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Sport-related branded entertainment: the Red Bull phenomenon

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DOI: 10.1108/SBM-06-2016-0023

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 Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal
Sport-related branded entertainment: the Red Bull phenomenon
Reinhard E. Kunz, Franziska Elsässer, James Santomier,
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Journal, Vol. 6 Issue: 5, pp.520-541, doi: 10.1108/SBM-06-2016-0023
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SBM
6,5
Sport-related branded
entertainment: the
Red Bull phenomenon
520 Reinhard E. Kunz and Franziska Elsässer
Department of Media Management and Sport Media, Universitat Bayreuth,
Bayreuth, Germany, and
James Santomier
Department of Marketing and Sport Management, Sacred Heart University,
Fairfield, Connecticut, USA
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Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to introduce a conceptual model of branded entertainment into
sport marketing and highlight Red Bull’s strategy as a “best practice”. Branded entertainment, the full
integration of advertising into entertainment content, is an innovative marketing strategy that can
provide sport enterprises and sponsors with consumer attention and engagement.
Design/methodology/approach – Branded entertainment was theoretically framed and
conceptualised. Using an inductive approach Red Bull’s portfolio of self-generated action/extreme
sport content as well as its production, distribution and viral processes were analysed.
Findings – A communication model of sport-related branded entertainment was developed to
distinguish actors such as athletes, sponsors, and co-operating companies, traditional and new (sport)
media as well as sport consumers and prosumers and analyse their actions and relationships.
Research limitations/implications – This study is limited to Red Bull’s branded entertainment
activities. However, a thorough conceptualisation and analysis of branded entertainment and findings
of unique characteristics and anomalies related to branded sport entertainment allows academics and
professionals to understand and apply the concept.
Practical implications – The research theme triggers a dialogue and encourages marketing
practitioners to consider alternative ways to engage their target audiences and expand their integrated
communication strategies via a unique and dynamic promotional tool.
Originality/value – This paper contributes to the sport value framework by addressing “value
co-creation” in a sport media and marketing context. By highlighting the Red Bull phenomenon as an
innovative approach a successful integration of branding and sponsorship activities into sport
entertainment content production, distribution and viral marketing is presented.
Keywords Sport marketing, Action/extreme niche sport, Branded entertainment,
Content marketing, Media communication
Paper type Conceptual paper

Sport, Business and Management:
An International Journal
Vol. 6 No. 5, 2016
pp. 520-541
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited
2042-678X
DOI 10.1108/SBM-06-2016-0023
Introduction
The internet, mobile devices and social network sites (SNS) enhance the possibilities for
organisations to create and strengthen their brands (Weeks et al., 2008). Smartphones
and tablets as well as digital applications (apps) provide various options to receive as
well as create content (Benigni et al., 2014). Formerly passive consumers are now
“prosumers” (Toffler, 1980) that are able to actively access time-shifted and geo-shifted
sport content online as well as proactively create and share content themselves.
Consumer behaviour and media usage are changing and more research focussed on
The authors would like to thank the editors and the three anonymous reviewers for their helpful
comments, support and constructive suggestions on a previous draft.
 “the relationship of program and content brands” is required (Krebs and Siegert, 2015, Sport-related
p. 45; Chan-Olmsted and Shay, 2015). branded
The current marketing environment is characterised by “fragmentation” of
audiences, “media overflow” and “information overload”. Thus, marketers are
entertainment
challenged to think beyond traditional advertising strategies. “Branded
entertainment” is an innovative strategy that to date has not been addressed
sufficiently in sport media and sport marketing literature. This paper introduces 521
branded entertainment within a sport media and marketing context. Its aim is to
define, characterise and evaluate “sport-related branded entertainment” as a new
approach. Red Bull’s action/extreme sport branded entertainment will be highlighted
as an example of best practices.
Branded entertainment can be described as an effective integration of commercial
advertising and editorial content (Kunz and Elsässer, 2015). In branded
entertainment, a brand (product or service) is no longer simply “placed” into
existing content, but content is actually co-created by a brand (Hudson and Hudson,
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2006). In most cases, because the promotional integration is not always obvious,
the consumer does not perceive that the content is branded. Sport content is
predestined for branded entertainment. Engaging sports fascinate and attract people
and have proven to be capable of transferring positive images (Cornwell, 2013;
Motion et al., 2003). However, many niche sports still lack the attention of sport
consumers or sponsors and are not covered extensively by the media (Kunz and
Schnellinger, 2014). Branded entertainment, therefore, can provide niche sport
enterprises, athletes, and teams as well as sponsors with consumer attention and
prosumer engagement.
Even though the marketing of sports is a popular topic in research (Milne and
McDonald, 1999; Shank, 2005), the specific marketing of and with sports (especially
non-mainstream sports) via media reveals a research gap (Bennett et al., 2002).
Only a limited number of research studies (e.g. Chan-Olmsted and Shay, 2015; Kunz
and Elsässer, 2015) have addressed the relevance of sport in branded entertainment.
Sport-related branded entertainment can be described as sport content that is
co-created by sponsors, sport and media entities, while embedding brands subtlety.
Its purpose is to entertain sport fans and other audiences that voluntarily
consume and share the content or create their own related content (Kunz and
Schnellinger, 2014).
With this background, the following research questions should guide this study:
RQ1. How can branded entertainment be conceptualised?
RQ2. What are the unique characteristics and anomalies of branded entertainment
in a sport media and marketing context?
RQ3. What “best practice” lessons can be learned from Red Bull’s action/extreme
sport-related branded entertainment activities?
Following an inductive approach, the Red Bull phenomenon will be analysed and
discussed, since Red Bull is a pioneer in sport-related communications in general and
branded entertainment in particular. The Red Bull portfolio of branded action/extreme
sport events and content will be described and the communication processes of selected
campaigns will be analysed in three stages: production, distribution and viral
consumption. Implications for sport media and marketing managers and academics
will be derived and an advanced communication model will be proposed.
 SBM Background
6,5 Service-dominant logic (SDL) in marketing and the sport value framework (SVF)
The introduction of the SVF (Woratschek et al., 2014) highlighted SDL (Vargo and
Lusch, 2004, 2008) relevance in sport management research. SDL generally posits that
all economies are service economies. Thus, “service is the fundamental basis of
exchange in sport” (Woratschek et al., 2014, p. 14). Sport organisations, athletes, teams,
522 sponsors, media, fans and other consumers are all providers of value propositions.
Key interrelated concepts of SVF and SDL include “co-created value”, “value-in-use”,
and “value-in-context” (Vargo et al., 2008; Vargo and Lusch, 2008; Woratschek et al.,
2014). In addition to the company as a value creator, customers and other actors
(stakeholders) are involved in value co-creation (Vargo and Akaka, 2009). However,
value only emerges when a service is actually used, i.e. when athletes and fans
participate in an event or engage in social media. Moreover, the context, i.e. external
conditions such as specific situations, also has an impact on value creation. Following
this theoretical underpinning sport events are understood as platforms, on which
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different parties can be in contact and co-create business or leisure-related value.

