Modern Manufacturing Methods:

Additive Manufacturing

Rahul Panat

School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering

Washington State University

1
 Outline
• What is additive manufacturing?
– Types of equipment/processes
– Applications
• Microscale Additive Printing
– Processes at microscale
– Applications

Newmancraneins.com
 What is additive manufacturing?
• Subtractive Manufacturing
– Any process of removing material
– Milling, Cutting, Drilling, etc…
• Additive Manufacturing
– Any process of adding material
– Filament, Laminate, Liquid, Powder, etc…

• Rapid Prototyping – Original name

• Additive Manufacturing – Best name
• 3D Printing – Most common name
 Types

Liquid (SLA, DLP) Powder (Sintered – SLS or Electron beam)

3D Systems Eos, Arcam

Powder (Inkjet Binder) Laminated Filament (FDM, FFF)

Z-Corp‡, ExOne Solido, Mcor Stratasys, RepRap, Makerbot†, 3D Systems

Liquid (Inkjet) Objet†, †Owned by Stratasys

Solidscape† ‡Owned by 3D Systems 4
 Materials

http://www.shapeways.com/materials
 RepRap vs Stratasys

~$550 RepRap Prusa ~$15000 uPrint Stratasys

Sept 2011 A 0.254 mm layer is the smallest Stratasys can go.
 Reprap vs SLA

~$900 RepRap Prusa ~$650,000 3D Systems SLA-7000

3D Systems SLA-7000 @ 0.1mm vs RepRap Mendel Prusa @ 0.15 mm (RepRapBCN version)

http://reprapbcn.wordpress.com/2012/05/24/reprap-mendel-prusa-vs-3dsystems-sla-7000-stereolithography/
 Subtractive Processes
• Series of material removal by machining and finishing
operations
• Typical Steps
– Computer-based drafting packages, which can produce three-
dimensional representations of parts
– Interpretation software, which can translate the CAD file into a format
usable by manufacturing software
– Manufacturing software, which is capable of planning the operations
required to produce the desired part shape
– Computer-numerical-control (CNC) machinery, with capabilities necessary
to produce the parts
• Usually a soft material (usually a polymer or wax) is used as the
work-piece
 Additive Processes
• Parts are built layer by layer
– Stereolithography
– Multi Jet/polyJet modeling
– Fused-deposition modeling
– Ballistic-particle manufacturing
– Three-dimensional printing
– Selective laser sintering
– Electron-beam melting
– Laminated object manufacturing
• Differences in the method of producing individual slices
– Typically 0.1–0.5 mm (0.004–0.020 in.)
• Operations require dedicated software
• Much faster than subtractive processes –
– Few minutes to a few hours
 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
• Gantry-robot controlled extruder head moves in two principal directions over a table,
which can be raised and lowered as required
• Extruder head is heated, and extrudes polymer filament at a constant rate through a
small orifice.
– Head follows a predetermined path
– Extruded polymer bonds to the previously deposited layer
• Drawbacks
– Complex parts may be difficult to build directly because once the part has been constructed up to height
a, the next slice would require the filament to be placed at a location where no material exists
underneath to support it
– Needs support material separately extruded

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WHO6G67GJbM
 Stereolithography
• Curing (hardening) of a liquid photopolymer into a specific shape
– Photocurable liquid-acrylate polymer
– The liquid is a mixture of acrylic monomers, oligomers (polymer intermediates), and a photoinitiator (a compound that
undergoes a reaction upon absorbing light)
• The platform is lowered sufficiently to cover the cured polymer with another layer of liquid
polymer, and the sequence is repeated
• Part is removed from the platform, blotted, and cleaned ultrasonically and with an alcohol bath
• Total cycle times in stereolithography range from a few hours to a day, without post-processing
steps such as sanding and painting
• Depending on their capacity, the cost of the machines is in the range from $100,000 to $400,000!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NM55ct5KwiI
 Multijet/Polyjet Modeling
• Print heads deposit the photopolymer on the build tray; UVt bulbs, alongside the jets, instantly
cure and harden each layer
• No need for post-modeling curing
• Smooth surface of layers as thin as 16 μm
• Two different materials are used: one for the actual model, and a second gel-like resin for
support
– Each material simultaneously jetted and cured, layer by layer
– Support material removed later removed, with an aqueous solution

