Nervous system

- Electro chemical quickly move between cells

Basic unit of the nervous system

 Dentrite
 Nucleus
 cell body.
 Axon
 Myelin Sheath
 Schwan cell
 Terminal.
the basic unit of the nervous system is nerve cells or neutron
 The human brain contains about 100 billion neurons
 Nerves are bundle of axons found throughout the body
 Axons and Dendrites allow neurons to communicate even across long distances
 Dentrites receives messages from other nerve cell while an axon transmit messages
from the cell body to the dentrites of other neurons, or to other body tissues
 Motor Neurons- transmit messages from the brain to the muscles to generate movement
 Sensory Neurons- detect light, sound, oder, taste, pressure, and heat and send messages about
those things in the brain

- Sending of electrical signal down the length of axon

- Axon releases the chemical signal with chemical messengers call Neurotransmitter into the
synapse
- Dentrites of the neighboring neuron converts the chemical signal back into an electrical signal
- Electrical signal, then travels through the same conversion process as it moves to other
neighboring neurons

Parts of the Nervous System

  Central nervous system
 Peripheral nervous system

Central Nervous System

 The brain and the spinal cord are the central nervous system

Peripheral Nervous System

 The nerves that go through the whole body, make the Peripheral Nervous System

Central
- Because it combines information from the entire body and coordinates activity across the whole
organism

Central Nervous System: Main Parts of the Brain

Cerebrum
 perform higher functions like interpreting touch, vision and hearing as well as speech,
reasoning, emotions, learning, and find control of movements

Cerebellum
 to coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture and balance

Brainstem
  acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord
 Performs mainly, automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake
and sleep cycles, digestions, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, And swallowing.

Central Nervous System: Spinal Cord

Spinal Cord
- A long bundle of nerves and cell that extends from the lower portion of the brain to the lower
back

Central Nervous System: Major Functions of the Spinal Cord

 Carrying signals from the brain: The spinal cord receives signal from the brain that movements,
an automatic function
 Carrying information to the brain: The spinal cord nerves transmit messages to the brain from
the body, such as sensation of touch, pressure and pain.
 Reflex Responses:The spinal cord and may also act independently of the rain in conducting
motor reflexes

What does The Peripheral Nervous System do?

o connects the central nervous system to the organs, limbs, and skin
o Allows the brain and the spinal cord to receive, and send information to other areas of the body
o Carries sensory and motor information to and from the central nervous system
o Regulates, involuntary body functions like heartbeat and breathing

Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic nervous system
- responsible for transmitting sensory information as well as for voluntary movements
- Contains two major types of neurons: Motor Neurons and Sensory Neurons

Autonomic Nervous System

- responsible for regulating, involuntary body functions, such as blood flow, heartbeat, digestion
and breathing
Two branches:
Parasympathetic System- helps maintain normal body function and conserve physical resources
Sympathetic System- regulating the flight or fight response, prepares the body to extend energy to
respond to environmental threats.

REGULATION OF FEEDBACK MECHANISM FOR HOMEOSTASIS BY THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

HOMEOSTASIS
- is the state reach when each part of the body functions in equilibrium With other parts. This is a
attained through the regulation of the bodily functions by the endocrine and nervous system.
- Maintaining a stable environment

To achieve homeostasis the nervous and endocrine system, maintain a normal range of the following:
 1. The body temperature
2. Amount of water in the body
3. Amount of metabolic waste in the cell
4. blood calcium levels
5. Hormones in the blood

FEEDBACK MECHANISM
- A process that uses the condition of one component to regulate the function of the other. It is
done to either increase or dampen the change in the system.
Ex.
1. When blood pressure all of a sudden increases or reduces, it starts a series of responses that
aims to bring the blood pressure to regular levels.
2. When Thyroxin secretion is more, it prevents the secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone from
pituitary gland, so that thyroxine is not produced by the thyroid gland

POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

- It’s a process in which the end products of an action cost more of that action to occur in a
feedback loop.This amplifies the original action.
Ex.
1. More oxytocin stimulate more contractions of the cervix, until the baby is delivered
2. The brain will stimulate the pituitary gland, release the oxytocin hormone.
3. Oxytocin carried in bloodstream to uterus.
4. Oxytocin’s were stimuli contractions of the cervix, pushing the baby further than the birth canal.
5. The stretching of the walls of the cervix will send signals did it brain, and the rain will respond by
stimulating the pituitary gland to release even more oxytocin.
6. Milk secreted by a mothers mammary gland