The perspectives of SDL and the SVF imply innovative marketing strategies that
consider the network structure of value co-creation among various stakeholders, such
as “collaborative brand building” that is also assumed to be influenced by fans and the
media (Woratschek et al., 2014, p. 21).

Brand management and sport sponsorship

In a “branded world”, where consumers are confronted with thousands of brand
messages offline and online on a daily basis, brands are challenged to attract
the consumer’s awareness, attention and engagement. Currently, sport sponsorship is
an important dimension of the marketing landscape and enterprises worldwide
are forced to compete in an environment that can be described as “over branded”.
Aaker (1991, p. 7) defined a brand as “a distinguishing name and/or symbol (such as a
logo, trademark, or package design) intended to identify the goods or services of either
one seller or a group of sellers, and to differentiate those goods or services from those of
competitors”. Building a strong brand implies several positive effects; one of which is
loyalty (Aaker, 1991, 1996).
Branding has a significant impact on the economic success of sport organisations
(Gladden and Milne, 1999), since strong brands contribute to building trust among
sport fans and increasing their loyalty to a specific sport brand (Richelieu and Pons,
2006). Ströbel and Woratschek (2013) identified increased attention and research
activity on brand management in the sport context. According to them, and following
Gladden et al. (1998), sport managers should consider both brand strength and financial
brand equity. It can be assumed that brand strength, i.e. customer-based brand equity,
affects (financial) brand equity (Keller, 1993, 2013).
In previous studies the influence of certain communication tools on brand equity
and brand value was explored (Donlan, 2014); e.g. Kim (2001) focussed on advertising,
Alexander (2009) and Henseler et al. (2011) on sponsorship and both were compared by
Hoek et al. (1997) and Cornwell (2013), who discussed the current state of research on
sponsorship-linked marketing, also referring to sport. Sponsorship has the power to
build brand affect, trust and loyalty among consumers (Mazodier and Merunka, 2012).
This paper follows Demir and Söderman’s (2015) generic framework considering
sponsorship as a strategic lever in professional sport regarding investment-, animation-,
and relation-focussed sponsorship strategies.
 Sport media consumer behaviour Sport-related
According to the uses and gratifications approach, first developed by Katz (1959), branded
different media are used and content is consumed if they gratify existent “needs” of the
consumers. As sport content is usually based on actual events, it possesses an
entertainment
authenticity that may satisfy affective, social and psychological needs (Trail and James,
2001) as well as cognitive needs (Raney, 2008). Reviewing the literature on sport viewing
motivation, Raney (2006, 2008) provided overviews of sport-related consumer motives 523
that were categorised as emotional (i.e. entertainment, eustress, self-esteem, escape),
cognitive (i.e. learning, aesthetic), behavioural and social (release, companionship, group
affiliation, family, economics) motivations. Expected and experienced emotional rewards,
e.g. entertainment, were identified as key motivations for viewing sport. According to
Vorderer (2011) affective gratification is in great demand.
As Gantz et al. (2006) found, fans of televised sport were more active, purposive,
content oriented and emotionally involved than fans of any other televised programme.
These characteristics indicate the relevance of sport fans in terms of consumption,
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“prosumerism” and viral activities in media content production and distribution.

Theoretical and conceptual framework

For the purpose of this paper, branded entertainment is categorised within content
marketing, defined, differentiated and characterised.

Content marketing
“Content marketing” provides a conceptual frame for branded entertainment, however,
there are several definitions and explanations from academic as well as professional
literature. Du Plessis (2015) refers to content marketing as a range between being a “recent
marketing paradigm” involving “pulling and sharing brand content” and an umbrella
term for online marketing techniques involving creative and active consumers (p. 2).
Harad (2013, p. 18) defined content marketing as “the art and science to regularly sharing
valuable information with your target audience”. Thus, a simple Twitter feed or the
company’s presence and activities on other SNS can be classified as content marketing
(Stein, 2010). Berke (2015, p. 22) described content marketing “as the production and
distribution of content and a strategic approach of reaching target audiences”.
Branded content may be described as “any content that can be associated with a
brand in the eye of the beholder“ (Oxford Brookes University and Ipsos MORI, 2014,
p. 99). Berke (2015) cited research that revealed four key strategies in the production of
branded content (e.g. Pulizzi, 2007): it can be entertaining, informative, educational, or
functional (e.g. an app).
Chan-Olmsted and Shay (2015, p. 21) described the “integrated content” approach of
SNS such as Facebook and Twitter as an integration of communication and
entertainment, in which brands “integrate contextually relevant brand messages from
sponsors with professionally produced media content […] in any capacity that allows
advertisers to organically reach consumers”. They emphasise the importance of the
“fit between the sponsor message and the subject matter of the media” (p. 21).