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Som3CddHfZE

Undoprototipos.com
Additive vs Subtractive

Additive Subtractive
 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
• Sintering of non-metallic or, less commonly, metallic powders selectively into an
individual object
• Materials: Polymers (such as ABS, PVC, nylon, polyester, polystyrene, and epoxy), wax,
metals, and ceramics, with appropriate binders
• With ceramics and metals: common practice to sinter only a polymer binder that has
been blended with the ceramic or metal powders – ceramic/metal sintered in a
furnace

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=srg6fRtc-oc
Wikipedia
 Electron Beam Melting
• E-beam, melting uses the energy source associated with an electron
• beam to melt titanium or cobalt-chrome powder to make metal prototypes. The
• workpiece is produced in a vacuum

Hindawi.com

Fraunhofer. gov

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSH2vrtVNqQ
 Laminated Object Manufacturing
• Roll-to-roll process is applied with heat activated glue or vinyl cutters

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ebj6hH0HnY
 Three Dimensional Printing
• A print head deposits an inorganic binder material onto a layer of polymer, ceramic, or
metallic powder
• Allows considerable flexibility in the materials and binders used
• A piston, supporting the powder bed, is lowered incrementally, and with each step, a
layer is deposited and then fused by the binder
 Laser Engineered Net-Shaping
• Metal powder sprayed on a part
• Lasers used to sinter the powder

LENSTM system creates near net

shape manufacturing

Turbine blade made by LENS at

Sandia National Lab

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYbw1oSzPVA

LENSTM: Laser enabled net-shaping (courtesy Optomec Inc)

Additive Manufacturing at Microscale
 At Micro-scale: Additive vs Subtractive
Subtractive Process Direct Write Process
Cu
Substrate Substrate
1 Substrate
1 Clean substrate 2 Conductive layer Clean substrate

UV light
Mask

Photoresist Photoresist
Cu Cu
Substrate Substrate
2 Substrate
3 Photoresist deposition 4 UV Exposer Printing
Chemicals
Energy (Thermal, Laser, Photonic)
Photoresist
Cu Pattern
Cu
Substrate Substrate 3 Substrate
5 Photoresist development 6 Etching Sintering
 Advantages of Additive Processes vs
Lithography
• Additive methods typically have the below features
– Minimal to no harmful chemicals
– Fewer Steps
– No material waste
– Largely independence from the chemical compatibility of the
substrate
– Ability to manufacture on curved/vertical surfaces
– Require large numbers of print-heads working on several
units to realize large numbers of units/panel to lower cost
 Micro-additive Methods
Nanoscale ‘Pen’
Microscale ‘Pen’ Electric Field Driven
AFM tip for manufacturing
Additive Method
DPN*

Micro-Battery
Movie
Dip Pen Nanolithography (Science, Vol 283, Jan 1999).
Microscale Pen (Advanced Materials 25: 4539-4543)
Electric potential driven plating (J. Appl. Phys. 115, 044915 (2014))
 Methods: Inkjet Printing

Printed Electronics

Length scale >~50micron

Drop on demand printing
Low standoff height of ~2mm

Printed Antenna

3-D Antenna: Adv Materials, March 18 2011

Printed board: http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2493432.2493486
 Methods: Inkjet Printing

• Most commonly used method is drop-on demand by

– Thermal actuation (e.g. Hewlett-Packard)
– Piezo actuation by pressure pulse using PZT (e.g. Epson)
– Certain methods may include syringe pressure for larger diameter nozzle
• Ink formulations are the key elements
– Viscosity < 10cP
– May include various elements like water, glycol
– Could be UV curable
– Non-Newtonian behavior (e.g. shear thinning) of the ink can influence the printing quality
• Fluid Mechanics models can predict the printing volume per drop, velocity, etc as a function of
puse voltage, fluid properties, and nozzle size

Applied Mathematical Modelling, Volume 12, Issue 2, April 1988, Pages 182
 Methods: Aerosol Jet Printing

Aerosol Jet
• Clog resistance nozzle (sheath gas)

• High density micro droplets Ack: M. J Renn

• Continuous stream
• Tightly focused (forced)
• Able to print high viscosity ink (< 1000 cP)
• Up to 500nm particles with line resolution 10µm
• Aerosol particles created by ultrasonic
energy or pneumatic pressure
• Particles carried by a gas to deposit on a
substrate

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F6_5L-Vtb0M
 Methods: Aerosol Jet Printing

