FROM SAMPLING TO SIMULATION: THE BRGM RANGE

OF SOFTWARE FOR PROCESS ANALYSIS

J.-C. Guillaneau

J. Villeneuve

M.-V. Durance

S. Brochot

G. Fourniguet

H. Durand

BRGM - Process analysis group

Orléans, France

For presentation at the SME Annual Meeting

Denver, Colorado - February 24-27, 1997
 Page 1

Abstract. Since the beginning of the computing age, Fundamental Sampling Error and can be quantified
technical software packages have not been developed with the ECHANT 2 software (see figure 2).
to address only programming specialists but have been
dedicated to process engineers.
For process analysis, BRGM is developing and
commercialising three packages :
· sampling software: ECHANT 2.0 for Windows
· material balance calculation: BILCO 2.0 for
Windows
· steady-state simulator for plant design, adaptation
and optimisation : USIM PAC 2.1 for Windows

This paper deals in a first part with the main features of

these three packages. In a second part, advanced
models are presented for SAG/AG mills and flotation
columns. An industrial case of application is shown for
each of them.

ECHANT™ 2 for Windows :

A tool to help sampling
Figure 2. A flexible and configurable tool
Sampling: an approach that raises quality
A solution to concrete problems
Data of maximum reliability must be obtained before
Sampling of a batch of fragmented material, for
decisions can be made concerning:
example one that ranges from several hundred kilos to
Ä process development,
several tens of thousands of tons, generally consists of
Ä site diagnosis,
extracting a sample that weighs a few tens of grams.
Ä plant audits.
This sample is then handed to a chemist for analysis.
Such data generally are acquired by the measuring of
parameters obtained from individual samples; only
When a commercial interest is involved, splits of the
rarely are they based on batch measurements, e.g.
same sample usually are analysed by different
radioactivity and temperature. Sampling aims at
laboratories to guarantee precise knowledge of its
representing a batch of material through a small
chemical content. However, such results relate to the
fraction of it.
chemical content of the sample, and not necessarily that
of the batch as a whole. Furthermore, insufficient
Many factors can interfere with sampling, such as
attention is commonly paid to the sampling method
systematic bias, nugget effects, size of the components
employed.
sampled, type of sampling, etc. Therefore, a Sampling
Plan or Flowsheet must be adapted to the specific
A wide range of applications
characteristics of the batch and the units to be sampled,
Taking a small sample from a large batch generally is
i.e. content, concentration, humidity, size, etc. This
done according to a Sampling Plan, which consists of a
flowsheet helps overcome the problem of distribution
succession of sampling and fragmentation stages.
heterogeneity (see figure 1).
A preliminary study, based on Work by P. Gy, is used
to develop detailed sampling plans with a determined
level of accuracy in only a few minutes, or to evaluate
the accuracy of an existing plan. Either of two
objectives can be chosen:
Homogeneity of Heterogeneity of composition Ä develop a sampling plan with set fundamental-
composition and & total Heterogeneity of error limits,
distribution distribution Ä calculate the fundamental error of a proposed
sampling plan.
The study can also deal successively with both
objectives by developing an initial sampling plan with a
set tolerable error level, then, depending on the results
Heterogeneity of composition &
Homogeneity of distribution and equipment available, defining the most suitable
Figure 1. Heterogeneity of materials plan and calculating its fundamental error.