Branded entertainment
Definition. The term “branded entertainment” first appeared in academic literature in
the mid 2000s and can be found in a variety of research fields (Duttenhöfer, 2006).
It should be classified as a unique sub-category of content marketing (BCMA, 2013).
 SBM The outcome of content marketing and its sub-category strategies is branded content.
6,5 However, the focus of branded entertainment is on content that is entertaining. Berke
(2015) posits a definition of branded entertainment as an instrument of corporate
communications. “It includes any piece of content that involves the brand’s message,
objectives, or personality” (p. 22). Also, according to Berke (2015, p. 22), what
differentiates branded entertainment from other advertising is that “it is developed and
524 produced by and/or together with the brand and competes with existing media
entertainment formats by focusing on the entertainment experience of the viewer”.
Branded entertainment can be described as a subtle integration of commercial (brand)
advertising and entertainment (editorial) content that is usually produced professionally
and is of high quality, free of charge, designed to be consumed voluntarily and effective
in releasing viral effects. Due to this smart integration, consumers perceive the content as
entertainment rather than advertisement (Kunz and Elsässer, 2015). It was Kunz and
Schnellinger (2014) who introduced the term “branded sport entertainment”, which was
described as brands being embedded in content around sport events, etc.
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Related concepts. Duttenhöfer (2006) classified branded entertainment as an

independent tool in the promotional mix. Tsvetkova (2007) also emphasised the
distinctiveness of the concept from a communication studies’ point of view. In order to
clarify the branded entertainment concept it is crucial to separate the promotional tool
from other hybrid forms that can be found in the literature.
Johnston (2009) distinguished “sponsorship” (programme sponsorship) from
branded entertainment. In sponsorship the advertising message normally is not
integrated into the content, but placed immediately before or after the actual content.
Branded entertainment is more closely related to the concept of “product
placement”, which can be considered as the origin of all hybrid forms (Hudson and
Hudson, 2006) and defined as “the paid inclusion of branded products or brand
identifiers through audio and/or visual means, within mass media programming”
(Karrh, 1998, p. 33). Hudson and Hudson (2006) discussed whether branded
entertainment was a new technique or a new term for product placement.
By tracking the evolution of product placement from a marketer’s perspective,
“branded entertainment” was selected as a new term. Numerous scholars confirmed
this classification and categorised branded entertainment as a distinct concept (Lehu,
2007; Huber et al., 2008). A significant difference between the two is that product
placement offers the brand only a passive integration that in most cases has a limited
connection to the content ( Johnston, 2009). In contrast to branded entertainment, the
content in which the product is placed is not produced or co-created by the brands, but
by media companies that are willing to integrate any brand that fits the specific context
(Hudson and Hudson, 2006).
Branded entertainment also should be distinguished from more elaborate variations
of product placement. The terms “brand immersion” or “brand integration” describe a
hybrid form that integrates brands more naturally into content. However, advertisers
or brand managers do not have any impact on the editorial content (Duttenhöfer, 2006).
The focus of “advertainment” is clearly on the advertising messages instead of
entertaining content (Duttenhöfer, 2006). The concept of “advertiser funded
programming” (AFP) can be categorised as a television-limited version of branded
entertainment where advertisers or brand managers do have an impact on the nature of
the content (Siegert and Brecheis, 2010). Editorial print and online media use the
concept of “native advertising” as a hybrid form (Knowles, 2013).
 Branded entertainment, therefore, can be seen as the ultimate intertwining of Sport-related
advertisement and editorial content (see Figure 1) that can be distributed via all media branded
platforms. It is not a substitute for advertisement and other forms of content-
advertisement integration, but they complement each other (Kunz and Elsässer, 2015).
entertainment
Key characteristics. One major characteristic of branded entertainment is the (co-)
creation, production and distribution of content by brands in order to entertain their
target groups. As the brand company itself creates and produces content that embeds 525
its brand instead of integrating it in external content (Huber et al., 2008), a shift in
involved actors in production can be detected: brands operating as producers and
creating “branded” content (Duttenhöfer, 2006; Tsvetkova, 2007).
Branded entertainment connects to consumers via the creation of content that is
intended to develop long lasting relationships between brands and consumers. The
reception of branded content by consumers reveals another characteristic; content is
not presented at a specific day or time or on a specific channel. Consumers must seek
the content actively and are able to consume it whenever (time-shifting) they want and
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wherever (geo-shifting) they are (cf. Duttenhöfer, 2006; Huber et al., 2008).
The entertainment element reveals additional characteristics. As the selection of
content and its reception by consumers is designed to be voluntary, content necessarily
has to be entertaining, conveying the brand message in a more subtle way. Since the
consumer also is intended to be a distributor of the content via “likes” on SNS, for
example, it has to fulfil the needs of the targeted group. In terms of personal relevance
and contextual consideration direct connections to consumers applying consumer
engagement strategies are needed (Chan-Olmsted and Shay, 2015).
Tsvetkova (2007) mentioned another important characteristic of branded entertainment.
Due to the internet and mobile devices, the distribution of content can be achieved by
brands via their own digital platforms, turning them into content-providers.

Communication: branded entertainment model

Tsvetkova (2007) developed the first conceptual model showing how branded
entertainment content is generated from producers (company, production company,
advertising agency), and distributed over different channels such as TV and internet to
reach consumers who further distribute content via word-of-mouth (WoM). Kunz and
Elsässer (2015) enhanced the model, showing a more elaborate version of how created
and produced branded entertainment content can reach different targeted groups by
including more actors (such as media houses) as well as understanding some
consumers as prosumers that co-create and produce their own content concurrently
with the branded content.