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

- Is a control system that reduces stop the baby from producing change, when favorable or stable
condition are meant
Ex:
PANCREAS— INSULIN—CELLLS ABSORB MORE BLOOD SUGAR— BLOOD SUGAR

Production of hormones in the menstrual cycle

 DNA AND RNA STRUCTURES
Comparison of DNA AND RNA Molecule
Gene— DNA—Chromosome— Cells— your body is made of cells

Proteins
- from the structure of our body and play an important role In the processes the keep us alive

. What are the roles and functions of proteins?

o channels in membranes – control the movement of molecules in and out of the cell
o structural molecules – for example, making up hair or muscle in animals
o hormones – to regulate the activity of cells
o antibodies – in the immune system
o Enzymes – to act as catalysts in biological systems.

Getting to know DNA, Genes and Chromosomes

Deoxyribonucleic Acid “DNA”
Three facts you should know about DNA:
 DNA is your body’s , textbook or blueprint of life, and the carrier of all your genetic information
 Do you know if you need to every individual
 DNA is inherited or passed from parent to offspring.
DNA STRUCTURE
- The DNA is a bio molecule that is a long and double helix strands twisted around a spiral
staircase.
Friendrich Miescher- Swiss Chemist
Rosalind Frantelin- British Scientist
- DNA molecule existed in a helical conformation
- James Watson and Francis Crick suggested that the structure of DNA is a double helix polymer.

Three types of DNA Components:

  Sugar and Phosphate
 Nitrogenous Bases
Adenine(A) Thymine(T)
Guanine(G) Cytosine(C)

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF DNA MOLECULE

DNA can make copies of itself “ DNA replication”
DNA can carry information

Genes
- A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a specific protein
- Genes are the basic unit of genetics
- Human beings have 20,000 to 25,000 genes.

o The genetic similarity between a human and a human is 99.9%.

o The genetic similarities between a human and a chimpanzee is 96%
o The genetic similarity between a human and a cat is 90%
o The genetic similarities between a human and a mouse is 85%
o The genetic similarity between a human and a fruit fly is 67%
o The genetic similarity between a human and a banana is 60%
o The genetic similarity between a human and the chicken is 60%

Chromosome
- DNA from all the cells in your body, would form a strand 6000 million miles long
- DNA molecules are tightly packed around proteins called histones to make structures called
chromosomes
- Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in every cell
- Photograph of a persons, chromosomes, arranged, according to size is called a karyotype.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) work together to produce proteins from genetic
codes. Genetic codes are found in DNA or RNA which is made up of nucleotide bases usually in three’s
(triplet) that code for the amino acids making up the proteins

RNA
- Is single-stranded
Three types of RNA Components
Sugar and Phosphate
Nitrogenous Bases
Adenine(A). Uracil(U)
Guanine(G) Cytosine(c)
 CENTRAL DOGMA: DNA TO RNA TO PROTEIN
- Describes the flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to RNA to protein. It shows that DNA contains
instructions for making protein, copied by RNA; RNA then uses this instruction to make proteins.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
- The process of making proteins
DNA REPLICATION
- DNA found within the nucleus must be replicated in order to ensure that each new cell receives the correct
number of chromosomes. The process of DNA duplication/making copies of DNA is called DNA Replication.
STEPS OF DNA REPLICATION
1. Enzymes called helicase split apart base pairs and unwind the double helix to form a pair of replication forks.
2. Free nucleotides in the cell find their complementary bases along the new strand by another enzyme DNA
polymerase to form a new strand.
3. The sugar-phosphate backbone is assembled to complete the DNA strand. Two new DNA molecules, each
with a parent strand and each with a new strand, are formed.

TRANSCRIPTION
 - It is the process of converting the genetic information in DNA to synthesize protein. RNA polymerase
produces a complementary RNA strand called a primary transcript.

