Population Ecology

Teacher
Nash

© Reece et al. Campbell Biology 10th Edition.

2021
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learners will be able to:

1. Categorize the different biotic potential and environmental resistance (e.g.,

diseases, availability of food, and predators) that affect population explosion.
a. Define and differentiate biotic potential and environmental resistance
b. Illustrate and explain the different population distribution patterns
c. Differentiate population size and density
d. Understand the different mechanisms that regulated population density.

DISCOVER
DISCOVER
 Overview
• Population ecology is the study of populations in relation to environment,
including environmental influences on density and distribution, age
structure, and population size.
• A population is a group of individuals of a single species living in the same
general area.
• Biotic Potential - is the maximum capacity of an individual or population
to reproduce under optimal environmental conditions. Populations rarely
reproduce at their biotic potential because of limiting factors such as
disease, predation, and restricted food resources.
• Environmental Resistance - is the sum of the environmental factors (such
as drought, mineral deficiencies, and competition) that tend to restrict the
biotic potential of an organism or kind of organism and impose a limit on
numerical increase.
Population size, density, & dispersal
Key points
• A population consists of all the organisms of a given species that live in a
particular area.
• The statistical study of populations and how they change over time is called
demography.
• Two important measures of a population are population size -the number of
individuals, and population density - the number of individuals per unit area or
volume.
• Ecologists estimate the size and density of populations using quadrats and the
mark-recapture method.
• The organisms in a population may be distributed in a uniform, random, or
clumped pattern. Uniform means that the population is evenly spaced, random
indicates random spacing, and clumped means that the population is
distributed in clusters.
Biotic Potential vs. Environmental Resistance

Biotic Potential
• Reproductive capacity (r)- a measure of biotic potential; rate that members of
a population reproduce if unlimited resources are available
– For an organism to survive past the early life stages and become part of the
reproducing population is called recruitment
– Each organism will have a different amount of offspring
• Humans may only have one offspring per year, while fish may lay 100s of
eggs in a year
Biotic Potential vs. Environmental Resistance

Environmental Resistance
• We very rarely see unlimited population growth due to biotic and abiotic
factors influencing environmental resistance
– Biotic Factors are predators, parasites, competitors, and lack of food
– Abiotic Factors include unusual temperatures, moisture, light, fire, just to
name a few
Biotic Potential vs. Environmental Resistance

Comparison
Demography: describing populations and how they change

• Demography is the study of the vital statistics of a

population and how they change over time.

• Death rates and birth rates are of particular interest to

demographers.
Population size and density

• Population size is simply the number of individuals in the

population.
Population size—N
• Density is the number of individuals per unit area or volume of
habitat.
Pop. Density = # of individuals ÷ unit of space
• Dispersion is the pattern of spacing among individuals within the
boundaries of the population.
• Density is the result of an interplay between processes that add
individuals to a population and those that remove individuals.
Population size and density

Population Dynamics
Population size and density

• Larger populations may be more stable than smaller populations

because they’re likely to have greater genetic variability and thus
more potential to adapt to changes in the environment through
natural selection.

• A member of a low-density population—where organisms are

sparsely spread out—might have more trouble finding a mate to
reproduce with than an individual in a high-density population.
Measuring population size

Quadrat method
• For immobile organisms such as
plants—or for very small and slow-
moving organisms—plots called
quadrats may be used to determine
population size and density. Each
quadrat marks off an area of the same
size—typically, a square area—within
the habitat. A quadrat can be made by
staking out an area with sticks and
string or by using a wood, plastic, or
© OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 4.0; original image credit: NPS Sonoran Desert
metal square placed on the ground. Network

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
Total population size = × #𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈. 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆.
𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
Measuring population size

Quadrat method
• For example: If you were to try to analyze the number of Makahiya in 920 squared
meter area using a 0.3 meter squared quadrat that average 7 Makahiya per
sample area, how many would you expect to find in the entire field?
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
Total population size = 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
×# 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈. 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆.

𝟗𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝟐
Total population size = × 𝟕.
𝟎.𝟑 𝒎

Total population size = 𝟐𝟏, 𝟒𝟔𝟔 𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒂𝒉𝒊𝒚𝒂

0.3 meter quadrat

Measuring population size

Mark-recapture method
• For organisms that move around, such as mammals, birds, or fish, a technique
called the mark-recapture method is often used to determine population size. This
method involves capturing a sample of animals and marking them in some way—
for instance, using tags, bands, paint, or other body markings, as shown below.
Then, the marked animals are released back into the environment and allowed to
mix with the rest of the population.

© OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 4.0; originals: left, modification of work by Neal Herbert, NPS; middle, modification of work by Pacific Southwest
Region USFWS; right, modification of work by Ingrid Taylar
Measuring population size

Mark-recapture method
• For example: A group of students want to estimate the number of fish that live in a
pond. They catch 45 fish and tag them. They return the 45 fish to the pond. The
next day they catch 60 fish. Of these 60 fish, 18 are tagged. Estimate how many
fish live in the pond.

𝑀 𝑅
=
𝑁 𝑇

M = total marked
N = total population
R = number “recaptured”
T = total capture on second visit
Measuring population size

Mark-recapture method
• For example: A group of students want to estimate the number of fish that live in a
pond. They catch 45 fish and tag them. They return the 45 fish to the pond. The
next day they catch 60 fish. Of these 60 fish, 18 are tagged. Estimate how many
fish live in the pond.

M = 45 45 18
R = 18 =
𝑁 60
T = 60 18N = 45(60)
N=?
18N = 2700
18𝑁 2700
=
18 18
N = 150
Patterns of Dispersion
• Environmental and social factors influence
spacing of individuals in a population.
• In a clumped dispersion, individuals aggregate
in patches. A clumped dispersion may be
influenced by resource availability and
behavior.
• A uniform dispersion is one in which
individuals are evenly distributed. It may be
influenced by social interactions such as
territoriality.
• In a random dispersion, the position of each
individual is independent of other individuals.
It occurs in the absence of strong attractions
or repulsions.
Patterns of Dispersion
 In ecology, a population consists of all the organisms of a given species that
live in a particular area. The statistical study of populations and how they
change over time is called demography.
Summary

Two important measures of a population are population size, the number of

individuals, and population density, the number of individuals per unit area or
volume. Ecologists often estimate the size and density of populations using
quadrats and the mark-recapture method.
A population can also be described in terms of the distribution, or dispersion, of
the individuals that make it up. Individuals may be distributed in a uniform,
random, or clumped pattern. Uniform means that the population is evenly
spaced, random indicates random spacing, and clumped means that the
population is distributed in clusters.
Life tables, survivorship, & age-sex structure

Key points

• To predict if a population will grow or shrink, ecologists need to know birth

and death rates for organisms at different ages as well as the current age and
sex makeup of the population.
• Life tables summarize birth and death rates for organisms at different stages
of their lives.
• Survivorship curves are graphs that show what fraction of a population
survives from one age to the next.
• An age-sex pyramid is a "snapshot" of a population in time showing how its
members are distributed among age and sex categories.
Life Tables & Survivorship Curves
• A life table is an age-specific summary of the survival pattern of a population.
• It is best made by following the fate of a cohort, a group of individuals of the same age.
Information contained in a life table:
A. Population age structure – number of individuals that are young, old and of reproductive
age;
B. Population growth rate – Is the population size growing (or shrinking)?
C. Population survivorship patterns – At what stage does most mortality occur? Does most
mortality occur in the very young? The very old? Or equally across all ages?
Life Tables & Survivorship Curves
Age Structure
• One important demographic factor in present and future
growth trends is a country’s age structure.
• Age structure is the relative number of individuals at each age.
• Age structure diagrams can predict a population’s growth
trends.
• They can illuminate social conditions and help us plan for the
future.
Age Structure
Age Structure
Age-structure pyramids for the human population of three countries
Age Structure
It's common to see population pyramids used to represent human
populations. In fact, there are specific shapes of pyramids that tend to
be associated with growing, stable, and shrinking human populations,
as shown below.

© OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 4.0

Survivorship Curves
A survivorship curve is a graphic way of representing the data
in a life table.
• Survivorship curves can be classified into three general types:
–Type I: low death rates during early and middle life, then an
increase among older age groups
–Type II: the death rate is constant over the organism’s life
span
–Type III: high death rates for the young, then a slower death
rate for survivors
Survivorship Curves
Life History Strategies
Life History: traits that affect an organism’s schedule of reproduction and
survival.
3 Variables:
1. Age of sexual maturation

2. How often organism reproduces

3. # offspring produced per reproductive episode

Note: These traits are evolutionary outcomes, not conscious decisions by

organisms
Life History Strategies
(1) r – strategists. These animals live in unstable environments
and the ability to reproduce rapidly (exponentially) is important.
Such organisms have high fecundity, give relatively little parental
care in any one offspring, and are vulnerable to predation and the
“dictates” of their environment. The “strategic intent” is to flood the
habitat with progeny so that, regardless of predation or mortality, at
least some of the progeny will survive to reproduce. Organisms that
are r-selected have short life spans, are generally small, quick to
mature and waste a lot of energy.
(2) k – strategists. They are larger in size and have longer life
expectancies. They are stronger or are better protected and
generally are more energy efficient. They produce, during their life
spans, fewer progeny, but place a greater investment in each. The
resulting offspring have higher chances of survival. Their
reproductive strategy is to grow slowly, live close to the carrying
capacity of their habitat and produce a few progeny each with a
high probability of survival.
Life History Strategies
• K-selection: pop. close to carrying capacity
• r-selection: maximize reproductive success