Content
Advertisement

Figure 1.
Intertwining of
Program Product Brand Advertisement AFP, Native Branded advertisement and
Sponsorships Placement Immersion/ Advertising Entertainment
Integration content in hybrid
communication
Sources: Adapted from Kunz and Elsässer (2015, p. 56); forms
based on Duttenhöfer (2006); Tsvetkova (2007)
 SBM In this model the relationships among the different parties involved in a branded
6,5 entertainment strategy and the possible communication and reception processes
were analysed. The different actors are communicators that are labelled with K, content
types that are labelled with C, and media consumers that are labelled with R for
recipients. The diagram below describes how branded entertainment content is
produced, distributed, and consumed (see Figure 2).
526 A company applying communication (K1), such as an advertising company or a
sponsor, a media production company (K2,), an advertising agency (K3), and a
testimonial (K4), such as a celebrity or a sponsee, collaborate in creating and
producing content (C) that contributes to a content pool (CP). The CP serves as a base
for different elements/types of content (C1, C2) that are actively sought by different
consumer target groups, the recipients (R1, R2), in order to satisfy their (media related)
needs. Some content (C1) is transformed by content management (CM) systems in
order to be distributed on different media channels (C1.1) to reach other consumers
(R3). In addition, some consumers (R3) may create their own content (user-generated
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content (UGC)) that is sought by other consumers (R4), who seek the original branded
content as well, with which they did not have previous contact. Producers may
recycle such UGC, either by actually using the content or by gaining intelligence
about their audience. Next to this distribution and reception of content, there are more
communication-paths: from the very beginning, communicators collect information
about their possible audience by customer relationship management. Every
consumer, therefore, is a possible communicator when the consumed content is
redistributed to other consumers via WoM.

Case study: red bull

Research methodology
On the basis of the branded entertainment model that was presented in the previous
section we applied a case study approach (Yin, 2014) analysing Red Bull’s
communication activities in sport-related branded entertainment. Following an
inductive approach, the analysis attempts to develop and extend theory that is based
on empirical evidence. By describing elements of a communication model specific to
sport-related branded entertainment, it is intended to derive assumptions for further
CRM

K1

C1 CM C1.1 Pull R3

K2 CG Pull WoM
UCC
R1 WoM
CP C4
CPR
WoM
K3
CG Pull Pull
R2
C2 Pull R4

K4 recycling

Figure 2. feedback, participation

Branded
Sources: Adapted from Kunz and Elsässer (2015);
entertainment model
Tsvetkova (2007)
 research rather than to prove existing theoretical hypotheses. Red Bull was analysed as Sport-related
a best practice since Red Bull has been a pioneer in sport-related communications in branded
general and branded entertainment in particular. Data were gathered from various
sources that addressed Red Bull’s communication strategy.
entertainment
The effectiveness of Red Bull sponsorships has been addressed in previous studies.
While Gorse et al. (2010) highlighted Red Bull’s general entrepreneurship through
sports marketing, Kunz and Elsässer (2015) focussed on Red Bull’s branded 527
entertainment activities in general and discussed advantages and disadvantages.
Since academic research studies and articles related to branded sport entertainment
are scarce, the approach was to collect, review and include as many relevant documents
as possible (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001; Santomier, 2008). Moreover, observations of Red
Bull’s sport-related branded entertainment activities were summarised.
The Austrian-based company was founded in 1984 by Dietrich Mateschitz. Its core
product is the Red Bull energy drink, which is distributed currently in more than
166 countries. In 2013 it generated revenue of more than five billion Euros. While most
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of Red Bull’s revenue expansion is related to increased marketing, its brand

management appears as a superordinate marketing objective.
During Red Bull’s early growth it focussed on action/extreme sport sponsorships
(athletes, teams, events) in order to gain awareness and popularity in niche target
markets. With increasing brand awareness Red Bull expanded their strategy by
focussing on sponsorships of sport events capable of attracting large audiences, such
as football/soccer and Formula 1 (F1) racing. Actually, Red Bull follows an ownership-
strategy rather than a pure sponsorship with football/soccer clubs such as FC Red Bull
Salzburg, RB Leipzig and New York Red Bulls, as well as the Infinity Red Bull Racing
team. In addition, Red Bull has created or taken over their own sport events and media
channels, creative producers, and agencies that support their brand strategy. Red Bull
has applied a consequent “approach to integrating its brand message into
professionally produced content” (Chan-Olmsted and Shay, 2015).
A major purpose of this case study is to identify the many opportunities a
sport-related branded entertainment strategy can offer a brand (sponsor). In analysing
Red Bull’s content portfolio as well as the different communication, reception, and
content recycling activities, the specific characteristics and anomalies that emerge in
branded sport entertainment campaigns are identified.
To detect the many sport-specific characteristics that distinguish sport-related
branded entertainment from fictional or non-sport-related campaigns, the analysis of Red
Bull’s communication strategy is divided into three stages of a media analysis:
production, distribution and viral stage. The analysis of Red Bull’s communication
activities can demonstrate how sport-related branded entertainment is integrated into its
marketing strategies and facilitates the generation of a comprehensive model that
ultimately will provide a conceptually focussed template for research and marketing.

Findings
Branded entertainment portfolio. Red Bull’s portfolio was analysed in detail to
demonstrate how branded entertainment is integrated specifically with sport-related
content. Red Bull produces multiple media formats related to sport (texts, pictures,
audios, broadcasts, videos, films) in order to distribute them across its own and others’
media platforms (print products, TV-stations, video and films, games, mobile apps, as
well as various internet services) to reach consumers.
 SBM Red Bull’s portfolio involves different branded entertainment channels (see Figure 3).
6,5 Next to the print-magazine, “The Red Bulletin”, which has a run of 2.3 million, Red Bull-
owned shows such as “Moments” are broadcast on the company’s website or YouTube
channel. With its TV-stations “Servus TV” and the “Red Bull TV”-window in Austria and
Germany, or its internet services covering live events as well as providing highlight
videos, Red Bull can broadcast its owned content to a wide audience across multiple
528 audio-visual media channels. Red Bull also produced TV programs such as “No limits”
for ESPN in the USA and debuted a movie, “Heroes by Nature”, in cinemas across Europe
in 2013. Other films such as “The Art of Flight” are distributed via Apple’s iTunes store.
There is also a variety of online video games such as “Red Bull Racer” or mobile
applications such as “Red Bull Kart Fighter World Tour” to choose from. Other Red Bull
websites as well as their engagements on SNS such as Facebook, Twitter or Instagram
complete Red Bull’s portfolio of branded entertainment channels.
Red Bull Media House, which started print, television, online and film production in
2007, operates in Europe and the USA. Through the creation of branded events such as
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the “Red Bull Air Race” and the production and editing of various texts, photos, audios,
videos, broadcasts and films a comprehensive CP is generated and distributed that can
also be used by other media outlets. Thus, sport-related Red Bull content is either
produced by Red Bull and distributed via Red Bull-owned platforms and channels or sold
to other media companies worldwide and viewed by consumers via TV, online or mobile.
This means Red Bull has become a powerful media house that creates content and
opportunities for partnerships, manages licensing rights, and operates multiple platforms
for a global audience (Red Bull Media House, 2015a, b).
Action/extreme sport content. Red Bull’s sport content is related primarily to high-
speed action or extreme sports. Bennett et al. (2002, p. 175) defined action-sports as
“sports that are not mainstream or traditional and often include a risk, danger or
unconventional rules and/or techniques”.
Sport content resides in a highly restricted field because of unique media rights and
licensing requirements. Red Bull’s F1 content is an example of this. Even though Red
Bull participates in F1 with the “Infiniti Red Bull Racing” team, the company has no
rights to broadcast any official content from training, race qualifying or grand
prix-races. This demonstrates why sport-related branded entertainment works well for
relatively new action-sports, where no global associations market the worldwide media
rights. This also is why Red Bull’s skateboarder, BMX cycler, motocross biker or

