low-level programs to perform different basic instructions
(Assembly Language)
Course Requirements:
 Assessment Tasks - 60%
 Major Exams - 40%
_________
Periodic Grade 100%
Final Grade = Total CS + Final Exam x 70% + 30% of the Midterm
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Table of Contents
Module 1: Overview of Computer Organization

Introduction 1
Learning Outcomes 1
Lesson 1. Computer Evolution 1
Lesson 2. Computing Machines 8
Lesson 3. Characteristics and Functions of a Computer 10
Lesson 4. Advantage and Disadvantage of a Computer 12
Assessment Task 16
Summary 18
References 19
Module 2: The CPU, System Bus and Registers

Introduction 21
Learning Objectives 21
Lesson 1. Central Processing Unit 21
Lesson 2. System Bus 26
Lesson 3. Registers 28
Assessment Task 30
Summary 32
References 32
Module 3: Memory, Secondary Memory and Input/Output

Introduction 34
Learning Outcomes 34
Lesson 1. Memory 34
Lesson 2. Input and Output Module (I/O Module) 39
Assessment Task 44
Summary 46
References 46
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Module 4: Parts of a Computer
Introduction 48
Learning Outcomes 48
Lesson 1. Application of Computer 48
Lesson 2. Parts of a Computer 53
Lesson 3. Input Devices 58
Lesson 4. Output Devices 62
Lesson 5. Storage Devices 65
Assessment Task 68
Summary 70
References 70
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MODULE 1
OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
Introduction
Today, as a normal person, you must have read, seen or used a computer. This is because
computers have become a part of our everyday life. Whether it is in banks, schools, malls,
hospitals or your home, computers can be seen everywhere, making our work faster and easier
for us.
The literal meaning of a computer is that it is a device that can calculate. However, the
modern computers can do a lot more than to calculate. It is an electronic device that receives
input, stores the input or processes the input as per the user’s instructions and provides an output
in the use’s desired format.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
 Understand the functions of a computer from input to output;

 Classify the evolution of a computer from where it starts; and
 Classify different computing machines.
Lesson 1. Computer Evolution
The computer’s evolution has been characterized by its increasing processor speed,
increasing memory size, decreasing component size, and increasing input and output capacity
and speed. A one factor responsible for this great increase in the processor speed is the shrinking
size of the microprocessor components; with this it reduces the distance between the components
and hence increases the speed (Johanns, 2018).
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A Brief History of Computers
The First Generation: Vacuum Tubes
ENIAC
The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), is designed by and

constructed under the supervision of John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly at the
University of Pennsylvania, it was the world’s first general-purpose electronic digital
computer. The ENIAC is a decimal rather than binary machine. And because of that, the
numbers were represented in a decimal form and an arithmetic was performed in the
decimal system (Johanns, 2018).
Figure 1.1. The ENIAC Project

Follow the link below for more information
https://smartermsp.com/meet-eniac-first-computer/
The Von Neumann Machine
The task of altering and entering the programs for the ENIAC was extremely
tedious. The process of programming could be facilitated if the program could be
represented in a form that is suitable for storing in the memory alongside the data. Then
the computer could get the instructions by reading them from the memory, and then a
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program could be altered or set by setting the values of a portion of the memory
(Campbell-Kelly & Aspray, 2014).
This idea is known as the stored-program concept. It is usually attributed to
ENIAC designers, most notably the mathematician named John von Neumann, who was
also a consultant on the ENIAC project. The first publication of this idea was in the year
of 1945 proposed by von Neumann for a new computer, the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete
Variable Computer) (Campbell-Kelly & Aspray, 2014).
Figure 1.2 The EDVAC

https://videogamehistorian.wordpress.com/tag/edvac/
Commercial Computers
In the year of 1950, they saw the birth of the computer industry with two companies,
the Sperry and the IBM, that is dominating the marketplace. In the year of 1947, Eckert
and Mauchly formed the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation to manufacture the
computers commercially. The first successful machine they manufactured was the
Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I), which was commissioned by the Bureau of
the Census for the 1950 calculations. The Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation
became part of the UNIVAC division of Sperry-Rand Corporation, that went on to build a
series of successor machines (Wikipedia, n.d.).
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Figure 1.1.3 UNIVAC
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC_I
The Second Generation: Transistors
The transistor was the replacement of the vacuum tube and was the first major
change in the electronic computer. The transistor is cheaper, smaller and dissipates less
heat than the vacuum tube but it can be used in the same way as a vacuum tube to
construct computers. Unlike the vacuum tube, that requires wires, a glass capsule, metal
plates and a vacuum, the transistor is a solid-state device, which is made from a silicon
(Stallings, 2010).
The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in the year of 1947 and by the 1950s, it
had launched an electronic revolution. It was not until the late 1950s, however, that fully
transistorized computers were become commercially available (Stallings, 2010).
The IBM 7094
The IBM 7094 was first introduced in the year of January 1962, according to IBM.
IBM won a contract with the NASA for the space program’s Gemini-Apollo Real-Time
Computer Complex, and 7094 mainframes were used for software
development, according to the official history of the space program from the NASA. The
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IBM 7094 is regarded as one of the most powerful and most advanced mainframe
computers of the early 1960s. The NASA and the Air Force used the 7094 for critical
operations, and the mainframe played a large role in the Gemini and Apollo space
program, as well as early missile defense systems to guard against the intercontinental
ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads (Goldstein, 2016).
Figure 1.1.4 The IBM 7094

https://fedtechmagazine.com/article/2016/10/how-ibm-7094-gave-nasa-and-air-force-computing-
superiority-1960s
The Third Generation: Integrated Circuits
A single, self-contained transistor is called a discrete component. Throughout the

1950s and early 1960s, electronic equipment was composed largely of discrete
components – transistors, resistors, capacitors, and so on. Discrete components were
manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and soldered or wired
together onto Masonite-like circuit boards, which were then installed in computers,
oscilloscopes, and other electronic equipment (Stallings, 2010).
IBM System/360
By 1964, IBM had a firm grip on the computer market with its 7000 series of
machines. In that year, IBM announced the System/360, a new family of computer
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products. The System/360 was the industry’s first planned family of computers. The family
covered a wide range of performance and cost. The concept of a family of compatible
computers was both novel and extremely successful (Stallings, 2010).
Figure 1.1.5 IBM System/360

http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/36091.html
DEC PDP – 8
In the same year that IBM shipped its first System/360, another momentous first
shipment occurred: DEC’s PDP-8. At a time when the average computer required an air-
conditioned room, the PDP-8 was small enough that it could be placed on top of a lab
bench or be built into other equipment (Stallings, 2010).
The low cost and small size of the PDP-8 enabled another manufacturer to
purchase a PDP-8 and integrate it into a total system for resale. The PDP-8 was an
immediate hit and made DEC’s fortune. This machine and other members of the PDP-8
family that followed it achieved a production status formerly reserved for IBM computers,
with about 50,000 machines sold over the next dozen years (Stallings, 2010).
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Figure 1.1.6 DEC PDP – 8
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-8
Later Generations
Beyond the third generation there is less general agreement on defining

generations of computers. With the rapid pace of technology, the high rate of introduction
of new products, and the importance of software communications as well as hardware,
the classification by generation becomes less clear and less meaningful (Stallings, 2010).
Semiconductor Memory
The first application of integrated circuit technology to computers was construction

of the processor (the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit) out of integrated circuit
chips. But it was also found that this same technology could be used to construct memory
(Stallings, 2010).
Figure 1.1.7 Semiconductor Memory