Despite the precautions taken during sampling, an

unavoidable error is introduced when the material has a
heterogeneous composition. This error is known as the
 Page 2
BILCOä 2 for Windows : Data reconciliation and
analysis by material balancing
The BILCO software offers an interactive, quick and
accurate way of solving material balance problems in a
vast number of applications. In just minutes, BILCO
can provide solutions for complex flowsheet problems
in mineral or food processing plants, chemical or
petrochemical plants.
BILCO can also be used for all types of balancing
problems for chemical analysis (fitting up to 100% and
estimating accuracy of analysis), mineralogy (fitting
with chemistry), definition of sampling strategies,
mixing and blending, etc.
Global or detailed material balances are the
fundamental means used to design and evaluate
processing plant operations. To establish balances for
flows in these plants, it is first necessary to obtain
experimental data such as flowrates, chemical
compositions and particle-size distributions (see fig. 3).
It is often difficult to calculate accurate balances from
these parameters for the following reasons:
1. Data is inconsistent and/or redundant due to
measuring errors,
2. Large numbers of equations are required to
establish a detailed balance in a complex plant.
BILCO overcomes these problems by simultaneously
using all the available data on plant streams to establish
a consistent material balance no matter how
complicated is the flowsheet.
Figure 3. BILCO example - description of the
measured values for a feed dtream
BILCO also uses a powerful algorithm to calculate the
accuracy of the estimates. This algorithm enables
computation and clear display of the accuracy of
calculated mass flowrates, component contents, mass
recovery and component recoveries for each stream. If
used before sampling, it helps define an efficient
sampling strategy. If used after sampling, it helps
economic assessment.
BILCO computes both calculated and balanced values,
and calculated values are always more or as accurate as
the measured values. The increase of accuracy is
quantified.
USIM PAC 2.1 Simulation Software : The
multipurpose tool for Process Engineer
USIM PAC 2 is designed for engineers in industrial
operations, engineering companies and technical
centres involved in the design and improvement of
mineral processing and hydrometallurgical plants. Its
main functions are data reconciliation, plant simulation,
optimisation, design and cost estimation from crushing
to refining.
USIM PAC 2.1 main features
USIM PAC 2 offers new powerful and easy-to-use
methods to help engineers reach their objectives. It
requires not special training in computing or modelling.
With its modular structure, USIM PAC 2 is
multifunctional. It can be used from acquisition of
experimental (laboratory, pilot- or industrial plant) data
to developing an optimal flowsheet and evaluating its
required investment. The methodology can be adapted
to varied problems.
USIM PAC 2 is supplied with more than 100 unit
operation mathematical models for plant simulation,
design and optimisation including comminution,
concentration and refining.
USIM PAC 2 allows the operator to add new functions,
such as incorporating icons and models into the
standard libraries with USIM PAC 2 Development Kit.
To cater for the diversity of users (different application
fields, countries, etc.) USIM PAC 2 is highly
configurable. Icon names and model parameters can be
easily modified to represent specific applications. Any
physical unit or currency can be adapted to the user's
needs.
Different methodologies
Plant Optimisation. In existing plants, USIM PAC 2 is
used to improve performance and evaluate new
projects. It reduces the number of industrial-scale tests,
which are both expensive and difficult to interpret.
USIM PAC 2 establishes detailed, coherent material
balance. This balance is not only a means of assessing
plant operation, but it puts the experimental data in a
form that can be used for model calibration.
From the coherent data, USIM PAC 2 calculates the
required parameters to adjust the mathematical models
to a particular material. This enables any process
engineer to perform modelling without special
assistance.
Plant Design & Cost Estimation. At the planning stage,
USIM PAC 2 makes the best use of laboratory and
 Page 3

pilot-plant experimental data and helps rapidly define

Maximum diameter
and compare a large number of alternative of extracted pebbles
configurations for the future plant. The simulator
optimises the sizes, shapes and main settings of the Extracted
primary plant equipment relative to the performance pebbles
Feed
required.
It also calculates the approximate capital cost of the Minimum diameter
of extracted pebbles
proposed configuration including unit costs of the main
equipment and cost of the plant as a whole. The user Particles
Size of the discharge
can select the currency and year. The financial data can grate openings :
easily be updated. - below = particles
- above = rocks

Advanced modelling in USIM PAC 2

Recently two advanced models have been developed
for Column flotation and Autogenous grinding. These
models have been included in the USIM PAC 2.1
software and their "operationability" is discussed
through examples of application.
SAG/AG mill modelling
SAG/AG mill modelling has been a challenge for years
because the comminution in the mill is essentially a
"natural" phenomenon, that is, a phenomenon for which
no major controlling variable has been identified. Three
main approaches have nevertheless allowed a more
rational design and steady-state optimisation of
SAG/AG milling circuits. These are the good old
"energetic approach", the "kinetic approach" and lately
the "database" approach. These approaches allow
respectively a growth in predictivity combined
unfortunately with a growth in experimental work
necessary to calibrate the models.
The philosophy which has been the guideline in the
USIM PAC modelling effort may be summarised with:
"predictive but usable". It has always been difficult to
find the equilibrium between the necessary
simplifications of theory and the uncertainties caused
by the amount of complex experiments allowing to use
the theory.
The model presented below is a compromise between
the "spreadsheets" models which just give rough
indications of performances and very precise but very
"heavy" models. It is within a range of models in USIM
PAC including simple flowsheeting models and the
Herbst approach (Herbst, 1989, Blot, 1991).
The example of the simulation of the industrial circuit
of Igarape-Bahia shows how it combines a good
predictivity with a relatively easy use.
Theoretical background
This model combines a first order kinetic approach for
particles below the size of the discharge grate, a wear
function for the rocks, and a classification function for
pebbles extraction.
Figure 4: Schematic diagram of the different
populations of particles in the SAG/AG mill.
Wear of the rocks.
The wear of rocks is considered analogous to that of
balls studied by Austin (Austin, 1987).
· Main assumption.
The mass produced by abrasion per unit time is
expressed as :
dm
= r 4pr 2+ D × V0 (16)
dt
where :
r : radius of the bloc being weared (unit of length),
D : can range from 0 if the wear is proportional to the
surface to 0.999 if the wear is proportional to the
volume,
V0 : Wear rate constant, which unit depends on D
((unit of r)/s if D=0),
r : specific gravity of the material.
This expression means that the mass produced by
abrasion per unit time is proportional to the mass of the
rock if D is almost 1, and proportional to its surface
area if D=0. The coefficient D is generally around 0.6.
The abrasion of a rock generates fines (below the
discharge grate opening) and other rocks which fall into
the size class just below.
· Mass balance of rocks.
The mass balance over one size class of rocks when the
mill is operated steadily can be expressed as:
Variation of mass per unit time = feed flowrate +
flowrate of production from the size class just above -
flowrate of disappearance by abrasion - flowrate
extracted.
This equation is:
for D¹1:

The terms employed to characterise the different

fragments of the feed are represented in the figure 4.
 Page 4

0 = Qfi + L : mill length.