K-selected r-selected
Long maturation & lifespan Short life
Few, late offspring Many offspring
Several reproduction Fast, early reproduction
Extensive parental care No parental care
Low death rate High death rate
i.e. Elephants i.e. Frog
Life History Strategies
Life History Strategies
• Life histories are very diverse.
• Species that exhibit semelparity, or big-bang
reproduction, reproduce once and die. E.g.
Agave
• Species that exhibit iteroparity, or repeated
reproduction, produce offspring repeatedly. E.g.
Human.
• Highly variable or unpredictable environments
likely favor big-bang reproduction, while
dependable environments may favor repeated
reproduction.
Life History Strategies
“Trade-offs” and Life Histories
• Organisms have finite
resources, which may lead to
trade-offs between survival
and reproduction.
• In animals, parental care of
smaller broods may facilitate
survival of offspring.
Life History Strategies
“Trade-offs” and Life Histories
• Organisms have finite resources, which may lead to
trade-offs between survival and reproduction.
• In animals, parental care of smaller broods may
facilitate survival of offspring.
• Some plants, like the dandelion, produce a large
number of small seeds, ensuring that at least some of
them will grow and eventually reproduce.
• Other types of plants, like the coconut tree, produce a
moderate number of large seeds that provide a large
store of energy that will help seedlings become
established.
Concept Check!
Which of the following statements regarding survivorship curves is accurate?
Choose 1 answer:

A. In Type III survivorship curves, many organisms survive youth but die during their elder
years.
B. Species with Type I survivorship curves usually have small quantities of offspring.
C. In Type II survivorship curves, organisms tend to die mostly during their younger years, but
those that survive endure long lifespans.
D. Species showing Type I and Type III survivorship curves both provide a great deal of
parental care.
Part II: Population Growth Models
Exponential & logistic growth

Key points
• In exponential growth, a population's per capita (per individual) growth
rate stays the same regardless of population size, making the
population grow faster and faster as it gets larger.
• In nature, populations may grow exponentially for some period, but they
will ultimately be limited by resource availability.
• In logistic growth, a population's per capita growth rate gets smaller
and smaller as population size approaches a maximum imposed by
limited resources in the environment, known as the carrying capacity
(K).
• Exponential growth produces a J-shaped curve, while logistic growth
produces an S-shaped curve.
The exponential model describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited environment

• It is useful to study population growth in an idealized situation.

• Idealized situations help us understand the capacity of species to

increase and the conditions that may facilitate this growth.
The exponential model describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited environment

• Zero population growth occurs when the birth rate equals the death rate.

• Most ecologists use differential calculus to express population growth as

growth rate at a particular instant in time:

ΔN =
rN
Δt

where N = population size, t = time, and r = per

capita rate of increase = birth – death
Exponential Growth Equation

dN/dt = change in population

r = growth rate of pop.
N = population size
Exponential Growth

• Exponential population growth is population increase under idealized

conditions.

• Under these conditions, the rate of reproduction is at its maximum,

called the intrinsic rate of increase.

• Exponential population growth results in a J-shaped curve

• Exponential Growth is not sustainable.

Exponential Growth

• Exponential population growth is population increase under idealized

conditions.

• Under these conditions, the rate of reproduction is at its maximum,

called the intrinsic rate of increase.

• Exponential population growth results in a J-shaped curve

• Exponential Growth is not sustainable.

Exponential Growth
The J-shaped curve of exponential growth characterizes some rebounding populations
The logistic model describes how a population grows more slowly as it nears its carrying
capacity

• Exponential growth cannot be sustained for long in any population. A

more realistic population model limits growth by incorporating carrying
capacity.
• Carrying capacity (K) is the maximum population size the environment
can support.
• In the logistic population growth model, the rate of increase declines
as carrying capacity is reached.
• The logistic model of population growth produces a sigmoid (S-shaped)
curve.
Logistic Growth Equation

dN/dt = change in population

r = growth rate of pop.
N = population size
K = carrying capacity
Logistic Growth model
The Logistic Model and Real Populations

• The growth of laboratory populations of paramecia fits an S-shaped

curve.

• These organisms are grown in a constant environment lacking predators

and competitors.

• Some populations overshoot K before settling down to a relatively stable

density.
Logistic Growth model

The growth of laboratory populations fits an S-shaped curve which

hovers around the Carrying Capacity of the area.

