Mindanao State University – General Santos City Senior High School

The driver of a pick-up truck desperately tries to

overrun a cloud of ash spewing from the volcanic
eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991.
© ALBERTO GARCIA

The subject of change in rocks happens

deep within Earth’s crust where heat and
pressure combine.

ENDOGENIC
PROCESSES
Mindanao State University – General Santos City Senior High School

OBJECTIVES

1. Describe where the Earth’s internal heat comes from. [S11/12ES-Ib-14]

2. How magma is formed (magmatism). [S11/12ES-Ic-15]
3. Describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to changes in
pressure and temperature (metamorphism). [S11/12ES-Ic-17].
4. Compare and contrast the formation of the different types of igneous rocks.
[S11/12ES-Ic-18]

EARTH’S INTERIOR HEAT

Earth Gets Hotter the Deeper You Go

Heat is seen as an energy from the motion of the molecules of bodies, such as Earth, that may be
transferred by conduction, convection, or radiations. Such heat drives the many internals processes of the
planet. The heat of Earth’s interior comes from a variety of sources. These include the heat contained in
the objects that accreted to form Earth, and the heat produced when they collided. As Earth grew larger,
the increased pressure on Earth’s interior caused it to compress and heat up. Heat also came from friction
when melted material was redistributed within Earth, forming the core and mantle.
Earth’s temperature increases with depth, but not at a uniform rate (Figure 1). Earth’s geothermal
gradient is 15° to 30°C/km within the crust. It
then drops off dramatically through the
mantle, increases more quickly at the base
of the mantle, and then increases slowly
through the core. The temperature is
approximately 1000°C at the base of the
crust, around 3500°C at the base of the
mantle, and approximately 6,000°C at
Earth’s center. The temperature slope inside Figure 1. Geothermal gradient
the lithosphere fluctuates relying upon the (change in temperature with
structural setting. Gradients are lowest in the depth). Left- Geothermal gradient
focal pieces of continents, higher where in the crust and upper mantle. The
plates collide, higher still at boundaries geothermal gradient remains
where plates are moving apart from one below the melting temperature of
another. rock, except in the asthenosphere.
There, temperatures are high
enough to melt some of the
Regardless of high temperatures
minerals. Right- Geothermal
inside Earth, mantle rocks are essentially gradient throughout Earth. Rapid
entirely solid. High pressures shield them changes occur in the uppermost
from melting. The red dash line in Figure 1. mantle, and at the core-mantle
(right) shows the base temperature at which boundary. © Karla Panchuk (2018)
dry mantle rocks will liquefy. Rocks at CC BY 4.0, modified after Steven
temperatures to the right line will stay solid. Earle (2016) CC BY 4.0.
In rocks at temperatures to right of the line, a
few minerals will start to melts. Notice that
the red dashed line goes further to the right for greater depths, and
therefore greater pressures. See here, compare the geothermal gradient
with the red dashed line. The geothermal gradient is to the left of the red
line, except in the asthenosphere, where small amounts of melt are
present.
Sources of heat in our planet can be identified as Primordial and
Radiogenic heat.
1. Primordial heat – Heat generated during earth’s formation. Figure 2. Production of heat within the
Earth over time by radioactive decay of
Sources: uranium, thorium, and potassium. Heat
a. Accretion Energy - Heat released from collision of production has decreased over time as the
planetary objects during the early formation of the abundance of radioactive atoms has
decreased. © Source: Steven Earle (2015)
planets. CC BY 4.0 view source, modified after
b. Adiabatic Compression – Heat generated as materials Arevalo et al. (2009).
are compressed.
c. Core Formation Energy - Heat from the Earth’s core.
2. Radiogenic Heat - Heat generated by long-term radiative decay. Sources: K40, Th232, U235,
U238
Mindanao State University – General Santos City Senior High School

Convection Helps to Move Heat Within Earth

Consider CONVECTION, CONDUCTION and RADIATION.