Microprocessors
Just as the density of elements on memory chips has continued to rise, so has the
density of elements on processor chips. A breakthrough was achieved in 1971, when
Intel developed its 4004. The 4004 was the first chip to contain all of the components of
the CPU on a single chip: The microprocessor was born (Stallings, 2010).
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Figure 1.1.8 Microprocessors
Lesson 2. Computing Machines
Computing Machines or known as the computers are the machines that can be instructed
to carry out sequences of logical or arithmetic operations automatically with the use of a computer
programming. Computing machines has different purposes according to their functionality (Types
of Computers by Purpose - Byte-Notes, n.d.).
And some of these purposes are:
 General Purpose
 Special Purpose
 Embedded
General Purpose
A general-purpose computing machine are used for different programs or different
applications for different functionalities and it can be used to do a lot of things (Types of
Computers by Purpose - Byte-Notes, n.d.).
And some of these general-purpose computing machines are:
 Personal Computer
 Desktop
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Figure 1.2.1 General Purpose Computers
Special Purpose
A special-purpose computing machine is designed for special functionalities only. The
special purpose computer is usually made to do one thing only. It can’t be used to play games or
surf the net (Types of Computers by Purpose - Byte-Notes, n.d.).
And some of these special purpose computers are:
 Cash Register
 ATMs
 Games
 Telephone Switches
Figure 1.2.2 Special Purpose Computers
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Embedded
An embedded purpose computing machine can perform specific functions and are used
today in many different applications. Embedded computers may be a part of a large system and
it relies on its own processor (Types of Computers by Purpose - Byte-Notes, n.d.).
Some of these embedded computers are:
 Cellphones
 Cameras
 Automotive Systems
Figure 1.2.3 Embedded Computers
Lesson 3. Characteristics and Functions of a Computer

The characteristics of a computer are as follows.
Figure 1.3.1 Characteristics of Computers
Speed. A computer works with a much higher speed and accuracy compared to the
humans while performing mathematical calculations. A computer can process millions of
instructions per second. The time taken by the computers for the operations is in
microseconds and in nanoseconds (Characteristics of Computer System, n.d.).
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Accuracy. The computers can perform calculations with an accuracy of 100%. Errors may
occur due to the data inconsistency or data inaccuracy (Characteristics of Computer
System, n.d.).
Diligence. A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same
consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory
also makes it superior to that of human beings (Characteristics of Computer System,
n.d.).
Versatility. Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of

works with same accuracy and efficiency (Characteristics of Computer System, n.d.).
Reliability. A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if
we give same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result
(Characteristics of Computer System, n.d.).
Automation. Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without
manual intervention (Characteristics of Computer System, n.d.).
Memory. A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also
used to store data (Characteristics of Computer System, n.d.).
Functions of a Computer
Figure 1.3.2 Functions of a Computer

If we look at it at the image above, any computer carries out the five functions (Computer -
Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Step 1 – Computer takes a data as an input.
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Step 2 – Computer stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 – The computer processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 – The computer generates the output.
Step 5 – Controls all above four steps.
Lesson 4. Advantage and Disadvantage of a Computer

(Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.)
Advantages
High Speed
 A computer is known as a very fast device (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint,

n.d.).
 It is capable of performing different calculation of a very large amount of data

(Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
 The computer has units of speed in a microsecond, in a nanosecond, and even in

the picosecond (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
 The computer can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to

a man who will spend many months to perform the same task (Computer - Overview
- Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Accuracy
 Besides being a very fast speed, computers are very accurate (Computer -
 The computer’s calculations are 100% error free (Computer - Overview -

Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
 The computers can perform all the jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input
is correct (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
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Storage Capability
 The memory is a very important characteristic of the computers (Computer -

 A computer has a much more storage capacity than the human beings (Computer -
 The computer can store large amount of data (Computer - Overview -

 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc (Computer -
Diligence
 Unlike the humans, a computer is free from tiredness, monotony, lack of

concentration (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
 It can work continuously without any boredom and error (Computer - Overview -
 With the same speed and accuracy, the computer can perform repeated tasks
Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile computing machine (Computer - Overview -

 A computer is a very flexible when it comes to performing the jobs to be done
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to many various fields
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 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint,

n.d.).
Reliability
 A computer is a very reliable machine (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint,

n.d.).
 A modern electronic component has long lives (Computer - Overview -

 The computers are designed to make the maintenance much easy (Computer -
Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer
receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the
program and instruction can control the program execution without human
interaction (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost
 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to the reduction
of paper work and results in speeding up the process of the data (Computer -
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced (Computer - Overview -
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 Even though the initial investment for installing a computer is quite high, it
substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction (Computer - Overview -
Disadvantages
No I.Q.
 A computer is just a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task

 Each of the instruction has to be given to the computer (Computer - Overview -

 A computer cannot take or cannot make an any decision on its own (Computer -
Dependency
 It performs as per the user’s instructions; therefore, it is fully dependent on human

beings (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Environment
 The environment of the computer should be suitable, clean and dust free
No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions (Computer - Overview -

 It cannot make any judgment based on feelings, experience, taste and knowledge
unlike the human being (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
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Assessment Task
Activity No. 1:
Multiple Choice. Answer the question below and encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. What is the year that the IBM 7094 was introduced?
a. 1962 b. 1972 c. 1965
2. Who invented the UNIVAC?
a. Eckert & Mauchly b. Berners-Lee c. Neumann
3. It is a computing machines that is used today to perform specific functionality on

different applications
a. General Purpose b. Embedded c. Special Purpose
4. It can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations
automatically via a computer programming
a. General Purpose b. Embedded c. Computing Machines
5. It is a technology that could be used to construct a memory
a. CPU b. Microprocessor c. Semiconductors
Activity No. 2
Identification. Write GP if the given computing machine is General Purpose, SP if the given
computing machine is Special Purpose and EM if the computing machine is
Embedded.
_____6. Smartphones
_____7. Satellite Tracking
_____8. Laptops
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_____9. Tablet
_____10. Servers
Activity No. 3:
Explain each.
1. Explain the functions of a computer.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference of the three computing machines?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Why dependency is a disadvantage of a computer?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
4. Give an example of an embedded computing machine without from the given example
from the lecture and explain its functionality.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the importance of knowing the history of a computer?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Summary
This module has covered the overview of the Computer organization. The evolution of a
computer system from Vacuum Tubes, Transistors up to the later generations. Computers had
become a part of our daily life. We can see it almost everywhere, whether it is in general purpose
computing machines like laptop, desktop, personal computers, or special purpose computing
machines like, ATM Machines, Cash Registers and embedded computing machines like our
smartphones.
As the technology rises, we need to know the characteristics of a computer, when it comes
to speed; computer must be able to work faster than a human. When it comes accuracy and
diligence; a computer must be able to work millions of tasks and that task should be accurate.
When it comes to reliability; a computer must be able to perform task the way the user wants it to
be.
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References
Book
Stallings, W. (2010). Computer Organization and Architecture Designing For Performance. In

Igarss 2014 (5th Edition, Issue 1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2
Online Sources
Campbell-Kelly, M., & Aspray, W. (2014). Historical Interlude: The Birth of the Computer Part
2,The Creation of the Electronic Digital Computer.
https://videogamehistorian.wordpress.com/tag/edvac/
Goldstein, P. (2016). How the IBM 7094 Gave NASA and the Air Force Computing Superiority in
the 1960s. FedTech Magazine. https://fedtechmagazine.com/article/2016/10/how-ibm-
7094-gave-nasa-and-air-force-computing-superiority-1960s
IBM System/360 Model 30. (n.d.). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_30
INTRODUCTION to COMPUTER. (2010).