æ ri ö
3 ö
ç mi - 1. æç ÷ ÷ Distribution of fines produced by abrasion.
ç è ri - 1 ø mi ÷ The fines are distributed according to their distribution
(1- D ) Vç 1- D 1- D
- 1- D 1- D ÷
- Qexti
çç ( r i - 1) - ( ri) ( ri) - ( ri + 1)
÷÷
function determined with four parameters:
gj bj
è ø æ Bsupi ö æ Bsupi ö
Bi, j = jj.ç ÷ + (1 - jj).ç ÷ (22)
(17) è Drefab ø è Drefab ø
where : where:
Qfi : feed flowrate (kg/s), Bi,j : fraction of fines produced by wear of rocks of
Qexti : extracted flowrate (kg/s), component j which report to size class i
V : abrasion rate (unit of r1-D/s), Bsupi : upper size of size class i,
m : mass of rocks (kg), jj : adjustable parameter,
r : radius of a rock (whatever unit of length), gj : adjustable parameter,
i : index of the size class. bj : adjustable parameter,
Drefab : adjustable parameter.
· Influence of mill diameter on abrasion rate.
The value of V is determined by: The parameters jj and bj depend on the mill filling
V = V 0.D 0.66 (18) according to the relations:
where: jj = jj.(1+ 5. (Pp-0.2)) (23)
V0 : wear rate of the rocks, bj = bj.(1+ 5. (Pp-0.2)) (24)
D : mill diameter. if the mill filling is between 0.1 and 0.5.

· Pebbles extraction. Starting with size class 1 (top size), the mass of rocks
The rocks which diameter is between a maximum and a in each size class is calculated.
minimum diameters corresponding to the apertures of This calculation allows the total holdup to be
the grates for pebbles extraction are considered to be determined, the holdup of rocks in the critical size, and
"critical". the flowrate of production of fines by abrasion.
The two grates for pebbles extraction are represented Even simple, this description of the behaviour of the
by two classification functions expressed by: rocks allows a predictive calculation of the holdup
1 using mainly one parameter, V0, which has to be
ci = if xi < x50
a "calibrated" with measurements of the volumetric
æ x50 ö (19)
1+ ç ÷ filling of the mill.
è xi ø
ci = 1 if xi ³ x50 Power calculation.
where: The power calculation is the following (Austin, 1990):
ci : proportion of feed to the coarse product,
PW = 10.6.D 2.5 .L.(1-1.03.Pp) ×
a : slope of the classification,
x50 : size at which 50% of the feed report to the coarse æ rs æ rs ö ö * æç 0.1 ö÷
product, ç (1 - e ). .Pp + 0.6.Pb. ç rb - ÷ ÷ . N . ç1 - * ÷
è csol è csol ø ø è 2 ( 9-10N ) ø
xi : geometric mean diameter of rocks in size class i.
(25)
The grate for the way back of fines into the mill is where :
considered as perfect, that is ci = 0 if xi < x50. PW : Calculated power (kW),
The flowrate of extracted pebbles is supposed to be e : porosity of the load, typically 0.3,
proportional to their mass in the mill. The global rb : specific gravity of balls (ton/m3),
expression is: rs : mean specific gravity of rocks (ton/m3),
Qexti = mi.Cmaxi.(1- Cmini ).effi (20) csol : weight fraction of rocks in rocks+water,
Pp : fractional volume filled with the load of rocks,
where:
Pb : fractional volume filled with balls,
Cmax : classification by the extraction grate,
N* : fraction of critical speed.
Cmin : classification by the return grate,
effi : extraction efficiency.
Grinding of the ore.
The ore is ground according to the kinetic description
The extraction efficiency depends on the length of the
of grinding, assuming the compensation hypothesis
mill according to:
(Herbst, Bascur, 1979).
æ Dpebmax ö The coefficients of the selection function are
effi = aeffi. ç ÷ (21)
è L ø determined by adjustment on the basis of grinding data
where: from continuous pilot-scale or industrial site grinding.
aeffi : adjustment parameter, playing the role of a · the selection function S is modelled by the
kinetic constant, following form:
Dpebmax : maximum diameter of the rocks in the mill,
 Page 5