Print
The Red Bulletin

TV Stations
Servus TV, Red Bull TV

Video and Film

Branded Moments, Herces by Nature
Entertainment
Channels Games
Figure 3. Red Bull Racers, The Art of Flight
Red Bull's
(sport-related) Mobile Apps
branded World of Red Bull, Red Bull Kart Fighter World Tour

entertainment Internet Services

portfolio redbull.de, Red Bull Content Pool, Red Bull Media House
 wingsuit jumper can be included in their sport-related content without violating any Sport-related
regulations. Because Red Bull owns the property and, therefore the rights, it does have branded
control of all stages, from pre-production to distribution.
Production stage. The branded sport entertainment production stage begins with
entertainment
pre-production activities, i.e. creating and planning certain events as well as involving
different stakeholders, primarily athletes who have to be briefed regarding branding,
media, and advertising/sponsorship partners. Sport-related content is appropriate for a 529
branded entertainment strategy as it is in general replete with advertising and
sponsorships (Horky and Kamp, 2012).
Regarding the different stakeholders involved in Red Bull’s branded entertainment
production (see Figure 4), Red Bull is considered the main brand communicator (K1).
Moreover, a production company (K2), such as Red Bull Media House, an advertising agency
(K3), which could also involve brands of other advertisers or sponsors, and an athlete or
sport team (K4) are all producer and co-producer of a CP including various sport content
(original content: C1, C2; as well as adapted content via content management: C1.1, C2.1).
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Another specific issue in sport-related branded entertainment production arises when

an athlete or sport team represents additional communicators (K4) in the production
stage that are not present in other branded-entertainment campaigns. For example,
equipped with photo and video cameras such as Red Bull partner’s GoPro, athletes and
their entourage are able to produce content showing their individual perspectives (C3, see
Figure 5). Skier Lindsey Vonn, for example, writes a blog and comments on her races.
Red Bull has a long list of famous athletes such as Vonn that appear in
branded content as partners of Red Bull. Branded sport content could influence
consumers and their attitudes towards the brand much more than actors in fictional

K1

CM
C1 C1.1

K2 CG

CP
CPR
K3
CG

C2 CM Figure 4.
C2.1
The production
K4 stage of sport-related
branded
entertainment
Source: Adapted from Kunz and Elsässer (2015)

Figure 5.
CP The athlete as
K4 C3 producer of self-
generated content
 SBM advertising campaigns. This positive spillover-effect that athletes have on brands was
6,5 identified by Pope et al. (2009) in long lasting sponsorships.
Red Bull’s long-term strategy of branded sport entertainment also is apparent in
“Red Bull Crashed Ice”, a mixture of ice hockey and boardercross created by Red Bull in
2000. By hosting the world championships Red Bull secured sport-specific branded
content for decades. With Red Bull’s strategy there is no need for complicated
530 storylines, as exercise training regimens, portraits of or interviews with athletes or
promotions about upcoming competitions as well as competitions themselves build the
base for each element of created content.
Red Bull’s use of a variety of formats for its sport-specific content makes it suitable
for a transmedia storytelling-strategy. The Red Bull Stratos (2012), a project in which
an extreme athlete jumped out of a helium balloon into the stratosphere, was filmed
only once, but produced and distributed in many different formats. “Red Bull Stratos”
was awarded Branded Art Review’s “best transmedia campaign” in 2012, because of its
prominent features across all media, either paid, owned or earned (Kellow, 2013).
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The live-broadcast on YouTube of Felix Baumgartner’s jump reached more than eight
million viewers, setting a new all-time record for YouTube (Mortimer, 2012).
Distribution stage. The live coverage of sport events (C1) as well as other sport-related
branded entertainment content (C2) located in the stock of the CP is actively sought by sport
fans (R1, R2) or recommended (WoM) to other sport media consumers (R3) that might view a
modified version (C1.1) by consumers of the original content. In addition to satisfying their
entertainment needs by viewing sport, consumers (R3) may also create their own content
(UGC), e.g. by being present at events and recording videos on their smartphones and
making them available via SNS. These videos may be viewed by other sport consumers (R4)
that could become aware of the original content (C2) afterwards. In addition to WoM-effects,
the UGC may also be recycled by Red Bull (Media House) expending the CP (see Figure 6).
Therefore, Red Bull’s sport-related branded content provides additional
opportunities that form a distinct step in the distribution process (see Figure 7).
The content is not only distributed via Red Bull’s own platforms, but generates a high
level of interest among a variety of media houses. Established traditional TV
channels (K5) either report Red Bull’s edited content surrounding events such as the
“Red Bull Air Race” (C4) or co-operate with Red Bull in the production or distribution.
For the ‘Red Bull Air Race’, Red Bull co-operated with more than 66 host broadcasters