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_concepts/computer_concepts_characteristics_of_
computer_system.htm
PDP - 8. (n.d.). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-8
Johanns, K. (2018). Tech Time Warp. https://smartermsp.com/meet-eniac-first-computer/
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Univac I. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC_I
The IBM 360/91. (n.d.). Retrieved August 25, 2020, from

http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/36091.html
Syed Zain Nasir. (n.d.). What is Embedded Computer ? - The Engineering Projects. Retrieved
August 25, 2020, from https://www.theengineeringprojects.com/2016/10/embedded-
computer.html
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Types of computers by purpose - Byte-Notes. (n.d.). Retrieved August 25, 2020, from
https://byte-notes.com/types-computers-purpose/
Characteristics of Computer System. (n.d.).

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_concepts/computer_concepts_characteristics_of_
computer_system.htm
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MODULE 2
CPU, SYSTEM BUS AND REGISTER
Introduction
A computer system consists of an I/O, processor, memory, and the interconnections

among these major components. At highest level we can describe a computer system by defining
the gross functionality of each major component, the structure of their interconnection, and the
type of signals exchanged among them.
At the heart of a computer, we can find the central processing unit which can perform
these operations, this is often called a microprocessor. It also requires a memory from which the
processor gets an instruction and the memory is also used for the data storage. The computer
must be able to communicate with the real world to serve a useful purpose, so an input/output
unit is also needed and all these are connected together by a series of wires called a bus.
Learning Outcomes
 Have an understanding on what and how the Central Processing Unit works.
 Differentiate the three components of the CPU and their functions
 Know the use of the system bus and its importance.
Lesson 1. Central Processing Unit
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the core component of what defines a computing
device, but it isn’t the only component — again, it’s just the brains. It’s a chip that sits in a special
seat (socket) located on the main circuit board (motherboard or mainboard) inside the device. It’s
distinctly separates from the memory, which is where it temporarily stores information. It’s also
separates from the graphics card or graphics chip, which renders all video and 3D graphics
displayed on your screen (Martindale, n.d.)
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CPUs are built by placing billions of microscopic transistors onto a single computer chip.
Those transistors allow it to make the calculations it needs to run programs that are stored on
your system’s memory. They’re effectively minute gates that switch on or off, thereby conveying
the ones or zeros that translate into everything you do with the device, be it watching videos, or
writing an email (Martindale, n.d.)
In the context of modern devices, a desktop or laptop has a dedicated CPU that performs
many processing functions for the system. Mobile devices and some tablets instead utilize a
System on Chip (SoC) which is a chip that contains its CPU alongside other components. Intel
and AMD both offer CPUs with graphics chips and memory stored on them too, meaning they can
do more than just standard CPU functions (Martindale, n.d.)
Figure 2.1.1 Central Processing Unit

What does a CPU actually do?
At its core, a CPU takes instructions from a program or application and performs a
calculation. This process breaks down into three key stages: Fetch, decode, and execute. A CPU
fetches the instruction from RAM, decodes what the instruction actually is, and then executes the
instruction using relevant parts of the CPU. The executed instruction, or calculation, can involve
basic arithmetic, comparing certain numbers together, or moving them around in memory
(Martindale, n.d.)
Since everything in a computing device is represented by numbers, those simple tasks

equate to what a CPU does. It’s what facilitates everything from starting up Windows, to watching
a YouTube video. In modern systems, the CPU doesn’t do everything, but it still must feed to
specialized hardware the numbers they need to function. It needs to tell the graphics card to show
an explosion because you clicked on a fuel barrel (whoops), or tell your hard drive to transfer an
Office document to the system’s RAM for quicker access (Martindale, n.d.)
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How important is the CPU?
Although the CPU isn’t as important for overall system performance as it once was, it still
plays a major role in running a device. Since it is solely responsible for executing commands
within programs, the faster your CPU, the faster many applications run. That said, a fast CPU isn’t
everything. A processor, no matter how powerful, can’t easily render the latest 3D games, nor can
it store information. That’s where other components, like graphics cards and memory, come into
play (Martindale, n.d.)
In short, the CPU isn’t everything, but it’s highly important. In general, a faster CPU will
mean that your system or device will run faster. At the very least it won’t be a bottleneck in its own
right. Multiple cores and threads can help you do more things at once (Martindale, n.d.)
The CPU itself has following three components (Kamm, 2010).
And these are:
 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Figure 2.1.2 Components of CPU
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any
actual data processing operations (Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit) - Tutorialspoint,
n.d.).
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of
a computer.
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 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
 It communicates with Input / Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit
or the main memory or the primary storage or Random-Access Memory (RAM) (Computer -
CPU(Central Processing Unit) - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are
two types of memories in the computer (Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit) -
Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
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Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the
above operations (Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit) - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,

matching, and merging of data (Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit) - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Figure 2.1.3 Machine Cycle
To understand the organization of the CPU, let us consider the requirements placed on the CPU,
the things that it must do:
 Fetch Instruction. The CPU reads an instruction from the memory (CPU Structure
And Functions, n.d.).
 Interpret Instruction. The instruction is decoded to determine what action is
required (CPU Structure And Functions, n.d.).
 Fetch Data. The execution of an instruction may require reading data from memory
or an I/O module (CPU Structure And Functions, n.d.).
 Process Data. The execution of an instruction may require performing some
arithmetic or logical operation on data (CPU Structure And Functions, n.d.).
 Write Data. The results of an execution may require writing data to memory or an
I/O module (CPU Structure And Functions, n.d.).
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Lesson 2. System Bus
A bus is a communication pathway connecting two or more devices. A key characteristic
of a bus is that it is a shared transmission medium. Multiple devices connect to the bus, and a
signal transmitted by any one device is available for reception by all other devices attached to the
bus (System Bus, n.d.).
Computer systems contain a number of different buses that provide pathways between
components at various levels of the computer system hierarchy. A bus that connects major
computer components (Processor, Memory, I/O) is called a system bus. The most common
computer interconnection structures are based on the use of one or more system buses (System
Bus, n.d.).
Bus Structure
A system bus consists, typically, of from 50 to 100 separate lines. Each line is assigned a
particular meaning or function. Although there are many different bus designs, on any bus the
lines can be classified into three functional groups (System Bus, n.d.).
 Data Line
 Address Line
 Control Lines
Figure 2.2.1 Bus Structure