æ 0.8 mm screen for the removal of occasional

d ö ö
2
Pu d æ
S i = S1E . .expç z1.ln i + z 2 ç ln i ÷ ÷ (26) organic materials. The overflow is sent to a third
Hpart ç d iref è d iref ø ÷ø
è stage of comminution in ball mills.
where: · Grinding in a ball mill: this is the third grinding
d : mean diameter of the particles in the particle stage. The mill product is pumped to the same
i vibrating screen which removes the SAG grinding
size class i,
Hpart : holdup of particles in the mill, organic material. The undersize of this screen is
S1E, z1, z2 : selection function parameters, the final product of the three comminution stages,
diref : reference size, and is sent to CIP circuit. Its oversize is fed back
Pu : useful power. to the mill. Thus the ball mill operates in closed
Pu is calculated from the following formula: circuit with the screen, only the top-size of the
product sent to leaching and CIP circuit being
limited.
æ H - Hcrit - Hball ö
Pu = PW.ç ÷ (27)
è H - Hball ø
After the expansion of the comminution circuit, the
where: plant of Igarapé Bahia began to operate with two
H : total holdup in the mill, parallel lines. Each of them had the SAG grinding
Hcrit : holdup of particles in the critical size circuit modified from an open circuit to a closed circuit
(pebbles), with the conic crushing.
Hball : holdup of balls.
The two first stages of grinding are represented on the
· the transport of material in the mill is characterised figure 5. The splitter allows the simulations to be made
by a series of two perfect mixers which respective in closed or in open circuit.
volumes are determined by an adjustable parameter.
The discharge grate creates an internal circulating
Run of mine
load in the second mixer. 1

Application of the SAG/AG mill model 1 11

2

3
Basically, the parameters which determine the 2
capabilities of the model for sizing purposes are those 3
4
10
of equations 16 (wear rate) and 25 (power calculation). Splitter

When trying to calibrate the model, these parameters 4 9

5
have to be determined first. The most important is V0. 6

Once the relations between power, percent filling and To ball mill
8 7
6
wear rate have been adjusted, the second step of the 7 5
calibration of the model is to fit the parameters of the
breakage and selection functions. The fit should IGARAPE - BAHIA SAG mill circuit
normally be very good, at least graphically.
Figure 5: Flowsheet of the two first stages of
comminution.
Description of the Igarape-Bahia comminution circuit.
CVRD-IGARAPE-BAHIA plant is located in
Experimental tests and sampling
Parauapebas, state of Para, Brazil. This plant processes
Several tests under several operational conditions were
gold ore and produces around 1.000 pounds (450 kgs)
aimed at determining the grinding performance level
of gold monthly. It has been revised and amplified
and enable the construction of a simulator for SAG
since 1994 and nowadays its production is about 2000
grinding.
pounds (900 kilograms). Originally, the Igarapé-Bahia
The sampling campaign has been directed to tests with
gold ore is comminuted in three stages to feed the
a type of ore considered as an average of the mine. The
leaching and CIP (Carbon In Pulp) circuit. These three
experimental tests have been elaborated by varying the
comminution stages are:
feeding rate and percentage of solids in the mill as
· Primary crushing: it is the first stage and is put into
independent variables. The power and the particle size
practice by means of ROM (Run of mine)
distributions of the sampled flows around the mill were
crushing, by using vibrating screen for scalping
measured. The sampling was in standard conditions of
and a jaw crusher size 80 x 50 cm.
usual operation, that is, only the pulp density being
· Semi-autogenous grinding: it is the second
controlled. It was selected two sampling campaigns for
comminution stage and receives all the ore fed in
the calibration of USIM PAC. Both of them had the
the mill, after having been reduced in the primary
same blending of the types of the ore related with their
crushing below 4" to 7". The SAG mill, measuring
hardness according to the usual classification at that
3.5 m in diameter and 3.5 m in length, is processed
time. The basic difference between these campaigns is
in open circuit with a ball load of approximately
the particle size distribution of the feed stream. The top
15%. The SAG grinding product is sent to the 20"
size of the feed stream of the grinding stream were
hydrocyclone. The cyclone underflow is sent to a
 Page 6

10.16 cm (4") and 20.32 cm (8") respectively. The phenomena in the mill, and to give an estimation of the
main objective of these campaigns was to study the precision of the predictions.
influence of the particle size of the feed stream on the Figure 8 shows the prediction of the size distribution of
grinding efficiency. product compared to the measured one on a different
set of data (flowrate +16%, %solids +14%).
Model calibration.
The investigation was made of the residence time 100.0
Size distribution curve

distribution in the mill from tests with NaCl (sodium 90.0

chloride). The SAG grinding of Igarapi-Bahia has the 80.0
same behaviour of one to two mixers connected in
70.0
series and the average residence time of the particles

Cumulative Passing (%)

was between 3 and 4 minutes, which was used to 60.0

estimate the actual porosity of the load assumed to be 50.0

filled with pulp. 40.0

30.0

The power was calibrated first with all available data 20.0
Sag mill feed (Experiment #12)
sets. A value of the abrasion rate constant was deduced. 10.0 Sag mill product (Experiment #12)