1. Conduction.©Movement
Macy Norton/Pinterest.
of energy through a solid body. The material itself does not move.
2. Convection. Movement of energy through a fluid body. The material moves and carries
the heat. Hot less dense material rises upward through a fluid and replaced by cooler,
more dense material = CIRCULATION OF HEAT/CONVECTION CURRENT.
3. Radiation. Movement of energy to points that does not require any material at all.
Models of Mantle Convection
Geologists think that Earth’s convection works where hot rock from the base of the mantle moves all the
way to the top of the mantle before cooling and sinking back down again. This view is referred to as whole-
mantle convection. Other geologists think that the upper and lower mantle are too different to convect as
one. They point to slabs of lithosphere that are sinking back into the mantle, some of which seem to perch
on the boundary between the upper and lower mantle, rather than sinking straight through. They also note
chemical differences in magma originating in different parts of the mantle— differences that are not
consistent with the entire mantle being well stirred. They argue that double-layered convection is a better
fit with the observations (Figure 3, right). Still others argue that there may be some locations where
convection goes from the bottom of the mantle to the top, and some where it doesn’t (Figure 3, middle).

Figure 3. Models of mantle convection. Left- whole mantle convection. Rocks rise from the core-mantle boundary to the top of
the mantle, then sink to the bottom again. Right- Two-layer convection, in which upper and lower mantle convect at different
rates. Middle- Convection paths vary depending on the circumstances. © Karla Panchuk (2018) CC BY 4.0.

MAGMATISM
Happens when magma generated and develops into igneous rocks.
Magma. The molten rocks that are found beneath Earth’s surface. They are less
dense than the surrounding solid rock, and therefore capable of rising the surface.
When magma emerges at the surface, it is called lava.
Magmas can vary widely in composition, but in general they are made up of only
eight elements; in order of importance: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium,
sodium, magnesium, and potassium (Figure 4.). Oxygen, the most abundant
element in magma, comprises a little less than half the total, followed by silicon at
just over one-quarter. The remaining elements make up the other one-quarter.
Magmas derived from crustal material are dominated by oxygen, silicon,
aluminum, sodium, and potassium.

© N. L. Bowen and others/ The Geological Society.

Mindanao State University – General Santos City Senior High School

Formation of Magma

Figure 6. Dry mantle rock is predominately solid. However, its melting point is dependent on the temperature and pressure the rock is
under. The higher the pressure (meaning the farther the rock is from the Earth’s surface), the more likely dry mantle rock is going to be
solid. Dry mantle rock under extreme pressure requires a much higher temperature to melt than dry mantle rock under less pressure. As
pressure drops (meaning as the rock rises towards the Earth’s surface), the required temperature to melt the mantle rock drops as well.
In image b, the comparison to dry mantle rock, wet mantle rock under the same amount of pressure (at the same distance from the earth’s
surface) requires a lower temperature to melt© Earle, S. and Panchuk, K./Physical Geology, 2nd ed.

Magmas are formed under certain circumstances in special locations deep within crust or in the
upper mantle. They are formed when conditions
are right to cause pre-existing solid Figure 4. The average elemental proportions in the Earth’s crust rocks to
from the largest amount to the smallest amount. Oxygen (46.6%),
melt. The common notion that crust floats over
Silicon (27.7%), Aluminum (8.1%), Iron (5.0%), Calcium (3.6%),
a sea of molten rocks is wrong Sodium (2.8%), Potassium (2.6%), Magnesium (2.1%), Others
because
the mantle is mostly solid. nd
(1.5%). © Earle, S. and Panchuk, K./Physical Geology, 2 ed.
The special conditions required for
the formation of magma (Marshak, et al, Essentials of Geology, 2013, pp 99-100):
a. Crust and mantle are almost entirely solid, indicating that magma only forms in special
places where pre-existing solid rocks undergo melting.
b. Melting due to decrease in pressure (decompression melting): The decrease in pressure
affecting a hot mantle rock at a constant temperature permits melting forming magma.
This process of hot mantle rock rising to shallower depths in the Earth occurs in mantle
plumes, beneath rifts and beneath mid-ocean ridges.
c. Melting as a result of the addition of volatiles (flux melting): When volatiles mix with hot,
dry rock, the volatile decreases the rock’s melting point and they help break the chemical
bonds in the rock to allow melting.
d. Melting resulting from heat transfer from rising magma (heat transfer melting): A rising
magma from the mantle brings heat with it that can melt the surrounding rocks at the
shallower depths.