CM C1.1 Pull R3
C1

CG Pull WoM
UGC
WoM
CP R1 C4
WoM

CG Pull Pull
R2
CD C2 Pull R4

Figure 6. recycling
Branded
Sources: Adapted from Kunz and Elsässer (2015);
entertainment model
Tsvetkova (2007)
 C1 R7 Sport-related
K4
branded
CM Push
CD
entertainment
C4 R8
CG
CP C1
531
C1 R5
CD
Figure 7.
K5 CM Push
The distribution of
C4 R6 branded content via
media houses

worldwide for live-broadcasting or exclusive coverage of the event (Gorse et al., 2010),
making the event and related content (C1) available on their own platforms.
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In sport-related branded entertainment campaigns another distribution path is possible

and often effective (see Figure 7). Next to traditional TV-stations (K5) many sport-focussed
media companies (K6) are also willing to distribute Red Bull’s content. The biggest
European car and motor community “Motor-Talk.de” develops stories around Red Bull’s
branded content and is, therefore, allowed to use exclusive photos from Red Bull’s stock
(C4). Others, Germany’s sport-network Sport 1, for example, simply buy a package of
videos such as the “Red Bull Crashed Ice”-World Cup in 2012 (C1). In distributing their
content to special interest media platforms and channels, Red Bull’s branded content is far
more likely to reach the targeted group of sport consumers (R7, R8).
Red Bull’s branded entertainment strategy demonstrates that sport-related branded
content also is likely to be distributed by companies (K7) outside the sport media nexus
(see Figure 8). GoPro Inc., an American corporation that produces mini-cameras, was
the official partner of the “Red Bull Signature Series” in 2013. In addition, there are
numerous clips of branded Red Bull content on the GoPro Website (C2). Also a partner
of the Red Bull Stratos project, GoPro produces its own branded content while
distributing Red Bull’s logo to more than five million viewers in their YouTube clip and
many more in their 2014 Super Bowl commercial. Automobile producer Audi and Red
Bull launched a branded entertainment project with Baumgartner on both of their
platforms. By doing this, Red Bull’s content was distributed to a wider audience due to
their co-operation, reaching consumers (R9) who otherwise would not have viewed it.
When it comes to distributing sport-related content, the athletes (K4) again play an
important role (see Figure 9). They can reach consumers (R10) by posting the branded
Figure 8.
CD
The distribution of
CG CM Push
CP C3 K7 C2 R9 branded content via
other companies

C2 WoM Figure 9.
CD
K4 Pull R10 The distribution
C3
of branded content
UGC
via the athlete
 SBM content (C2) on their own websites and on SNS. Skateboarder Ryan Sheckler, for
6,5 example, embeds Red Bull’s show “Sheckler Session” on his personal website next to
sharing Red Bull branded content on SNS, ostensibly reaching another segment of the
sport-related audience.
Some athletes do not only distribute Red Bull’s content, but also produce and
distribute their own content (C3) in parallel (see Figure 9). This demonstrates that
532 athletes or sport teams also have to be recognised as partners in a branded
entertainment strategy especially in the distribution stage.
Viral stage. Another important element is the appeal of sport-related branded
entertainment to sport fans (R10). Red Bull encourages prosumers to create and share
their own content together with Red Bull’s branded content, in which sponsored
athletes are highlighted (K4). Thus UGC and WoM-effects occur in different forms (see
Figure 9). For example, Red Bull called on its followers to send in spectacular “Action-
Selfies” that were presented on the company’s website and Facebook page alongside
“selfies” from Red Bull athletes. Video-based SNS such as YouTube facilitate the fan
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community’s communication about Red Bull branded entertainment as well as

consumer experiences (Chan-Olmsted and Shay, 2015).
The Red Bull Stratos also demonstrated how UGC can emerge from branded
content. By the end of 2015 YouTube returned more than 31,000 clips when “stratos
parody” was entered in the search box and some videos reached 46,000 views.
SNS integrate professionally produced branded content as well as content from athlete
prosumers. In the viral stage focus is on Red Bull’s target groups, which are often
highly identified fans and especially young prosumers. In the context of SNS Red Bull
connects directly with consumers and establishes engagement by employing different
initiatives (Chan-Olmsted and Shay, 2015).
The variety of Red Bull channels demonstrates another advantage of
connecting with sport fans. The same F1 Austria Grand Prix video clip was
posted on Red Bull’s Facebook page as well as the targeted Infinity Red Bull
Racing’s Facebook page. Even though Red Bull’s Facebook page had more likes
(44 million) compared to the “Infiniti Red Bull Racing” page (4.96 million), it was
shared and “liked” more times by followers of “Infiniti Red Bull Racing” within one
hour of posting.
The same process occurs if individual athletes post Red Bull’s branded content on
SNS. The video “This is Home”, about motocross rider Levi Sherwood, received
more than 1,700 likes on the Red Bull Facebook page. On his own Facebook page,
Sherwood generated more than 3,000 likes. A number even more impressive
compared to just slightly over 290,000 fans of the athlete’s Facebook profile.
These examples suggest that sport fans are efficient prosumers likely to share or
generate content.

Proposed sport-related branded entertainment model

In addition to the branded entertainment model presented by Kunz and Elsässer (2015),
which also is valid for a sport context, sport-related branded entertainment
communication includes additional dimensions. By integrating all possible
production, distribution and viral paths of sport-related branded entertainment
between and among the relevant parties involved, a final model was developed
(see Figure 10). With Red Bull as an integrated creator, sponsor, media producer and
agent, and with Red Bull-owned media as well as third party media partners and with
 CRM
Sport-related
C1 R7 branded
K6 CM Push entertainment
C4 R8

C1 R5
533
K5 CM Push
CD
C4 R6

CD Pull
K1

CM Pull
C1 C1.1 R3

CG WoM
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K2 Pull
UCC
WoM
CP R1 C4
CPR
WoM
K3
CG Pull Pull
R2
CD C1 Pull R4

K4 recycling

CD CM Push
K7 C2 R3

C2 WoM Figure 10.