As shown in figure 6, the power predicted is satisfying. 0

Sag mill product (Simulated)

10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000

Particle size (µm)
Calculated and measured power
Figure 8. Validation of kinetics
560

540
It can be seen that the model is adapted to describe the
520
performance of this mill, and that its precision far away
500
from the calibration point is good enough to study the
Power (kW)

480
Measured power

460 Simulated power

influence of the main variables.
440
It was made the simulation of two different top size of
420
the feed stream, which had as the main objective the
400
comparative evaluation of the grinding phenomena. It
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
was also investigated the % solids influence in the
Volumetric filling (%)
grinding. With the simulation results, it was possible to
Figure 6. Prediction of power
evaluate the comparative performance in each case.
This task would be nearly impossible using only
Once the power is calibrated, the kinetic parameters for
experimental tests because of the strong non-linear
the grinding of particles can be fitted. The results of the
behaviour of these variables in the grinding. It is quite
calibration of the model have showed that the predicted
difficult to quantify the influence of each variable on
and the experimental data fit very well. The figure 7
the global performance of the grinding by the use of
presents some results of this calibration with the
operational tests.
particle size distribution of the measured and predicted
Considering that the model had been properly
products.
calibrated in controlled situations the simulation
Size distribution curve
allowed to compare the grinding performance of those
100.0 tests. It must be emphasised that the ore fed had the
90.0 same mineralogical characteristics.
80.0 The following list presents the variables examined for
the comparative performance of each situation:
Cumulative Passing (%)

70.0

60.0 · influence of the diaphragm opening of the SAG

50.0 mill,
40.0
· influence of the ball load in the SAG mill,
30.0
· modification of the circuit configuration,
20.0
· study of the influence of the particle size
Sag mill feed (experiment #13)
Sag mill product (experiment #13)
distribution on the product, in the ball milling
10.0
Sag mill product (Simulated) circuit, CIP (carbon in pulp) and the global process
0
10 100 1000 10000
Particle size (µm)
100000 1000000 performance.
The simulations have shown:
Figure 7: Sag mill model calibrated with test #13.
· the biggest grinding capacity (SAG) could be
reached from the feed with the biggest top size,
Simulation
· the installed power is sufficient.
Before using the SAG model, just calibrated, to make
The main conclusion was:
predictive calculations, it is necessary to validate the
· The SAG grinding model can represent with good
calibration with other data sets. The validation provides
accuracy the operation performance and it has been
two very important conditions on which rely the
shown to be a very effective tool for investigating
confidence of the simulation. These are : to check that
the model’s formulation takes into account the basic
 Page 7

the options which can be used to enhance or adapt where:

the process. R1 : recovery in the collection zone,
R2 : recovery in the intermediate zone,
Column flotation model R3 : recovery in the froth.
Column flotation has been widely studied during the
last 15 years. Its original aspects compared to
conventional flotation cells are the addition of washing Collection zone.
water at the top of the froth, the absence of mechanical In the collection zone, the flotation is a first order
agitation and consequently the presence of a specially kinetic phenomenon with limitation of the recovery per
designed system for bubble generation. These component when gas carrying capacity is exceeded.
characteristics make the flotation process occurring The transport is represented by the axial dispersion
inside the vertical tube a "soft" mechanism where the model, which gives, after integration combined with a
phenomenon relies more on the intrinsic properties of first order transfer phenomenon:
the bubbles-solution-particles system than on a forced æ 1 ö
"energy-supply" dependent mechanism. 4a.expç ÷
è 2 Np ø
Numerous models have already been developed for R1 = (2a)
column flotation. One of the main limit in the practical 2 æ a ö 2 æ -a ö
(1 + a ) .expç ÷ - (1 - a ) .expç ÷
application of these existing models is that it is often è 2 Np ø è 2 Np ø
necessary to refer to the model-builder expertise to get with:
some practical results for sizing or optimizing column
a = 1 + 4. k. Tp. Np (2b)
flotation circuits. The main scope of the application
presented here has been to produce an operational where:
model for design and steady-state optimization usable k : kinetic constant per mineral and size class (1/s),
with the data currently available at pilot or industrial Tp : residence time per mineral and size class (s),
scale. Np : vessel dispersion number.

Theoretical background · The particles residence time is calculated

The column is considered to be made of three zones: according to:
the collection zone between the air injection point and æ ul ö
the feed point, the intermediate zone between the feed Tp = Tl. ç ÷ (3)
è ul + usp ø
point and the interface, and the froth zone between the
where:
interface and the top (Figure 9).
Tp : particle residence time (s),
Tl : liquid residence time in the collection zone (s),
water concentrate ul : liquid superficial velocity in the collection zone
(m/s),
froth First order kinetics of detachment usp : particle terminal settling velocity relative to the
R3 Plug flow
liquid (m/s).
interface Recovery at interface
R2 æ Hc(1 - eg ö
Tl = ç ÷ (4)
feed è ul ø
First order kinetics of flotation where:
Axial dispersion Hc : height of the collection zone (m),
collection
Maximum carrying capacity
eg : gas fractional holdup in the collection zone
R1
(given by the user).