Mechanisms for (a) decompression melting (the rock is moved toward the surface) and (b) flux melting
(water is added to the rock) and the melting curve is displaced

Figure 5. Common sites of magma formation in the upper mantle. The black circles are regions of partial melting. The blue arrows
represent water being transferred from the subducting plates into the overlying mantle. © Earle, S. and Panchuk, K./Physical
Geology, 2nd ed.
Mindanao State University – General Santos City Senior High School

Where does magma form?

Mid-oceanic ridges. The rising magma in mantle convection cell brings heat to the surface, transferring
heat to the overlying rocks. The transfer of heat due to the convection is accompanied by a decrease in
pressure or decompression associated with the spreading of the tectonic plates.
Mantle plumes. The transfer of heat and the compression result to magma generation. The source of heat
for mantle plumes is much deeper.
Subduction zone. Oceanic crustal rocks are formed along spreading centers, typically beneath several
kilometers of sea water.
Magmatic differentiation processes.
Magmatic differentiation is the process of creating one or more secondary magmas from single parent
magma (Tarbuck, E. J. et al Earth. An Introduction to Physical Geology, 2014, p138).
a. Crystal Fractionation –a chemical process by which the composition of a liquid, such as
magma, changes due to crystallization. Common mechanism for crystal fractionation is
crystal settling. This means that denser minerals crystallize first and settle down while the
lighter minerals crystallize at the latter stages.
b. Partial Melting - as described in Bowen’s reaction series, quartz and muscovite are
basically the most stable minerals at the Earth’s surface, making them the first ones to
melt from the parent
c. rock once exposed in higher temperature and/or pressure. Partial melting of an ultramafic
rock in the mantle produces a basaltic magma (Carlson, D. H., Plummer, C. C.,
Hammersley L., Physical Geology Earth Revealed 9th ed, 2011, p292).
d. Magma mixing – this may occur when two different magma rises up, with the more buoyant
mass overtakes the more slowly rising body. Convective flow then mixes the two magmas,
generating a single, intermediate (between the two parent magmas) magma (Tarbuck, E.
J. et al Earth. An Introduction to Physical Geology, 2014, p139)
Types of magma
1. Basaltic magma - is formed through dry partial melting of the mantle. The mantle lies just
below the crust of the earth. Basalts make up most of the ocean’s crust; this is why basaltic
magma is typically found in oceanic volcanoes. In order for the mantle to partially melt, the
geothermal gradient, or the change in the Earth’s temperature based on internal pressure
or depth, must be changed by some sort of mechanism, such as convection. Basaltic
magma is usually very dense and gets stopped in the continental crust rather than
reaching the surface, causing it to crystallize. This crystallization releases the basaltic
magma’s heat, causing the temperature of the continental crust to rise and melt. With
convection, hot mantle material rises closer to the Earth’s surface, raising the geothermal
gradient in the area. This causes the temperature in the earth’s mantle to rise, which
causes the mantle to partially melt. The partial melt contains both liquid and crystals that
need a higher temperature to melt. The liquid can be separated from the crystals, forming
basaltic magma.
2. Rhyolitic magma - forms as a result of wet melting of continental crust. Rhyolites are rocks
that contain water and minerals that contain water, such as biotite. The continental crust
must be heated above the normal geothermal gradient in order to melt. The most common
cause of a rise in temperature of continental crust is basaltic magma rising from the
mantle.
3. Andesitic magma - is formed through wet partial melting of the mantle. The mantle under
the ocean has contact with water. When subduction, or continental plates pulling away
from one another, occurs, the mantle will heat up and water is pushed into it. This causes
the melting temperature of the mantle to decrease, causing the mantle to begin partially
melting due to the heat. Basaltic magma with a high-water content is the result. If this type
of basaltic magma melts with continental crust that has a high density of dioxide silicon,
andesitic magma will form.
Mindanao State University – General Santos City Senior High School