(a) A Paramecium population in the lab (b) A Daphnia population in the lab
Population regulation
What factors limit population sizes?

Key points
• In nature, population size and growth are limited by many factors. Some
are density-dependent, while others are density-independent.
• Density-dependent limiting factors cause a population's per capita
growth rate to change—typically, to drop—with increasing population
density. One example is competition for limited food among members of a
population.
• Density-independent factors affect per capita growth rate independent of
population density. Examples include natural disasters like forest fires.
• Limiting factors of different kinds can interact in complex ways to produce
various patterns of population growth. Some populations show cyclical
oscillations, in which population size changes predictably in a cycle.
Factors that limit population growth:

• Density-Dependent factors: population matters

i.e. Predation, disease, competition, territoriality, toxic wastes,
physiological factors
• Density-Independent factors: population not a factor
i.e. Natural disasters: fire, flood, weather
Density-dependent limiting factors

• Density-dependent limiting factors as

factors that affect the per capita growth
rate of a population differently depending
on how dense the population already is.
• In density-independent populations, birth
rate and death rate do not change with
population density.
• In density-dependent populations, birth
rates fall and death rates rise with
population density.

© OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 4.0

Density-dependent limiting factors

• Density-dependent birth and death rates are an example of negative

feedback that regulates population growth.

• They are affected by many factors, such as competition for resources,

territoriality, disease, predation, toxic wastes, and intrinsic factors.

• In crowded populations, increasing population density intensifies

competition for resources and results in a lower birth rate.
Density-dependent limiting factors
1. Competition for Resources

• Increasing population density intensifies competition for nutrients and

other resources, reducing reproductive rates. Farmers minimize the effect
of resource competition on the growth of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and
other crops by applying fertilizers to reduce nutrient limitations on crop
yield.
2. Predation

• Predation can be an important cause of density-dependent mortality if a

predator captures more food as the population density of the prey
increases. As a prey population builds up, predators may also feed
preferentially on that species. Population increases in the collared
lemming (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus) lead to density-dependent predation
by several predators, including the snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus).
3. Disease

• If the transmission rate of a disease increases as a population becomes

more crowded, then the disease’s impact is density dependent. In
humans, the respiratory diseases (COVID-19) and tuberculosis are
spread through the air when an infected person sneezes or coughs. Both
diseases strike a greater percentage of people in densely populated cities
than in rural areas.
4. Territoriality

• Territoriality can limit population density when space becomes the

resource for which individuals compete. Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) use
a chemical marker in urine to warn other cheetahs of their territorial
boundaries. The presence of surplus, or nonbreeding, individuals is a
good indication that territoriality is restricting population growth.
5. Toxic Wastes

• Yeasts, such as the brewer’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, are used

to convert carbohydrates to ethanol in winemaking. The ethanol that
accumulates in the wine is toxic to yeasts and contributes to density-
dependent regulation of yeast population size. The alcohol content of wine
is usually less than 13% because that is the maximum concentration of
ethanol that most wine-producing yeast cells can tolerate.
6. Intrinsic Factors

• Intrinsic physiological factors can regulate population size. Reproductive

rates of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) in a field enclosure can
drop even when food and shelter are abundant. This drop in reproduction
at high population density is associated with aggressive interactions and
hormonal changes that delay sexual maturation and depress the immune
system.
Density-independent limiting factors

• Density-independent limiting factors

that affect per capita growth rate
independent of how dense the
population is.
• Unlike density-dependent limiting
factors, density-independent limiting
factors alone can’t keep a
population at constant levels.

© John McColgan, USDA,

Population cycles

• Some populations undergo cyclical oscillations in size. Cyclical

oscillations are repeating rises and drops in the size of the population
over time. If we graphed population size over time for a population with
cyclical oscillations, it would look roughly like the wave below—though
probably not quite as tidy!

© CK-12 Foundation, CC BY-NC 3.0,

Case study: lynx and hares

Boom-and-bust cycles

• Predator-prey interactions
• E.g. lynx and snowshoe
hare on 10-year cycle

© OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 4.0; bottom, Populations of snowshoe hare and their
Canada lynx predator show repeating cycles by CK-12 Foundation, CC BY-NC 3.0,
Sample Problem
To estimate the size of an animal population, researchers often use a method known as
mark-recapture, which involves marking individuals from a large population for easy
identification upon recapture. The mark-recapture method assumes that the proportion of
marked individuals in the recapture group is equal to the proportion of marked individuals
in the entire population.
Researchers used the mark-recapture method to estimate the number of individuals in a
population. Using the results presented in the table below, estimate the total number of
individuals in the population. Give your answer to the nearest whole number.

Number of Marked Total Number of

Individuals Individuals
Recapture Group 27 210
Entire Population 100 ?
Thank you!

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