R15
Communication
Pull
model of
C3 UCC sport-related
branded
feedback, participation entertainment

different audiences – both passive and active recipients – there emerge new
communicators (K), content (C) and consumers (R) highlighted in red.
Especially in action/extreme sports, athletes are important communicators (K4) who
may be seen as authentic and identified as celebrities by consumers. They also may be
considered distributors of any sport-related content via SNS or posting event/sport
content on their digital platforms such as websites and blogs.
In the distribution stage, in addition to general interest media companies (K5), sport
media houses (K6), may be involved. These special interest distribution channels are
able to reach fragmented or niche audiences more effectively, targeting consumers with
sport-affinity. The Red Bull analysis demonstrates that other companies (K7) are
willing to distribute sport-related branded entertainment, therefore enabling Red Bull
to reach additional target groups. Another important dimension that sport-related
entertainment inherits is the appeal of sport fans (R10). This group of prosumers is
engaged, active and willing to search for, consume, “like”, and share sport content as
well as generate their own content in the viral stage.
 SBM Summary and discussion
6,5 Red Bull can be considered as a “best practice” for sport-related branded entertainment.
Through an analysis of Red Bull’s integrated content portfolio as well as activities
related to the production, distribution and viral stages, it was demonstrated how
action/extreme sports (i.e. niche sports) could generate media value in the digital era
through branded sport entertainment.
534 The Red Bull production process begins with attractive content that involves
popular and engaging action/extreme sports (events, stunts, etc.), with the advantage of
numerous sponsored athletes who are authentic communicators. Distribution
incorporates a range of networking partners providing additional sport content from
selected media companies, sport media houses and other companies. Cross-platform
and multi-channel distribution improves economies of scale and scope and addresses
fragmented target groups. In addition, Red Bull may sell elements of their branded
sport content to other media enterprises. In order to reach a wider audience in a
fragmented global media environment, a variety of traditional and new media
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platforms and channels are incorporated in their strategy. Thus, in order for such a
strategy to be effective, compelling sport-related stories have to be developed and
communicated transmedially.
In addressing entertainment content, branded entertainment seems to be an ideal
way of meeting the consumer’s emotional needs and encouraging voluntary
consumption and prosumerism. As mentioned previously, in a branded
entertainment strategy, the content has to be demanded by the consumer and affects
viral activities. Therefore, branded entertainment does fit a theory of active and
proactive consumers.
The Red Bull case has demonstrated that by selecting sport-related content within
all three stages of a branded entertainment campaign (production, distribution and
viral) more partners (sport organisations, athletes/teams, sport media houses,
sponsoring companies, sport fans and consumers), are involved in distributing the
content via established and new media platforms and channels to a wider audience.
Comprehensively, sport-related branded entertainment can be considered
as a unique marketing communication tool with inherent potential for sport
organisations and sponsors. The key findings of the analysis can be summarised
as follows:
• it represents an ideal combination of sport content co-creation, production, and
distribution affecting viral effects;
• it is an integrated portfolio of sport-related content, media platforms and
communication channels;
• the focus is on engaging action/extreme sports;
• it supports a long-term marketing strategy due to its ongoing events and close
relationships to the athletes;
• it includes co-creation and co-production opportunities for sponsors, agencies,
athletes/teams, sport media, and consumers/prosumers;
• it includes cross-platform and multi-channel distribution;
• the emphasis is on transmedia storytelling; and
• it involves a high degree of consumer engagement/prosumerism by sport fans.
 Marketing management implications Sport-related
In sport-related branded entertainment Red Bull applies a high level marketing branded
strategy from which other sponsors as well as sport organisations and sport media
could benefit. On the first level, Red Bull sponsors athletes, teams and events of action/
entertainment
extreme sports and mainstream sports. They also create their own events and produce
or co-produce branded entertainment content. Red Bull manages and controls
production and distribution, using their own production facilities and distribution 535
channels as well as co-operating partners. Finally, they license and market
international sport rights, i.e. generating revenue from their branded sport content.
Since branded entertainment is an ancillary marketing tool, a long-term marketing
strategy would be the most effective for a variety of sport enterprises.
The analysis of Red Bull’s branded sport entertainment also revealed that it could
be used as an initial marketing/promotional tool if content is produced consistently
and over an extended time period. It further revealed the importance of direct
co-operation and networking with other companies, media houses and sport
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organisations. However, sport marketers initiating a sport-related branded

entertainment strategy should focus on co-operation and networking throughout
all stages (pre-production, production, distribution, viral) in order to generate
opportunities to access a wider audience.
The Red Bull case indicated from a “best practice” perspective that branded
entertainment works best if content is distributed via multiple platforms and channels,
thus reaching different segments of the primary target group or different target groups.
Sport-related branded entertainment is likely to strengthen the relationships between and
among sponsors, athletes and other sport entities. Kunz and Schnellinger (2014) indicated
that non-mainstream sports often receive poor media value by selling their media rights
exclusively to a traditional TV broadcaster. They should consider co-operating with
sponsors in order to co-create value. “Producing branded entertainment and delivering
[free] non-exclusive content […] can increase their media value and total viewership”,
thus, “revenues and economic success” (Kunz and Schnellinger, 2014, p. 349).
The analysis of Red Bull suggests that sport content is powerful in a branded
entertainment strategy, confirmed by the efficacy of sport fans as highly committed
prosumers in the viral stage. As sport fans increase their search behaviours related
to athlete background information, and consume content more actively, they are more
likely to recap and/or share the new content they have viewed with others on SNS.
Therefore, prosumer fans may be classified as ideal target groups for a branded
entertainment strategy. Sport marketers and media managers should recognise
this potential and focus on sport fans in order to facilitate viral content effectively.
Also, the analysis indicated that sport content works well in a transmedia marketing
campaign, as sport content can be converted into many formats and distributed on
multiple channels. Brands and sport enterprises pursuing a branded entertainment
strategy should identify and integrate the channels and platforms favoured by their
target audiences.