Ul = ufl + ubias (5)

air tailings where:
ufl : superficial velocity of feed liquid (m/s),
Figure 9. The three zones of the column and the ubias: bias superficial velocity (m/s) (given by the
corresponding phenomena. user).

In each zone, a recovery per mineral and per size class The calculation of terminal particle settling velocity in
is calculated. The total recovery (Rtot) per mineral is the liquid is iterative:
then computed for the three reactors in series according g. dp 2 .( rs - r1).(1 - Fs ) 2.7
to the general formula: usp =
18. m1.(1 + 015. .Re p 0.687 )
(6)
R1. R 2. R 3 iterations dp. usp. rs.(1 - Fs )
Rtot = (1) ¬¾¾¾® Re p =
1 - R1.(1 - R 2) - R1. R 2.(1 - R3) m1
where:
g : acceleration due to gravity (m/s2),
 Page 8

ml : liquid viscosity (kg/m.s), The recovery R1 is then only applied to the floating
rl : liquid density (kg/m3), sub-population. This allows to take into account a
rs : solid density (kg/m3), proportion of unliberated particles which will not be
Fs : volume fraction of solids in the slurry, collected (Villeneuve, 1995).
dp : particle diameter (m),
Rep : particle Reynolds number. Intermediate zone.
A recovery R2 per component may be specified to
· The kinetic constant is defined according to: account for the effect of the interface. It has been
3 ug introduced as another limitation of the flotation due to
k i, j = × × Pi, j (7a) poorly liberated particles: the particles which are very
2 db
weakly attached to the bubbles are not carried into the
2 AK æ æ dp i ö ö÷
1.5
æ dp i ö ç froth when the bubbles collide the surface of the froth.
Pi, j = a j ç ÷ ç
× 1- ç ÷ (7b) This phenomenon is not of clear evidence and its
è db ø ç è d max j ÷ø ÷
è ø effects may only be measured with an appropriate
where: device, but some authors (Yianatos, 1988) agree on the
i : index of size class, fact that "something" happens at the interface and
j : index of mineral, causes locally a loss of flotation efficiency.
ki,j : flotation rate constant (1/s),
Pi,j : probability of flotation, Froth zone.
ug : gas superficial velocity (m/s), In the froth zone the main phenomenon considered is
db : diameter of bubbles (m), detachment. From the work of Yianatos, a first order
dpi : particle diameter (m), kinetics of detachment combined with a plug flow
dmaxj : maximum size of floating particles (m), behavior of bubbles gives the recovery.
aj : adjustment constant. R 3 = e - kd .Tz (11)
AK : adjustment for the effect of particle size. where:
kd : detachment rate constant (1/s)
The diameter of bubbles may be specified by the user. Tz : residence time of bubbles in the froth (s).
If this parameter is not known, the following equations
relating the gas holdup and the gas flowrate are used: The residence time Tz is calculated according to:
0.687 zf
18. m1. usb.(1 + 015
. .Re b
db =
g.( r1 - rg ).(1 - eg ) m -1
(8)
ò eg( z)dz
0
Tz = (12)
db. usb. r1.(1 - eg )
iterations ug
¬¾¾¾® Re b =
m1 where:
ug ul eg(z) : fractional gas holdup at level z.
usb = + (9)
eg 1 - eg
The value of the fractional holdup at the interface (level
where:
0) is given by the user. A normal value of 55 to 60 %
db : bubbles diameter (cm),
corresponds to a packed bed of spheres. The fractional
ml : liquid viscosity (g/cm.s), holdup is supposed to vary according to a parabolic
rl : liquid density (g/cm3), profile until it reaches the value at the concentrate lip
rg : gas density (g/cm3), (level zf).
g : acceleration due to gravity (cm/s2), The fractional gas holdup is calculated knowing the
eg : fractional gas holdup, superficial velocity of water in the concentrate and its
m : usually equal to 3, (Ref.), water content:
usb : slip velocity between liquid and bubbles (cm/s), ug
ug : superficial gas velocity (cm/s), eg( zf ) = (13)
ulc
ul : superficial liquid velocity (cm/s). ug +
pw
· The vessel dispersion number is: where:
0.63 ulc : superficial velocity of water in the concentrate
a æ Dc ö æ ug.(1 - eg ) ö (m/s),
Np = ×ç ÷ ×ç ÷ (10)
è
0.6 Hc ø è ul ø pw : percent water in the concentrate.
where:
a : adjustment parameter, The superficial velocity of water in the concentrate is
Dc : column diameter (m). obtained by:
ulc = uw - ubias (14)
Each mineralogical component is divided into floating where uw: superficial velocity of wash water (m/s).
and non-floating sub-populations. The floating sub-
population represents the maximum proportion of each
mineral which may be recovered.
 Page 9
Industrial application of the column model : flowsheet
optimization
The control of the operation of a plant is often made
trough control sheets where the essential information
concern factors related to mechanical constraints,
breakdowns prevention, reagents and energy
consumption. The aim of this example is to show that
the control of metallurgical performance may be made
with very few data from sampling using simulation.
Brief description of the process
The installation of the ore treatment of MBR - Pico
project has a capacity of 8,400,000 tons of ROM (dry
base) per year. It produces four iron ore specific
products: lump ore, hematitinha, sinter feed and pellet
feed fines. These products differ from each other on
chemical characteristics and size:
· the product lump ore (LO) is a coarse product
meant for direct reduction.
· the hematitinha has characteristics close to lump
ore, having narrower range of size (- 1/2 inch + 1/4
inch) and is sold on the Brazilian internal market
for direct reduction.
· the product sinter feed is located approximately
below 1/4 inch and above 100 mesh Tyler, and is
meant for sintering.
· the product pellet feed fines is within the range -
100 mesh Tyler and + 20 µm approximately.
This last product is obtained through classification/mud
removal by cycloning and concentrated in a flotation
circuit in columns in two stages. The other products are
obtained through crushing and classification in
vibrating screen and spiral classifiers.
MBR-Pico's flotation operates as a reverse process, the
silica which contaminates the ore being floated and the
sunk hematite is mainly the useful material.
The flotation concentrate feeds a filtering circuit, the
filter cake being carried and piled up, composing the
product pellet feed fines. The efficiency of silica
removal is a key factor for the quality of this product.
Data analysis
The flotation circuit is represented in figure 10.
MBR - PICO mines Flotation circuit
Washing Water
Tailings 7 6
3 5
1 -10-10
Feed
2 First output (%)
1 2
4 Figure 11. Split curve of the circuit
Concentrate
Figure 10. Two stages flotation for silica removal.
Three sampling campaigns have been made to get the
chemical analysis per size of all the streams of this
circuit for three different days. The feed flowrate
(stream 1) is well known but the other flowrates are
only rough estimates.
The first operation to valorize the measurements is to
determine a reliable material balance for each
campaign. This has been done in two steps: firstly, the
approximate flowrates of all the streams have been
calculated using the "split curve concept", and
secondly, the entire sets of data have been made
coherent using the "statistically coherent material
balance" algorithm included in USIM PAC, equivalent
to the BILCOÔ one.
The split curve is an engineering tool based on the
conservation of total and partial flowrates. In our
example, we have the following relations:
Q
X 4 - X1 = 3 ( X1 - X 3 )
Q4
(15)
Q5
X4 - X2 = (X 2 - X5 )
Q4
where:
Qi : flowrate of stream i.
Xi : grade per size in stream i.
The plot in figure 11 allows to have an idea of the ratio
Q3/Q4 (slope of the linear regression), and knowing
Q1, to have the values of these flowrates.
The plot in figure 12 allows to have an idea of the ratio
Q5/Q4, and knowing Q4, to have the values of the
flowrates in streams 2 and 5.
It should be noted that the dispersion of the measured
fractions and grades gives an idea of the incoherence of
the data. All the data should normally be on the straight
line. The incoherence is caused by sampling errors,
sieving and analysis errors, non stationarity of the
circuit. It may be reduced, but always exists when
getting data from an industrial operation.
Sampling of the 1st day
10
Second output (%)
0
Experimental data
-5 Coherent data
-5 0 5 10
Once the flowrates have been estimated as described
above, a complete material balance is available.
Unfortunately, the data are still incoherent. The
reconciliation of the data is performed by the material
balance algorithm
 Page 10