• Mist of ink spheres 1-5µm in diameter, with several nanoparticles per drop
• Equipment works to focus & collimate to reduce overspray
• Aerosol particles are directed by stream of gas to ‘print’ on the substrate with forces
acting on the particle FSt is Stokes force (steady viscous drag force)
Fba is Basset force (nonsteady viscous drag force),
• Forces on Aerosol Particle: F is the virtual mass force (inertia of fluid surrounding particle
Vm
– FSt + FBa + FVm + FPs + FGr + FMa + Fsa = added to particle),
FPs is the pressure gradient force,
FGr is the buoyancy force caused by gravity,
FMa is the Magnus lift force due to particle rotation, and
FSa is the Saffman lift force on a particle with local shear flow

ω is the vorticity of the fluid surrounding the particle

and Ω is the angular rate of rotation of the particle

Journal of Nanotechnology, Vol 2012, Article ID 324380

 Methods: Aerosol Jet Printing
100µm Tip

• Stokes and Saffman force are the most important forces in

determining printing quality
• Particle size, solvent viscosity etc determining factors for
micro-additive printing quality
• Overspray an issue, esp with on-equipment laser
~10µm Beam

Printing quality by Aerosol Jet

Journal of Nanotechnology, Vol 2012, Article ID 324380

 Nanoparticle Sintering
• Sintering of nanoparticles determines porosity of micro-additive methods
• Kinetics of sintering controlled by
– Evaporation and condensation (EC)
– Surface diffusion (SD)
– Grain boundary diffusion (GDB)
– Volume diffusion from the surface of the particle (VDS),
– Volume diffusion from the interior of the particle (VDV)
– Viscous flow (VF).

Sintered nanoparticles
 Nanoparticle Sintering
• Nanoparticles can sinter at much lower temperature compared to
bulk counterparts due to their high s-t-v ratio
– e.g. 100nm silver particles can sinter at 200 C, whereas bulk Ag MP is 961 C
• Photonic energy can be used to selectively heat nanoparticles for
short durations of time to avoid heating substrates
• MP depression given by

4 𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑇𝑇𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 1 −
𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑
Gold Nanoparticle Data
Phys Rev A, Vol. 13 (6) 1976
Where: TMB=bulk melting temperature
σsl=solid liquid interface energy
Hf=bulk heat of fusion
ρs=density of solid
d=particle diameter
Thermochimica Acta 463 (2007) 32–40
 Sintering Methods
• Thermal sintering in an oven
• Laser sintering
• Photonic sintering by a flash of UV light
• Plasma sintering

Photonic Curing
On-equipment laser for Aerosol Jet Sinteron S2000

Highly dense Highly porous

structure structure
 Residual Stresses

• Recent studies using neutron diffraction show significant residual strain/stresses

in additively manufactured parts
• Residual stresses can have adverse effect for structural and other applications
• Residual stress for micro-additive manufacturing remains relatively unexplored

Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 2014, Volume 45, Issue 13, pp 6260-6270
 Reliability

• Reliability requirements for micro-additively

manufactured parts are same as that made using
lithography/MEMS
• Typical issues include
– Degradation under thermal cycling
– Degradation under cyclic mechanical load
– Electro-migration under moisture/temperature conditions
– Kirkendall voids under electrical current with dissimilar materials
• Methods to assess reliability for printed electronics for
newer applications yet to be standardized in industry

http://reliabilitycalendar.org/blog/event/dfr-wearable-electronics-reliability-issues-
and-real-life-solutions-in-printed-electronics/
 Applications: 3-D Antennas

• Metal dielectric structures for 3-D antennas

view Metal Line

Solid dielectric (25µm wide)
pillar micro-
manufactured by
dispense and cure

400 µm Polymer Pillar (75 µm diameter)

Substrate Antenna-like structures fabricated at WSU

Directional antenna simulation

Benefits:
 Electronic fabrication in 3-D that is difficult/impossible to make by lithography or MEMS
 Avoids the use of chemicals and results in minimal waste
 Electronics directly integrated with chips

Journal of Micromechanics and Micro-engineering, Vol. 25 (10), 107002 (2015)

 Applications: 3-D Dielectrics and Structural
Materials
• Metal dielectric structures as antennas

Polymer cones fabricated at WSU

Si post (Ack. Dr. M. Renn) Micro Springs (Ack. Dr. M. Renn)

Benefits:
 High strength to volume ratio structure possible
 Avoids the use of chemicals and results in minimal waste
 Electronics on vertical walls possible
 Applications: Transistors and Bio Parts

Thin –film Transistors Biological

• Several applications of direct printing of materials

• The field has only been explored superficially

Surface Mount Technology Association Pan Pacific Symposium, 2002

Nature Biotechnology 32, 773–785 (2014)