PLUTONISM AND VOLCANISM

PLUTONISM the formation of intrusive igneous rock by solidification of magma beneath the earth's surface.
VOLCANISM the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of the Earth or a solid-
surface planet.
VOLCANO is a vent or opening on planet’s surface which allows molten rock called magma, volcanic ash
and gas to escape out onto its surface. A volcano gives a look like a mountain from which lava erupts. The
hot magma erupting from a volcano is called lava.
TECTONIC PLATES. Most volcanoes are formed by the movement of tectonic plates on the surface of the
earth. These plates are basically huge pieces of rock that ‘float’ on the mantle (a layer of the earth that is
sort-of liquid rock).

Crater – funnel shaped pit at the top of a volcano. formed when material is blown out of the volcano by
explosions.
Caldera – when the volcano collapses due to an empty magma chamber.

© SWATINANDY

Types of Volcano
COMPOSITE VOLCANOES often form the largest and tallest volcanoes. They are the most explosive
and dangerous of the types of volcanoes. (e.g. Mt. Mayon, Albay)
CINDER CONE VOLCANOES usually smaller in size than composite volcanoes, and the eruptions are
smaller also. They form into steep cone shaped hills. (e.g. Smith Volcano/Mount Babuyan, Babuyan
Island)
SHIELD VOLCANOES do not erupt or explode like composite or cinder cone volcanoes. Shield
volcanoes have much smaller eruptions producing less ash. (e.g. Muana Loa, Hawaii)

Gases and Pyroclasts

• Most of the gas released during eruption is water vapor
• Carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrochloric acid, are given off in
lesser amounts
• Surface water introduced into a volcanic system can greatly increase the explosivity of
an eruption.
Mindanao State University – General Santos City Senior High School

Types of Volcanic Eruptions

a. Phreatic or “steam-blast” eruption occurs when steam is produced from the contact of
cold groundwater with hot rock or magma. During phreatic eruptions, no new magma is
produced. Only fragments of preexisting solid rock in the volcano are expelled. Also known
as ultravulcanian eruption, the USGS says a phreatic eruption is “generally weak.” (e.g.
Phreatic eruption are Sunday's Taal Volcano eruption and Mayon Volcano's eruption in
2018)
b. Plinian eruption known as the most powerful type of eruption, a Plinian eruption is
characterized by continuous gas blasts and explosive ejection of viscous lava, gas-rich
magma, and large volumes of volcanic rock known as pumice. It can last less than a day
to several months. (e.g. 1991 Mt. Pinatubo Explosion, Zambales)
c. Pelean eruption. This type of eruption forms domes and glowing avalanches of hot ash
that flow down the sides of a volcano. Large quantities of gas, dust, ash, and lava
fragments are also produced from the volcano’s central crater, but rock particle deposits
known as tephra are generally less widespread than those from plinian eruptions. Still, a
Pelean eruption can be devastating especially if it takes place in populated areas. (e.g.
Mayon Volcano explosion in 1968)
d. Hawaiian eruption. In a Hawaiian eruption, fluid lava is ejected from a vent as fire
fountains or lava flows. The 1969 eruption at Mauna Ulu, a vent of Kilauea Volcano in
Hawaii, was a spectacular example of fire fountaining.
e. Strombolian eruption. Short bursts of glowing lava, created from the bursting of large
gas bubbles at the summit vent of a volcano typify a Strombolian eruption. This photo,
taken from the summit of Stromboli, a volcano in the Aeolian Islands, Italy, shows a classic
example of this activity. A strombolian activity can last up to a few years, according to
Oregon State University. (e.g. Mt. Stromboli eruption (August 2014))
f. Vulcanian eruption. Relatively small but violent explosions of viscous lava create
columns of ash and gas and occasional pyroclastic flows, as seen at this eruption of the
Santiaguito volcanic dome complex in Guatemala.
Types of Lava Flow
a. PAHOEHOE. A smooth and continuous lava crust. Pahoehoe forms when the effusion
rate is low and consequently the. velocity of lava flow is slow. Pahoehoe lava flow is
usually at least 10 times slower than typical aa lava flow.