Split curve Partition curve

100
21.11 Rougher/Hematite
10
21.11 Rougher/Silica
21.11 Rougher/Gangue
80

5 60

(%)
40

20

-5 1 10 100 1000
21.11 (Input: 2, First output: 5, Second output: 4) Split in the second Particle size (µm)
Linear regression

Partition curve
100
21.11 Cleaner/Hematite
-10
-10 -5 0 5 10 21.11 Cleaner/Silica
First output (%) 21.11 Cleaner/Gangue
80

Figure 12. Split curve of the cleaning column.

60

Adjustment of the models

40
One of the basic hypothesis of the models for steady
state simulation is that all partial flowrates of minerals
per size class are conserved. So even if the estimates 20

are not the "true" values, they are inside the tolerance
limits given by the degree of incoherence of the initial 1 10 100 1000
Particle size (µm)
data, and will be used to adjust the flotation column st
models. Figure 13. Data of the 1 day : Partition of size classes
There are not enough data here to consider the three per mineral in rougher and cleaner.
zones of the column. The calibration of the models will
Partition of size classes per mineral in rougher
be aimed at providing a description of the selectivity of 100
31.10 Rougher/Hematite
the separation resulting from differential collection 31.10 Rougher/Silica

rates of the minerals. 80

31.10 Rougher/Gangue

The experimental separation is shown on the partition

60
curves of figures 13 and 14.
(%)

