Endogenic Processes

(Crustal Deformation)

Teacher
Nash

2020
© Jahangir Alam
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learners will be able to:

1. Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds

and faults.

DISCOVER
DISCOVER
Main Idea:
Tectonic forces operating
inside the Earth causes rocks
to undergo deformation

EQ:
How do rocks behave under
different types of stress
© Lumen Learning.
Crustal Deformation

Deformation occurs mostly along plate boundaries where plates are

moving towards each other, moving away from each other, and
move pass each other.

Deformation characteristics can be observed when they are

exposed at the surface as outcrop - visible exposures of bedrock or
other geologic formations at the surface.
Crustal Deformation
Stress – a force applied per unit area (Stress = Force/Area)
• Uniform stress/pressure – forces act uniformly from all
directions.
• Confining stress –weight of overlying rocks exerts pressure
• Differential stress – the force is not equal from all directions

3 Kinds of Differential stresses

1. Tensional stress (divergent)
2. Compressional stress (convergent)
3. Shear stress (transform)

© E.J. Tarbuck/Earth Science.

TENSION
• Rocks pulled apart
• Rocks may separate in
opposite direction.
© PNGFlow

© PNPS /Ann Wildermuth.

COMPRESSION

Rocks push or squeeze against

Earth and Life Science SHS MSU-GSC

one another where the stress
produced is directed towards
the center.

© PNGFlow
 SHEARING

• Some of the portion of a plate

at the edge may break away
in different directions. © PNGFlow

• Eventually making the plate

smaller inside.

References:
Adryan J. Valiao. © wikipedia.org
https://www.slideshare.net/adryanval?utm_campaign=profiletracking&utm_medium=sssite&utm_source=ssslideview
Stages of Deformation

1. Elastic Deformation - wherein the

strain is reversible.
2. Ductile Deformation - wherein the
strain is irreversible.
3. Fracture - irreversible strain
wherein the material breaks.
© Stephen A. Nelson/Tulane University.
Rocks behavior under pressure
1. Brittle materials have a small
or large region of elastic
behavior but only a small
region of ductile behavior
before they fracture.
2. Ductile materials have a
small region of elastic
© Stephen A. Nelson/Tulane University.
behavior and a large region
of ductile behavior before
they fracture.
Factors that affect deformation
1. Temperature - At high temperature molecules
and their bonds can stretch and move, thus
materials will behave in more ductile manner.
At low Temperature, materials are brittle.
2. Confining Pressure - At high confining
pressure materials are less likely to fracture
because the pressure of the surroundings
tends to hinder the formation of fractures. At
low confining stress, material will be brittle
and tend to fracture sooner.
3. Strain rate - At high strain rates material
© Stephen A. Nelson/Tulane University.
tends to fracture. At low strain rates more
time is available for individual atoms to move
and therefore ductile behavior is favored.
FOLDING
❑ When two forces push towards each other from
opposite sides, the rock layers will bend into
folds.
❑ The process by which folds are formed are due to
compressional forces known as folding.
❑ There are large-scale and small scale folds.
Large- scale folds are found mainly along
destructive plate boundaries.

© MonkeySee
Types of Folding
1. Monocline involves a slight bend in otherwise
parallel layers of rock.

© MonkeySee

© Pidwirny, M.
Types of Folding
2. An anticline is a convex up fold in rock that
resembles an arch like structure with the rock beds
(or limbs) dipping way from the center of the Crest

structure.

© MonkeySee

© Pidwirny, M.
Types of Folding
3. Syncline is a fold where the rock layers are
warped downward. Both anticlines and synclines are
the result of compressional stress.

© MonkeySee

© Pidwirny, M.
Types of Folding
4. A recumbent fold develops if the center of the fold
moves from being once vertical to a horizontal
position.

© Pidwirny, M.

© SINCLAIR STAMMERS / SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

FOLDING

© E.J. Tarbuck/Earth Science.

 FAULTING
❑ Faulting is the fracturing and displacement of
more brittle rock strata along a fault plane either
caused by tension or compression.

❑ A break in rock along which a vertical or

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horizontal rock movement has occurred is called
a fault.

❑ The process of forming a fault is faulting. The line

of fault which appears on land surface is known
as fault line. © Roy Luck;Jodi So

References:
Adryan J. Valiao.
https://www.slideshare.net/adryanval?utm_campaign=profiletracking&utm_medium=sssite&utm_source=ssslideview
Types of Faulting
1. Normal Faults occur when tensional
forces act in opposite directions and cause
one slab of the rock to be displaced up and © Pidwirny, M.

the other slab down.

© Stephen A. Nelson/Tulane University.

© Lumen Learning.
Types of Faulting
2. Reverse faults develop when
compressional forces exist. Compression
causes one block to be pushed up and over
the other block.
© Pidwirny, M.

© Stephen A. Nelson/Tulane University.

© Richard Harwood
Types of Faulting
3. A graben fault is produced when
tensional stresses result in the subsidence
of a block of rock. On a large scale these
features are known as Rift Valleys.

© Pidwirny, M.
Types of Faulting
4. A horst fault is the development of two
reverse faults causing a block of rock to be
pushed up.

© Pidwirny, M.
 Types of Faulting
5. Strike-slip or transform fault. These faults are vertical in nature and are produced where the stresses
are exerted parallel to each other. A well-known example of this type of fault is the San Andreas fault in
California.

© Richard Harwood

© Everything Is Electric

© Stephen A. Nelson/Tulane University.

Mountain Formation

Watch the link video about Mountain Building

© Brian Johnson.
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