Data Line
The data lines provide a path for moving data between system modules. These lines
collectively, are called the data bus. The data bus typically consists of 8, 16, or 32 separate lines,
the number of lines being referred to as the width of the data bus. Because each line can carry
only 1 bit at a time, the number of lines determines how many it can be transferred at a time. The
26
width of the data bus is a key factor in determining overall system performance. For example, if
the data bus is 8 bits wide and each instruction is 16 bits long, then the processor must access
the memory module twice during each instruction cycle. (System Bus, n.d.)
Address Lines
The address lines are used to designate the source or destination of the data on the data
bus. For example, if the processor wishes to read a word (8,16, or 32 bits) of data from memory,
it puts the address of the desired word on the address lines. Clearly, the width of the address bus
determines the maximum possible memory capacity of the system.
Furthermore, the address lines are generally also used to address I/O ports. Typically, the
higher-order bits are used to select a particular module on the bus, and the lower-order bits select
a memory location or I/O port within the module. (System Bus, n.d.)
Control Lines
The control lines are used to control the access to and the use of the data and address
lines. Because the data and address lines are shared by all components, there must be a means
of controlling their use. Control signals transmit both command and timing information between
system modules. Timing signals indicate the validity of data and address information. Command
signals specify operations to be performed. (System Bus, n.d.)
Typically control lines include:

 Memory Write. Causes data on the bus to be written into the addressed location (Stallings,
2010).
 Memory Read. Causes data from the addressed location to be placed on the bus
(Stallings, 2010).
 I/O Write. Causes data on the bus to be output to the address I/O port (Stallings, 2010).
 I/O Read. Caused data from the I/O port to be placed on the bus (Stallings, 2010).
 Transfer ACK. Indicates that data have been accepted from or placed on the bus
(Stallings, 2010).
 Bus Request. Indicates that a module needs to gain control of the bus (Stallings, 2010).
27
 Bus Grant. Indicates that a requesting module has been granted control of the bus
(Stallings, 2010).
 Interrupt Request. Indicates that an interrupt is pending (Stallings, 2010).
 Interrupt ACK. Acknowledges that the pending interrupt has been recognized (Stallings,
2010).
 Clock. Used to synchronize operations (Stallings, 2010).
 Reset. Initialized all modules (Stallings, 2010).
Lesson 3. Registers
The registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer
data and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the
CPU are often termed as Processor registers (Agarwal, 2019).
A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any data (such as bit
sequence or individual characters) (Javatpoint, 2019).
The computer needs processor registers for manipulating data and a register for holding
a memory address. The register holding the memory location is used to calculate the address of
the next instruction after the execution of the current instruction is completed (Javatpoint, 2019).
Figure 2.3.1 Registers
28
Registers are classified as given below:
 Memory Buffer Register (MBR). Contains a word to be stored in memory, or is used to

receive a word from memory (Stallings, 2010).
 Memory Address Register (MAR). Specifies the address in memory of the word to be
written from or read into the MBR (Stallings, 2010).
 Instruction Register (IR). Contains 8-bit opcode instruction being executed (Stallings,
2010).
 Instruction Buffer Register (IBR). Employed to hold temporarily the right-hand instruction
from a word in memory (Stallings, 2010).
 Program Counter (PC): Contains the address of the next instruction-pair to be fetch from
memory (Stallings, 2010).
 Accumulator (AC) and Multiplier Quotient (MQ). Employed to hold temporarily operands
and results of ALU operations. For example, the result of multiplying 40-bit numbers is an
80-bit number; the most significant 40 bits are stored in the AC and the least significant in
the MQ (Stallings, 2010).
Assessment Task
Activity No. 1:
Write True if the statement is correct and False if the statement is incorrect.
_____1. CPU stands for Control Processing Unit.
_____2. Registers may hold an operands and results of ALU operations.
_____3. Data lines are used to designate the source or the destination of the data in the data
bus.
_____4. Storage units can store instructions, data, and intermediate results
29
_____5. A key characteristic of a bus is that it is a shared transmission medium.
_____6. The computer doesn’t need a processor registers for manipulating data and a register for
holding a memory address.
_____7. Bus grants indicates that a module needs to gain control of the bus.
_____8. Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division
_____9. Control Unit does process or store data.
_____10. Logic operations perform operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.
Activity No. 2:
Explain each.
1. What is the relationship of the three major components of the CPU and its importance?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Without CPU, do you think a computer system would function? Why?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the difference between the three classification of system buses?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
30
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
4. In your own words and understanding, explain the flow of the machine cycle.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
5. Define what is a computer register.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Summary
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −
 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has following three components.
 Memory or Storage Unit. This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results.
This unit supplies information to other units of the computer when needed.
 Control Unit. This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not
carry out any actual data processing operations.
31
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit). This unit consists of two subsections namely, Arithmetic
Section and Logic Section, where arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division while logic section is to perform logic
operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and merging of data.
The system bus is the computer bus that connects the three major components of a computer
system, combining the function of the data bus to carry information, an address bus, to determine
where it should be sent, and a control bus to determine its operation.
Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data
and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU.
References
Book

Online Sources
Kamm, L. J. (2010). Computer Components. Understanding Electro-Mechanical Engineering.

https://doi.org/10.1109/9780470546796.ch10
Javatpoint. (2019). Computer Registers - javatpoint. https://www.javatpoint.com/computer-

registers
Agarwal, K. (2019). Different Classes of CPU Registers - GeeksforGeeks.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/different-classes-of-cpu-registers/
System Bus. (2016). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_bus
Martindale, J. (n.d.). What is a CPU? https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/what-is-a-cpu/
32
CPU Structure And Functions. (n.d.). Retrieved August 25, 2020, from
https://cnx.org/contents/Y9Ps2snV@1/CPU-Structure-And-Functions
Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit) - Tutorialspoint. (n.d.). Retrieved August 25, 2020,
from https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_cpu.htm
33
MODULE 3
MEMORY, SECONDARY MEMORY AND

INPUT/OUTPUT
Introduction
A computer system’s usefulness ultimately depends on its input and output facilities.
Without the input and output there is no possibility of keyboard input, screen output, printout or
even disk storage and retrieval.
Learning Outcomes
 Differentiate the three types of memory, their uses and functions; and
 Identify the three principal input and output techniques.
Lesson 1. Memory
A memory is the same as the human brain. We use the memory to store data and
instructions. Computer memory is the storage space inside the computer, where the data is to be
processed and where the instructions for processing are stored (Computer Memory, n.d.).
Computer memory has three types:
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory / Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is the fastest memory outside the CPU. Cache memory is a small fast
memory that is used to hold current data and instructions. The CPU will always attempt to access
34
current instructions and data in cache memory before it looks at conventional memory. It accesses
the data or instructions in conventional memory if not present in the cache. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold parts of data and program which are
frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to the
cache memory by the operating system, from where CPU can access them (Borah, Sharma,
Pandey, & Vaibhav, 2020).
Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main Memory.
The cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the data from frequently used
main memory locations (Borah et al., 2020).
Figure 3.1.1 Cache Memory

Advantages of Cache Memory (Computer Memory, n.d.).
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages of Cache Memory (Computer Memory, n.d.).