© P. Mouginis-Mark.

b. AA. Aa lava is a rough rubbly crust of a lava flow. It is a major lava flow type.

© Alan Cressler

c. PILLOW LAVA. A distinctive lava flow morphology that has been appearing in our
dredges is pillow lava. Pillow lavas form when hot lava flows into water and cools rapidly,
creating long tubes and bulbous pillow-shaped mounds of rock. Pillow lavas are found not
only in the ocean but also under glaciers that overlie volcanoes.
Mindanao State University – General Santos City Senior High School

© NOAA Okeanos Explorer Program, Galapagos Rift Expedition 2011.

NOAA Photo Library.
d. BLOCKY. Blocky flows are common if the silica content of lavas is higher (composition
of basaltic andesite to rhyolite).

© Siim Sepp/sandatlas.org

METAMORPHISM (G. meta “change”, morph “form”)

Process of changing materials that make up the rock. The chemical components and geologic
characteristics of the rock change because of exposure to heat and pressure or by some chemically active
fluids.

Figure 7. Contact metamorphism (yellow rind) around a high-level crustal magma chamber, and regional
metamorphism in a volcanic-arc related mountain range. Dashed lines show isotherms. Source: Karla Panchuk
(2018) CC BY 4.0, modified after Steven Earle (2015) CC BY 4.0. ©Karla Panchuk (2018) CC BY 4.0, modified after
Steven Earle (2015) CC BY 4.0

Regional Metamorphism refers to large-scale metamorphism, such as what happens to continental crust
along convergent tectonic margins (where plates collide). The collisions result in the formation of long
mountain ranges. The deeper rocks are within the stack, the higher the pressures and temperatures, and
the higher the grade of metamorphism that occurs. Rocks that form from regional metamorphism are likely
to be foliated because of the strong directional pressure of converging plates.
Mindanao State University – General Santos City Senior High School

Figure 8. Regional metamorphism beneath a mountain range resulting from continent-continent collision. Arrows
show the forces due to the collision. Dashed lines represent temperatures that would exist given a geothermal
gradient of 30 ºC/km. A sequence of foliated metamorphic rocks of increasing metamorphic grade forms at
increasing depths within the mountains. Source: Karla Panchuk (2018) CC BY 4.0, modified after Steven Earle
(2015) CC BY 4.0.

Contact metamorphism happens when a body of magma intrudes into the upper part of the crust. Heat is
important in contact metamorphism, but pressure is not a key factor, so contact metamorphism produces
non-foliated metamorphic rocks such as hornfels, marble, and quartzite.

Summary chart of metamorphic rocks discussed in

this chapter, including the names of some of the
possible sedimentary rock and igneous rock
protoliths for each metamorphic rock. A
metamorphic rock can also be a protolith (e.g. a slate
can be a protolith for a schist). Source: Lyndsay
Hauber & Joyce M. McBeth (2018) CC BY 4.0 after
Karen Tefend (2015) CC BY-SA 3.0.

Compare and contrast the formation of the different types of igneous rocks
Igneous rocks formed when molten magma or lava cools. It can be intrusive igneous rocks and
intrusive igneous rocks.
Extrusive igneous rocks cool quickly and as a result these rocks are fined grained or lack crystal growth.
Intrusive Igneous rocks are formed from magma that cool slowly and as a result these rocks are coarse
grained.
Mindanao State University – General Santos City Senior High School

© E. J. Tarbuck and Dennis Tasa.