Transcription (making of mRNA from DNA) involves the following steps:

1. DNA double helix unwinds to express the nucleotide bases.
2. RNA polymerase identifies the start sequence and unwinds and matches RNA nucleotide bases to DNA,
using one side as a template.
3. The mRNA strand is created. It now comfilments the original DNA strand (G-C and A-U). Hence if the
sequence of bases on the DNA strand were CC TTA CAT, the sequence of bases on the mRNA strand
would be GGC AAU GUA.
4. Ligase helps the strand of DNA to close again.
5. The mRNA strand moves out of the nucleus to ribose, and DNA rejoin

There are 3 types of RNA:

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
-transcribes the DNA nucleotide bases to RNA nucleotide bases
- The mRNA is the RNA version of the gene that leaves the cell nucleus and moves to the
cytoplasm where the proteins are made
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- binds the mRNA and tRNA to ensure that codons are translated correctly
- rRNA is responsible in binding to messenger RNA and transfer RNA to ensure that the codon
sequence of the mRNA is transmitted accurately into amino acid sequence in proteins
- rRNA has a distinctive three-dimensional shape:
A site
- it anchors an incoming tRNA changed with an amino acid
P site
- site for binding growing polypeptide

E site
- tRNA binds briefly to the E site before leaving the ribosome

3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)

- translates the mRNA codons into the correct amino acids
- transfer ribonucleic acid(tRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that helps decode a messenger
RNA(mRNA) sequence into a protein
- tRNAs function at a specific sites in the ribosome during translation
 Protein Synthesis
Transcription
- DNA is used as a template to make a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA)
- A strand of mRNA Is made to complement a strand of DNA

Steps of Transcription
transcription takes place in three steps: Initiation, Elongation, and Termination
Initiation
- it occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a region of a gene called the promoter
- the ribosome sandwiches the mRNA between its small and large subunit to be translated. The
first codon that will be read is AUG that is called the start codon, and consequently codes for the
amino acid methionine.
- the small ribosomal subunit binds to the start of the mRNA sequence. Then a transfer RNA
(tRNA) molecule carrying the amino acid methionine binds to what is called the start codon of the
mRNA sequence. The start codon in all mRNA molecules has the sequence AUG and codes for
methionine. Next, the large ribosomal subunit binds to form the complete initiation complex.

Elongation
- The addition of nucleotide the mRNA
- messenger RNA reads one codon at a time. Then, the amino acid corresponding each codon is
added to a growing polypeptide chain.
 - the ribosome continues to translate each codon in turn. Each corresponding amino acid is added
to the growing chain and linked via a bond called a peptide bond. Elongation continues until all of
the codons are read.

Termination
- the ending of transcription
- termination occurs when' the ribosome reaches a stop codon (UAA, UAG, and UGA). Since there
are no tRNA molecules that can recognize these codons, the ribosome recognizes that
translation is complete. The new protein is then released, and the translation complex comes
apart.

Translation
- The process in which the genetic code mRNA is ready to make a protein
- The DNA molecules direct the synthesis of proteins and determine the formation of mRNA. The
order of bases of mRNA determines the protein synthesized
- The mRNA sequence is thus used as a template to assemble_-in order--the chain of amino acids
that form a protein.
- Translation occurs in a structure called the ribosome, which is a factory for the synthesis of
proteins. The ribosome has a small and a large subunit and is a complex molecule composed of
several ribosomal RNA • molecules and a number of proteins.

The Role of tRNA during Translation

- An anticodon is complementary to the codon form an amino acid

MUTATIONS
What is Mutation?
- Mutations are changes in the genetic sequence, and they are a main cause of diversity among
organisms
- Heredity, also called biological Inheritance, Is the passing on of traits from parents to their
offspring

Types of Mutation
Missense Mutation
- A change in one DNA base pair that results in the substitution of one amino acid for another In
the protein made by a gene
Nonsense Mutation
- This type of mutation results in a shortened protein that may function Improperly or not at all.
Silent Mutation
- This mutation do not affect the structure or function of the protein because there Is no effect on
the amino acid sequence.
Insertion or Deletion
- Insertions or deletions may be small or large In any of these cases, the protein made by the gene
may not function properly
Duplication
- A duplication consists of a piece of DNA that Is abnormally cooled one or more times
Frameshift mutation
- lThis type of mutation occurs who n the addition or loss of DNA bases changes a gene'’s reading
frame
- A frameshift mutation shifts the grouping of these bases and changes the code for amino acids
Repeat Expansion
 - repeat expansion is a mutation that increases the number of times that the short DNA sequence
is repeated. This type of medication can cause the resulting protein to function.
Summary
- A mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA, Mutations may affect only one gene or they
may affect whole chromosomes
- Mutations in eggs or sperm affect future generations by transmitting these changes to their
offspring.
- Mutations in body cells affect only the individual and are not passed on to the offspring,