 Cache memory has a limited capacity
 It is very expensive.
Types of Cache
 Primary Cache. This cache is always located on the processor chip. Primary cache is
small and its access time is comparable to that of processor (Borah et al., 2020).
 Secondary Cache. This cache is placed between the primary cache and the rest of the
memory. It is referred to as level 2 (L2) cache (Borah et al., 2020).
35
Figure 3.1.2: Cache Memory Levels
Primary Memory / Main Memory
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when the power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in
the main memory. It is divided into RAM and ROM (Computer Memory, n.d.).
Figure 3.1.3: RAM and ROM
Random Access Memory (RAM)
A form of computer memory that can be read and changed in any order. A RAM must be
provided with a constant power supply. If the power on interrupted, then the data are lost. Thus,
RAM can be used only as temporary storage. (Computer Memory, n.d.)
36
Figure 3.1.4 Random Access Memory
RAM technology has divided into two technologies:

 Static RAM (SRAM). A Static RAM will hold its data as long as power is supplied to it. No
need to be refreshed (Random Access Memory, n.d.).
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM). A Dynamic RAM requires periodic charge refreshing to maintain
data storage (Random Access Memory, n.d.).
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Figure 3.1.5 Read Only Memory
In sharp contrast to the RAM is the Read-Only Memory, a type of non-volatile memory is used in
computers. ROM is useful for storing software that is rarely changed during the life of the system.
A ROM contains a permanent pattern of data that cannot be changed. While it is possible to read
37
a ROM, it is not possible to write new data into it. An important application of ROMs is
microprogramming (Read Only Memory, n.d.).
ROM technology has divided into three parts.
These are the following (Read Only Memory, n.d.):
 Programmable ROM (PROM). When only a small number of ROMs with a particular
memory content is needed, a less expensive alternative is Programmable ROM (PROM).
PROM may be written into only once (Read Only Memory, n.d.).
 Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM). The EPROM is read and written electrically, as
with PROM. However, before the write operation, all the storage cells must be erased to
the same initial state by exposure of the packaged chip to ultraviolet radiation. This erasure
process can be performed repeatedly; each erasure can take as much as 20 minutes to
perform. Thus, the EPROM can be altered multiple times and, like the ROM and PROM,
holds its data virtually indefinitely. For comparable amounts of storage, the EPROM is
more expensive than PROM, but it has the advantage of the multiple update capability
(Read Only Memory, n.d.).
 Electronically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM). The EEPROM is a read-mostly

memory that can be written into at any time without erasing prior contents; only the byte
or bytes addressed are updated. The write operation takes considerably longer than the
read operation, on the order of several hundred microseconds per byte. The EEPROM
combines the advantage of nonvolatility with the flexibility of being updatable in place,
using the ordinary bus control, address, and data lines. EEPROM is more expensive than
EPROM and also is less dense, supporting fewer bits per chip (Read Only Memory, n.d.).
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory on non-volatile. It is slower than
the main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does
not access these memories, instead they are accessed by the via input-output routines. The
contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can
access it. (Computer Memory, n.d.)
38
For Example:
 Disk
 CD-ROM
 DVD
 Hard Drives
Lesson 2. Input and Output Module (I/O Module)

The computer’s input and output architecture is its interface to the outside world and this
architecture is designed to provide a systematic means of controlling interaction with the outside
world and to provide the operating system with the information it needs to manage input and
output activity effectively (Stallings, 2010).
Module Function
The major requirements for an I/O module fall into the following categories.
 Control and Timing
 Processor Communication
 Device Communication
 Data Buffering
 Error Detection
During any period of time, the processor may communicate with one or more external devices in
unpredictable patterns, depending on the program’s need for I/O. The internal resources, such as
main memory and the system bus must be shared among a number of activities, including data
I/O. Thus, the I/O function includes a control and timing requirement, to coordinate the flow of
traffic between internal resources and external devices. The processor must communicate with
the processor and with the external device. Processor communication involves the following
(Stallings, 2010).
 Command Decoding. The I/O module accepts commands from the processor, typically
sent as signals on the control bus (Stallings, 2010).
39
 Data. Data are exchanged between the processor and the I/O module over the data bus
(Stallings, 2010).
 Status Reporting. Because peripherals are so slow, it is important to know the status of
the I/O module. For example, if an I/O module is asked to send data to the processor, it
may not be ready to do so because it is still working on the previous I/O command. This
fact can be reported with a status signal. Common status signals are BUSY and READY.
There may also be a signal to report various error conditions (Stallings, 2010).
 Address Recognition. Just as each word of memory has an address, so does each I/O
device. Thus, an I/P module must recognize one unique address for each peripheral it
controls (Stallings, 2010).
On the other side, the I/O module must be able to perform device communication. This
communication involves commands, status information and data. An essential task of an I/O
module is data buffering. Data coming from main memory are sent to an I/O module in a rapid
burst. The data are buffered in I/O module and then sent to the peripheral device at its data rate.
In the opposite direction, data are buffered so as not to tie up the memory in a slow transfer
operation. Thus, the I/O module must be able to operate at both device and memory speeds
(Stallings, 2010).
Finally, an I/O module is often responsible for error detection and for subsequently reporting
errors to the processor. One class of errors includes mechanical and electrical malfunctions
reported by the device (e.g., paper jam, bad disk track) (Stallings, 2010).
There are three principals of I/O techniques:
 Programmed I/O
 Interrupt-Driven I/O
 Direct Memory Access
Programmed I/O
In programmed I/O occurs under the direct and continuous control of the program
requesting the I/O operation. The programmed I/O was the simplest type of I/O technique for the
40
exchange of data or any types of communication between the processor and the external devices
(Stallings, 2010).
With the programmed I/O, data are exchanged between the processor and the I/O module.
The processor executes a program that gives it direct control of the I/O operation, including
sensing device status, sending a read or write command, and transferring the data. When the
processor issues a command to the I/O module, it must wait until the I/O operation is complete. If
the processor is faster than the I/O module, this is wasteful of processor time (Programmed I/O -
I/O Techniques, n.d.).
The overall operation of the program I/O can be summaries as follows:
1. The processor I executing a program and encounters an instruction relating to I/O
operation (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
2. The processor then executes that instruction by using a command to the appropriate I/O
module (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
3. The I/O module will perform the requested action based on the I/O command issued by
the processor (READ/WRITE) and set the appropriate bits in the I/O status register
(Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
4. The processor will periodically check the status of the I/O module until it finds that the
operation is complete (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
Programmed I/O Mode Input Data Transfer
Figure 3.2.6 Programmed I/O Input Data Transfer
1. Each input is read after first testing whether the device is ready with the input (a state
reflected by a bit in a status register) (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
2. The program waits for the ready status by repeatedly testing the status bit and till all
targeted bytes are read from the input device (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
41
3. The program is in busy (non-waiting) state only after the device gets ready else in wait
state (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
Programmed I/O Mode Output Data Transfer
Figure 3.2.7 Programmed I/O Output Data Transfer
1. Each output written after first testing whether the device is ready to accept the byte at its
output register or output buffer is empty (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
2. The program waits for the ready status by repeatedly testing the status bit(s) and till all
the targeted bytes are written to the device (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
3. The program in busy (non-waiting) state only after the device gets ready else wait state
(Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
Interrupt-Driven I/O
In interrupt-driven I/O occurs in which a program issues an I/O command and then
continues to execute, until it is interrupted by the I/O hardware to signal the end of the I/O
operation. The processor then executes the data transfer, as before, and then resumes its former
processing (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
Let us consider how this works, first from the I/O module’s point of view. For input, the I/O
module receives a READ command from the processor. The I/O module then proceeds to read
42
data in from an associated peripheral. Once the data are in the module’s data register, the module
signals an interrupt to the processor over a control line. The module then waits until its data are
requested by the processor. When the request is made, the module places its data on the data
bus and is then ready for another I/O operation (Stallings, 2010).
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
In direct memory access occurs in which a specialized I/O processor takes over control of
an I/O operation to move a large block of data. Differ from the Programmed I/O and the Interrupt-
Driven I/O, the Direct Memory Access is a technique for transferring the data within the main
memory and the external device without passing it through the CPU. DMA is a way to improve
processor activity and I/O transfer rate by taking-over the job of transferring data from the
processor and letting the processor to do the other tasks (Stallings, 2010).
It is more efficient to use the DMA method when large volume of data has to be transferred.
For the DMA to be implemented, the processor has to share its system bus with the DMA module.
Therefore, the DMA module must use the bus only when the processor does not need it, or it
must force the processor to the suspend operation temporarily. The latter technique is more
common to be used and it is referred to as a cycle stealing (Stallings, 2010).
Figure 3.2.8 DMA and Interrupt Breakpoints during an Instruction Cycle
When the processor wishes read or send a block of data, it issues a command to the DMA module
by sending some information to DMA module (Direct Memory Access, n.d.).
The information includes:
43
 read or write command, sending through
read and write control lines.
 number of words to be read or written,
communicated on the data lines and
stored in the data count register.
 starting location in memory to read from
or write to, communicated on data lines
and stored in the address register.
 address of the I/O device involved,
communicated on the data lines.
Figure 3.2.9 Typical DMA Block Diagram
After the information are sent, the processor continues with other work. The DMA module
then transfers the entire block of data directly to or from memory without going through the
processor. When the transfer is complete, the DMA module sends an interrupt signal to the
processor to inform that it has finish using the system bus (Direct Memory Access, n.d.).
Assessment Task
Activity No. 1:
Explain each.
1. Explain the process of Direct Memory Access.