The two models have been calibrated with the data of 40

the first day. The results of the simulation are shown in

table 1 and figure 15. 20

Ore flowrate Hematite grade Silica grade

(t/h) (%) (%) 1 10
Particle size (µm)
100 1000

Stream # SIM COH SIM COH SIM COH Partition curve

100
1 400 400 93 93 5.87 5.87 31.10 Cleaner/Hematite
31.10 Cleaner/Silica
2 296 299 95.8 95.8 2.85 2.75 31.10 Cleaner/Gangue
3 137 136 86.4 86.2 13 13.4 80

4 263 264 96.4 96.5 2.14 2

5 33.4 35.5 91.3 90.8 8.42 8.36 60

Table 1. Flowrates and grades in the simulated and the

coherent data files. 40

It is interesting to note the "bell shaped" partition in the 20

rougher column which tend to show that the definition

of the influence of size in the collection probability
1 10 100 1000
(equation 7b) is well adapted. It appears on the curves Particle size (µm)
rd
that the maximum size of floating particles (dmax) is Figure 14. Data of the 3 day : Partition of size classes
approximately 350 µm. The "level" of the separation per mineral in rougher and cleaner.
will depend on the parameter a and the shape of the
bell on the parameter AK. It is to be noted that, even if these results appear
satisfying, they represent a "fit" of a kinetic equation on
only one working point. The kinetic parameters
 Page 11

obtained are presumably not correct, but at least they Conclusion

allow a representation of the operation of the plant, and
most of all, they give an idea of the differential This paper has presented the main features of three
flotation kinetics between the minerals. packages developed and commercialised by BRGM for
The simulator obtained here is only the first process analysis:
"calibrated" simulator. Before been used, it needs to be · sampling software: ECHANT 2.0 for Windows,
"validated". We will use the data of the other days, · material balance calculation: BILCO 2.0 for
particularly the 3rd, which are different enough from the Windows,
data used for calibration. · steady-state simulator for plant design, adaptation
and optimisation : USIM PAC 2.1 for Windows,
Validation of the simulator and two advanced models used for industrial process
The first run of the simulation with the "calibrated optimisation with only industrial data:
simulator" does not give so good results: table 2 gives · SAG/AG mill model
these results. · column flotation model.

100
Size distribution of the products The three packages cover a complete methodology for
data collection and analysis. It has been outlined that:
· sampling theory allows to reduce the errors during
80
collection of experimental data and gives the
Silica in tailings - simulated minimum error that cannot be reduced,
Cumulative Passing (%)

60
Silica in tailings - coherent data
Silica in concentrate - coherent data
· data reconciliation with coherent material balance
Silica in concentrate - simulated calculation is a key factor to obtain coherent data
40
which are more precise than experimental ones,
· predictive phenomenological models can be used
with these coherent data at a precision level which
20
is of the same order as the precision of data.

0
1 10 100 1000
The USIM PAC software allows the total integration of
Particle size (µm) all unit operations and can be used to study and
Figure 15. Results of the adjustment of the models on understand the global process. The models described in
the first set of data. this paper completes the range of SAG/AG mill and
flotation models, from very simple ones to rather
Ore flowrate Hematite grade Silica grade phenomenological ones. These several models allow to
(t/h) (%) (%) adapt the objectives of the simulation according to the
Stream # SIM COH SIM COH SIM COH available data.
1 342 342 93 93 5.05 5.05
2 248 287 95.4 94.0 2.32 4.39 The advanced models have been designed to be used
3 124 108 88.0 85.7 11.0 10.9 with different kinds of data: pilot plant data or
4 218 234 95.8 96.3 1.67 2.36 industrial data. It is shown how they can be used to
5 30.1 52.6 92.5 83.7 7.0 13.4 simulate an industrial operation starting with relatively
Table 2. First set of flowrates and grades for the few and partial data: they need a calibration which has
validation point. to be refined with validation tests, according to the
precision needed for the simulation study.
The calibration should be improved by fitting the
models with the data of the 3rd day. This is not the aim In the applications, the quality of the simulators
here. What is interesting to note is that for the cost of obtained depends on three main factors: the quality of
one sampling campaign and a few days of data the data, the ability of the model to represent the data
treatment, it is possible to obtain a simulator which and the validation on at least another operating point.
predicts the operation at a flowrate of -15% from the
calibration point with a mean precision of 20%, which
Acknowledgements
is rather good for the first calibration.
The use of the simulator after this first calibration for The authors wish to thank CEMI, MBR and CVRD for
the optimization of the industrial circuit should publishing the results of their studies. This paper is the
consider this order of magnitude of its precision. If the BRGM contribution n°97010 for which the work was
objective does not suffer this precision, the quality of in part financed by a BRGM research project.
the simulator can be greatly improved by using more
data sets obtained in different operating conditions or
also more precise data, particularly concerning the
flowrates.
 Page 12

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