Main types of igneous rocks

The most widely used and simplest classification of igneous rocks is according to the silica (SiO 2)
content in the bulk rock composition. The most common types are shown in this table:

Weight % of SiO2 Plutonic rock type Volcanic rock equivalent

45-53 Gabbro Basalt
53-63 Diorite Andesite
63-68 Granodiorite Dacite
68-75 Granite Rhyolite

INTRUSIVE ROCKS
Gabbro. Gabbro is a silica-poor intrusive igneous (plutonic) rock chemically equivalent to basalt. It is
normally coarse-grained, dark and typically contains feldspar, augite and sometimes olivine.

Gabbro specimen; Rock Creek Canyon, eastern Sierra Nevada, California. (Wikimedia Commons) © Volcano Discovery.

Diorite. Diorite is an intrusive igneous rock composed principally of the silicate minerals plagioclase
feldspar (typically andesine), biotite, hornblende, and/or pyroxene. The chemical composition of diorite
is intermediate between gabbro and granite. It corresponds to the volcanic rock type andesite formed
when the same magma erupts to the surface and cools quickly.
Mindanao State University – General Santos City Senior High School

Diorite sample (image: Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons) © Volcano Discovery.

Granodiorite. Granodiorite is an intrusive igneous rock in composition intermediate between diorite and
granite. It typically contains more than 20% quartz by volume, a large amount of sodium (Na) and calcium
(Ca) rich plagioclase, minor amounts of muscovite mica, and biotite and amphiboles as the darker
minerals. The volcanic rock equivalent of granodiorite is dacite.

Granodiorite from Massif Central, France (image: Rudolf Pohl / Wikimedia Commons) © Volcano Discovery.

Granite. Granite, the equivalent of its extrusive (volcanic) rock type rhyolite, is a very common type of
intrusive igneous rock. It contains more than 68% weight % of silica in composition and is granular and
coarse-grained in texture. Its principal minerals are feldspars, quartz, and mica.
Granites can be predominantly white, pink, or gray in color, depending on their mineralogy.

Granite © Friman / Wikimedia Commons) © Volcano Discovery.

Pegmatite. Pegmatites are extreme igneous rocks that form during the final stage of a magma’s
crystallization.

Peridotite. Peridotite is a generic name used for coarse-grained, dark-colored, ultramafic igneous rocks.
Peridotites usually contain olivine as their primary mineral, frequently with other mafic minerals such
as pyroxenes and amphiboles.
Mindanao State University – General Santos City Senior High School

EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

Basalt. Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rock composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene
minerals. It most commonly forms as an extrusive rock, such as a lava flow, but can also form in small
intrusive bodies, such as an igneous dike or a thin sill. It has a composition similar to gabbro. The difference
between basalt and gabbro is that basalt is a fine-grained rock while gabbro is a coarse-grained rock.

Andesite. Andesite is the name used for a family of fine-grained, extrusive igneous rocks that are usually
light to dark gray in color. They often weather to various shades of brown, and these specimens must be
broken for proper examination. Andesite is rich in plagioclase feldspar minerals and may contain biotite,
pyroxenes, or amphiboles. Andesite usually does not contain quartz or olivine.

Dacite. Dacite is a fine-grained igneous rock that is normally light in color. It is often porphyritic. Dacite is
found in lava flows, lava domes, dikes, sills, and pyroclastic debris. It is a rock type usually found on
continental crust above subduction zones, where a relatively young oceanic plate has melted below.

Rhyolite. Rhyolite is an extrusive igneous rock with a very high silica content. It is usually pink or gray in
color with grains so small that they are difficult to observe without a hand lens. Rhyolite is made up of
quartz, plagioclase, and sanidine, with minor amounts of hornblende and biotite. Trapped gases often
produce vugs in the rock. These often contain crystals, opal, or glassy material.