___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
2. Differentiate the RAM and ROM.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
44
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the difference between the SRAM and DRAM?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the difference between PROM, EPROM, EEPROM?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
5. Explain briefly the categories of major requirements for Input and Output module.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Summary
The memory is the generic term for the different kinds of data storage. Memory includes
Random Access Memory (RAM), Read-Only Memory (ROM), cache. Some memory is designed
to be very fast or normal, depends on the needs of the user. The faster the memory, the faster
the central processing unit can access the data stored.
 Random Access Memory is a form of computer memory that can be changed in any
order
 RAM has two types: Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.
45
 Static RAM is a type of RAM that is no need to be refreshed
 Dynamic RAM is a type of RAM that is needed to be refreshed periodically.
 Read-Only Memory is useful for storing software that is rarely changed during the life
of the system.
 ROM has three types: PROM, EPROM and EEPROM
 Programmable ROM is a type of ROM that can only be written once.
 Erasable PROM uses ultra violet lights to erase data.
 Electronically EPROM uses electronic impulses to erase data.
Input and Output Module is designed for the computer to interact with the outside world
and with the user. I/O module has three principals:
 Programmed I/O where the CPU waits for the I/O device.
 Interrupt-Driven I/O the device interrupts the CPU when it is ready
 Direct Memory Access (DMA) the CPU is idle for only a short period of time.
References
Books

Online Sources
Borah, G., Sharma, S., Pandey, S., & Vaibhav Kumar Rai. (2020). Cache Memory in CPU
Organization. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/cache-memory-in-computer-organization/
Troppens, U., Mller-Friedt, W., Wolafka, R., Erkens, R., & Haustein, N. (2009). I/O Techniques.
Storage Networks Explained. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470746776.ch3
Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques. (n.d.). Retrieved August 25, 2020, from
http://inputoutput5822.weebly.com/programmed-io.html
Direct Memory Access. (n.d.). http://inputoutput5822.weebly.com/direct-memory-access.html
46
Read Only Memory. (n.d.).
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_rom.htm
Random Access Memory. (n.d.).

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_ram.htm
Computer Memory. (n.d.).

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_memory.htm
47
MODULE 4
PARTS OF A COMPUTER
Introduction
A computer has become part of our daily lives. We can see it almost everywhere, whether
in schools, offices, supermarket and even in medical and military facilities. It became one of the
important tools of a modern person, either it is a personal computer, desktop or embedded
computers. In this module, we will tackle the different parts of a computer; internal, external,
storage devices and input and output devices.
Learning Outcomes
 Recognize different parts of internal and external components of a computer;

 Be familiarized with the uses of different parts of a computer; and
 Identify if the component is an input or output device.
Lesson 1. Application of Computer

Application of Computers
The computers are used in different ways (Computer - Applications, n.d.).
These are:
 Business. A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or

versatility which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
 Banking. Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.
 Education. Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.
 Advertising. With Computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and
revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
48
 Home Shopping. Home shopping has been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct
entry of orders to be filled out by the costumers.
 Health Care. Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and
dispensaries. They are being used in hospitals to keep record of patients and medicines.
 Military. Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc.
Military employs computerized control systems.
 Communication. Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or
speech that is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is
meant.
Hardware
The computer hardware represents the tangible and the physical components of a
computer. The hardware components that can be seen and touched (Computer - Hardware -
Example of Computer Hardware are:

 Input Devices
 Output Devices
 Secondary Storage Devices
 Internal Components
 External Components
Figure 4.1.1 Hardware Examples
Software
The computer software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined

function. It is a sequence of instructions written to solve a certain problem (Computer - Software
- Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
There are two types of software:
 System Software
49
 Application Software
System Software
It is a collection of programs designed to control, operate and extend the processing capabilities
of the computer. This software is generally prepared by the manufacturers of a computer. System
software serves as the interface of the hardware between the end users (Computer - Software -
Example of System Software:

 Operating System
 Compilers
 Interpreters
 Assemblers
Figure 4.1.2. System Software Examples
Features of a System Software

 Close to the system
 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
50
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language.
Application Software
The application software is designed to satisfy the certain needs of a particular

environment. The application software may consist of a single program like the Microsoft’s
notepad where we can write and edit simple text. It may also consist of programs, sometimes
called software package (Computer - Software - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Examples of Application Software

 Microsoft Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint
 Payroll Software
Figure 4.1.3. Application Software Examples
Features of an Application Software