Theoretical implications, limitations and further research

This paper confirmed Duttenhöfer (2006), Tsvetkova (2007), Kunz and Elsässer (2015)
and others concerning the categorisation of “branded entertainment” as a new, distinct
marketing tool within the promotional mix. The theoretical and conceptual framework
that embeds branded entertainment in marketing communication allows professionals
and academics to fully grasp the concept and to operationalise it for further research.
 SBM Through its derivation from content marketing and comparisons with other
6,5 promotional tools, distinctive features of (sport-related) branded entertainment emerge.
The concept was framed theoretically and analysed using the Red Bull case, revealing
characteristics and anomalies.
Sport-related branded entertainment includes co-creation of sport content by
sponsors, athletes, sport and media entities as well as other actors such as sport
536 consumers and prosumers; i.e. value is co-created (Woratschek et al., 2014). The
sponsors’ brands, products and services are integrated seamlessly in entertaining sport
content (Kunz and Schnellinger, 2014). High quality sport content has the potential of
being distributed to and via a variety of media and partners. The focus of branded
sport entertainment is primarily on events, athletes and teams. Consumers perceive
branded sport content as entertainment. It is designed to be consumed voluntarily and
thus effective in releasing viral effects (Kunz and Elsässer, 2015).
Being theoretically embedded in SDL and the SVF, brand management and sport
sponsorship, and sport media consumption theories as well as content marketing,
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sport-related branded entertainment offers a range of new starting points for future
research, focussing on concepts such as “value co-creation”, “strategic sponsorship”,
“sport fan identification” and “media prosumer motivations”.
As the selection of the content and the reception by consumers is designed to be
voluntary, content necessarily has to be entertaining, conveying the brand message in
a subtle way. Since the consumer also is intended to be a distributor of the content
(i.e. viral marketing) as well as a communicator of the brand message (i.e. WoM),
branded entertainment has to fulfil the needs of the targeted group: authenticity
and trustworthiness (Hartmann, 2004); interesting transmedia stories; and exciting
activities and spectacular scenes. Sport fans are assumed to consume content much
more actively, recap content once viewed, and search more background information
than fans of any other category (Gantz et al., 2006). Thus, sport should be recognised
as a source of ideal content for a long-term and successful branded entertainment
strategy because of its ongoing inherent value and its popularity across societies
and cultures.
It would be worth exploring consumer motivation to view and share sport-related
branded entertainment content via a variety of channels and platforms. By providing
various formats of branded entertainment content, Red Bull addresses fragmented
target groups and the affective, cognitive, and social needs of consumers. A deeper
knowledge of branded entertainment uses and gratifications (Raney, 2008), may
enhance the effectiveness and ultimate success of sport marketers in the future.
Since it is favourable to have as much control as possible to enable content
production in the first place and to commercialise content distribution, contracting with
niche sports and creating new sports gives a sponsor full access to events without
limitations over the content that can be used for various purposes and in different
situations by the sponsor. This implies that sport-related branded entertainment
should become a relevant sponsorship tool in terms of “investment”, “animation”, and
“relation” strategies (Demir and Söderman, 2015).
Sport enterprises, especially non-mainstream sport enterprises, should focus
sharply on sponsors in order to strengthen their relationships and to co-create value.
Producing branded entertainment and delivering free non-exclusive content may
increase their media value by attracting added viewership, resulting in increased
revenue and economic success. Therefore, action/extreme sports, teams and athletes
should be considered as predestined for branded entertainment.
 However, branded entertainment should not be limited to action and extreme sports. Sport-related
Content provided by other niche sports as well as by mainstream sports would branded
certainly be of interest to a wide range of target groups. If applied consistently, branded
entertainment can benefit all parties involved (sponsors, sport organisations, teams,
entertainment
athletes, media enterprises and prosumers).
This paper was limited to a literature and observation-based qualitative study that
addressed one case only. Analysing Red Bull’s activities around sport-related branded 537
entertainment cannot be representative for all dimensions of the concept. The proposed
communication model and the assumptions and conclusions that were derived on
this basis require empirical validation and should be addressed in future studies,
i.e. observations of other cases, qualitative interviews with industry experts or
quantitative surveys with practitioners and consumers.
The analysis of other enterprises that pursue a similar marketing strategy is needed
for validation. As Red Bull is a “best practice” for a branded content producer and
distributor, the unique dimensions and specifics identified may not be representative
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for all sports and their sponsors. The question as to whether branded entertainment is a
strategy that can be pursued by any organisation or is limited to a select few, should be
further investigated.
Red Bull branded sport entertainment is focussed on action/extreme sports, in which
athletes, for the most part, compete individually. Thus, further research is needed
concerning the production of sport-related content for team-sports. Red Bull’s other
marketing strategies, for example, their football/soccer or motor sports initiatives, as
well as protests by sports fans against Red Bull, were not the focus of this paper and
may present opportunities for further research.
As this paper analysed sport-related branded entertainment from a company’s
(brand’s) point of view, the role of sport organisations and their opportunities and
threats related to such a strategy should be investigated more closely. This paper
suggests that a shift in the sport media nexus may occur if more sponsors use a
branded entertainment strategy. Qualitative and quantitative research is necessary to
determine how branded entertainment will affect different stakeholders in the sport
media nexus. Research should focus especially on the changing roles of sponsors,
media companies, and sport rights holders and agencies.
Performance metrics of marketing communications is becoming significantly more
relevant for most brands (PwC, 2014). The effectiveness of sport-related branded
entertainment campaigns with respect to the impact on brand awareness and brand
equity (Aaker, 1996; Keller, 2013), as well as the interest of consumers as important
stakeholders is especially in need of further research. Measuring the effectiveness of
sport-related branded entertainment campaigns and their potential to initiate consumer
engagement compared to other content campaigns should identify the significance of
the sport context in terms of brand communications. Whether or not sport-related
branded entertainment is capable of replacing other promotional tools such as pure
sponsorship or product placement has yet to be determined.

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Corresponding author
Reinhard E. Kunz can be contacted at: reinhard.kunz@uni-bayreuth.de

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