 Closer to the user
 Easy to design
 More interactive
51
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space.
Relationship of Hardware and Software
 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work
together to make a computer produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into
the hardware.
 Hardware is a one-time expense
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
 A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
 If the hardware is the ‘heart’ of a computer system, then the software is its ‘soul’. Both are
complementary to each other.
Table 4.1.1. Hardware vs. Software
Hardware Software
Physical Device Set of instructions
You can feel You cannot feel
Performs operations based on software Controls the computer

Constructed using physical materials Developed by writing instructions in
programming language
Virus or malware does not affect hardware Easily affected by malicious programs
Tangible Intangible
52
Lesson 2. Parts of a Computer
What are the devices of a computer? The physical, the touchable, electronic and the
mechanical parts of a computer are called the hardware which is composed of different devices
attached to the computer (Carballo, n.d.).
The following are the list that represents a basic set of devices found in most personal
computers (Carballo, n.d.).
1. System Unit
The main part of a microcomputer, sometimes called the chassis. It includes the following
parts: Motherboard, Microprocessor, Memory Chips, Buses, Ports, Expansion Slots and
Cards (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.2.1. The System Unit

2. Motherboard/System Board/Mainboard
The main circuit board of the computer that contains all the circuitry and the components
that run the computer (Carballo, n.d.).
53
Figure 4.2.2. The Motherboard
3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the “brain” or the “heart of the computer system. It performs all the instructions
and calculations that needed and manages the flow of data and information through the
computer (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.2.3. CPU Examples
54
4. Primary Storage
The internal storage, main memory, or the memory is the computer’s working storage space
that holds the data, the instructions for processing and processed the information waiting to
be sent to the second storage (Carballo, n.d.).
Two Types of Memory
a. Read-Only Memory
b. Random Access Memory
Figure 4.2.4. Primary Storage

5. Expansion Bus
The expansion bus is a data pathway between several hardware components that are inside
and outside of a computer. The bus does not only connect the parts of the CPU to each other,
but also links the CPU with the other important hardware (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.2.5. The Expansion Bus
55
6. Adapters
The adapters are the printed circuit boards are also called as interface cards that enables a
computer to use the peripheral devices for which it doesn’t have the necessary connections
or circuit boards (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.2.6. The Adapter
7. Power Supply Unit (PSU)

The power supply unit is installed in the back corner of the PC case or the chassis, next to the
motherboard. The PSU converts 120vac (the standard house power) into DC voltages that
are used by the other components in the computer system (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.2.7. The Power Supply Unit (PSU)
56
8. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
In a computer with windows operating system, the hard drive is commonly known as the C:
drive that contains the operating system and applications (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.2.8. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
9. Optical Drive
The optical drive is the storage device that use a laser to read data on the optical media
(Carballo, n.d.).
There are three types of optical drives:
a. Compact Disc (CD)
b. Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
c. Blu ray Disc (BD)
Figure 4.2.9. Optical Drive
57
10. Digital Versatile Disc
The Digital Versatile Disc are designed to optically access the data stored on the DVD. A laser
moves back and forth near the disk surface and accesses the data at very fast rate (Carballo,
n.d.).
Figure 4.2.10. Digital Versatile Disc
Lesson 3. Input Devices

An input device sends an information to a computer system for processing. An input device
is used to bring data into the computer system (Carballo, n.d.).
There are two types of Input Devices
a. Keyboard Entry – the data is inputted to the computer with the use of a keyboard (Carballo,
n.d.).
1. Keyboard - The keyboard is the first input device that is developed for the computer.
The data is transferred to the computer over a short cable that plugs into the back of
the motherboard (Carballo, n.d.).
58
Figure 4.3.1. Keyboard
b. Direct Entry – Direct entry is a form of input that does not require a data to be keyed by
someone sitting at a keyboard. This entry creates a machine-readable data on paper,
magnetic paper, or feed it directly into the computer system’s CPU (Carballo, n.d.).
Three Categories of Direct Entry Devices.
1. Pointing Devices – an input device that is used to move the cursor (pointer) on screen
(Carballo, n.d.).
a. Mouse – The mouse is the most common pointing device that is used in computers.
Every mouse has most one or two scroll wheels and has two buttons (Carballo,
n.d.).
Figure 4.3.2 A Pointing Device called Mouse
b. Touch screen – Touch screen is a display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a
stylus or a finger. Touch screen are commonly used in ATM machines, point-of-
59
sale terminals, car navigation and industrial controls. The touch screen has
become very popular with the smartphones and tablets (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.3.3 Touchscreen device
c. Light Pen - A light-sensitive stylus wired to a video terminal used to select menu
options or draw a picture. The user brings the pen to the desired point on screen
and presses the pen button to make contact (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.3.4. Example of Light Pen
d. Digitizer Tablet – The digitizer tablet is a graphic drawing tablet that is used for
tracing old images or sketching a new one. This is also called as the “graphics
tablet”. The user contacts the surface of the device with a wired pen or wireless
pen (Carballo, n.d.).
60
Figure 4.3.5. Example of a Digitizer Tablet
2. Scanning Device – A scanning device is a device that can read text or illustrations that
are printed on a paper and translates the information into a form that the computer can
use (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.3.6. Image Scanner
Figure 4.3.7. Bar Code Scanner
61
3. Voice Input Devices – Audio input devices are also known as the speech or voice
recognition systems that allow the user to send an audio signals to a computer for
recording, processing or carry out commands. Audio input devices such as the
microphones allows the users to speak to the computer in order to record their voice
or navigate a software (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.3.8. Example of Voice Input Devices (Microphone on the left; headphone on the
right)
Lesson 4. Output Devices

An output device is any piece of computer hardware that displays results after the
computer has processed the input data that has been entered (Carballo, n.d.).
1. Computer Display Monitor – The monitor displays the information in a visual form that
uses text and graphics. The portion of the monitor that displays the information is called
the screen or the video display terminal (Carballo, n.d.).
Types of Computer Display Monitor

a. Cathode Ray Tube Monitors (CRT) – CRT were the only type of displays for use
with desktop computers. They are relatively big with 14 inched to 16 inched deep
and heavy with over 15 lbs (Carballo, n.d.).
62
Figure 4.4.1 Example of Cathode Ray Tube Monitor
b. Liquid Crystal Display Monitors (LCD) – LCD technology has been used in laptops
for some time. It has been recently made commercially available as monitors for
desktop computers (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.4.2 Example of Liquid Crystal Display Monitor
c. Light Emitting Diode Monitor (LED) – LED monitor is a display and lighting
technology that is used almost in every electronic and electrical product on the
market, from a tiny on and off light to digital readouts, flashlights, traffic lights and
parameter lighting (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.4.3 Example of Light Emitting Diode Monitor
63
2. LCD Projectors – LCD projectors utilizes two sheets of polarizing material with liquid
crystal solution between them. An electric current passed through the liquid that
causes the crystals to align so that the light cannot pass through them. Each crystal,
therefore, is like a shutter, either blocking the light or allowing the light to pass through
(Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.4.4 LCD Projectors
3. Smart Board – Smart board is a type of display screen that has a touch sensitive
transparent panel that is covering the screen, which is similar to a touch screen
(Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.4.5 Smart Board
4. Printer – A printer is a device that prints a text or illustrations on a paper (Carballo, n.d.).
64
Types of Printers
a. Ink-Jet or Bubble-Jet Printer – spays ink at a sheet of paper. Ink-jet printers
produce a high-quality text and graphics (Carballo, n.d.).
b. Laser Printer – Uses the same technology as the copy machines. The laser
printers produce a very high-quality text and graphics (Carballo, n.d.).
c. LCD and LED Printer – This printer is very similar to a laser printer, but
uses liquid crystals or light-emitting diodes rather than a laser to produce
an image on the drum (Carballo, n.d.).
d. Line Printer – The line printer contains a chain of characters or pins that
print an entire line at one time. Line printers are very fast, but produce low-
quality print (Carballo, n.d.).
e. Thermal Printer – The thermal printer is an inexpensive printer that works
by pushing heated pins against heat-sensitive paper. The thermal printers
are widely used in calculators and fax machines (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.4.6 Different types of printers
5. Speakers – The speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the computer
system or can be connected by cables. The speakers allow the user to listen to music
and hear sound effects from the computer system (Carballo, n.d.).
Lesson 5. Storage Devices

Aside from the devices attached on a PC, there are also the storage devices that
performs a special task in computing system (Carballo, n.d.).
65
Types of Storage Devices.
a. Floppy Diskette – is a random-access removable data medium that can be used with
personal computers. It can store up to 1.44 megabytes (MB) of data (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.5.1 Floppy Disk
b. Compact Disc (CD) – CD’s are also called as optical disc is a non-magnetic, polished
metal disk that is used to store digital information (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.5.2 Compact Disc
c. Jump drive and a USB Flash drive - is a plug-and-play portable storage device that uses
flash memory and is lightweight enough to attach to a key chain. A USB drive can be used
in place of a floppy disk, Zip drive disk, or CD (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.5.3 Flash Drive
66
d. Hard Drive - is the main, and usually largest, data storage device in a computer. The
operating system, software titles and most other files are stored in the hard disk drive
(Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.5.4 Hard Drive and External Hard Drive
e. LS-120 -is a drive which supports a special floppy diskette which can store up to 120MB
of information as well as being backwards compatible and still supporting the standard
1.44MB floppy diskettes (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.5.5 LS-120
f. Zip Drive - is a small, portable disk drive used primarily for backing up and archiving
personal computer files (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.5.6 Zip Drives
67
Assessment Task
Activity No. 1:
Identify the parts of the computer and write your answer on the numbers provided below.
1. 2. 3.
8
4.
5. 7
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
68
Activity No. 2:
Identify the image below. Write INPUT if the image is an input device and OUTPUT if the image
is an output device.
Remote Control Web Camera Joystick
_______________ ________________ _____________
Multimedia Projector Television
__________________ _________________
69
Summary
• Hardware is a physical device that is capable of performing tasks and execution based
on software.
• Software is a set of instructions given to a computer or hardware to perform a certain task.
• Basic parts of a computer is composed of system unit, monitor, keyboard, mouse,

speaker, memory, CPU, power supply, hard drive, and optical drive.
• Input devices are used to bring data into the computer system, like keyboard, scanners
and microphones
• Output devices are used to bring data out of the system, like printers, speakers, and
monitor.
• Storage devices are used to store data and information in the computer system, like hard
drive, external hard drives, and CD’s
References
Books

Online Sources
Computer - Applications. (n.d.).

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_applications.htm
Carballo, R. (n.d.). COMPUTER SYSTEM, DEVICES AND PERIPHERALS .

https://baictchs09.wordpress.com/2018/10/02/computer-system-devices-and-peripherals/
Computer - Software - Tutorialspoint. (n.d.). Retrieved August 25, 2020, from

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_software.htm
70
Computer - Hardware - Tutorialspoint. (n.d.). Retrieved August 25, 2020, from
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_hardware.htm
- END OF MODULE FOR PRELIMINARY TERM PERIOD –

SUBMISSION OF ASSESSMENT TASKS AND EXAMINATION FOR PRELIM PERIOD
WILL BE ANNOUNCED VIA iLearnU LMS or GC
MAKE SURE TO CHECK THE DATES AND DO NOT FORGET TO TAKE IT AS
SCHEDULED.
71

Architecture and Organization

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ARCHITECTURE AND ORGANIZATION

Laguna University shall be a socially responsive educational institution of

Laguna University is committed to produce academically prepared and

Course Description: This course introduces students to the theory of

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

 Describe various data representations and explain how arithmetic and

Final Grade = Total CS + Final Exam x 70% + 30% of the Midterm

Module 1: Overview of Computer Organization

Module 2: The CPU, System Bus and Registers

Module 3: Memory, Secondary Memory and Input/Output

At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:

 Understand the functions of a computer from input to output;

Lesson 1. Computer Evolution

The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), is designed by and

Figure 1.1. The ENIAC Project

The Von Neumann Machine

Figure 1.2 The EDVAC

The Second Generation: Transistors

The IBM 7094

Figure 1.1.4 The IBM 7094

Follow the link below for more information

The Third Generation: Integrated Circuits

A single, self-contained transistor is called a discrete component. Throughout the

Figure 1.1.5 IBM System/360

Beyond the third generation there is less general agreement on defining

The first application of integrated circuit technology to computers was construction

Figure 1.1.7 Semiconductor Memory

Lesson 2. Computing Machines

Figure 1.2.2 Special Purpose Computers

Figure 1.2.3 Embedded Computers

Lesson 3. Characteristics and Functions of a Computer

Figure 1.3.1 Characteristics of Computers

Versatility. Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of

Figure 1.3.2 Functions of a Computer

Step 4 – The computer generates the output.

Step 5 – Controls all above four steps.

Lesson 4. Advantage and Disadvantage of a Computer

 A computer is known as a very fast device (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint,

 It is capable of performing different calculation of a very large amount of data

 The computer has units of speed in a microsecond, in a nanosecond, and even in

 The computer can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to

 The computer’s calculations are 100% error free (Computer - Overview -

 The memory is a very important characteristic of the computers (Computer -

 The computer can store large amount of data (Computer - Overview -

 Unlike the humans, a computer is free from tiredness, monotony, lack of

 A computer is a very versatile computing machine (Computer - Overview -

 A computer is a very flexible when it comes to performing the jobs to be done

(Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).

(Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).

moment it may be playing a card game (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint,

 A computer is a very reliable machine (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint,

 A modern electronic component has long lives (Computer - Overview -

 Computer is an automatic machine (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

 A computer is just a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task

 Each of the instruction has to be given to the computer (Computer - Overview -

 It performs as per the user’s instructions; therefore, it is fully dependent on human

 Computers have no feelings or emotions (Computer - Overview -

1. What is the year that the IBM 7094 was introduced?

a. 1962 b. 1972 c. 1965

2. Who invented the UNIVAC?

a. Eckert & Mauchly b. Berners-Lee c. Neumann

3. It is a computing machines that is used today to perform specific functionality on