CHAPTER 3
Prokaryotes
It is important to learn differences in the structure of
various cells, not only for identification purposes, but
also to understand differences in their metabolism.
These factors must be known before one can determine
or explain why antimicrobial agents (drugs) attack and
destroy pathogens, but do not harm human cells.
2 Major Categories of Microbes
 acellular microbes (infectious particles) –
includes viroids, prions, viruses
 cellular microbes ( microorganisms) – includes
prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Microorganisms
 small, very little detail concerning their structure
can be determined using the compound light
microscope
 knowledge of the ultrastructure of microbes has
been gained through the use of electron
microscopes
 Ultrastructure refers to the very detailed views
of cells that are beyond the resolving power of
the compound light microscope.
Cell
 defined as the fundamental unit of any living
organism
 like the total organism, the cell exhibits the basic
characteristics of life
 obtains food (nutrients) from the environment to
produce energy for metabolism and other
activities
Metabolism
 all of the chemical reactions that occur within a
cell
 a cell can grow and reproduce
 cell can respond to stimuli in its environment
such as light, heat, cold, and the presence of
chemicals
Mutation
 cell can mutate (change genetically) as a result
of accidental changes in its genetic material
(DNA) that makes up the genes of its
chromosomes—and, thus, can become better or
less suited to its environment
 as a result of these genetic changes, the mutant
organism may be better adapted for survival and
development into a new species of organism
 cells that exhibit all the characteristics of life,
but do not have the complex system of
membranes and organelles (tiny organ-like
structures) found in the more advanced single-
celled organisms
 includes cyanobacteria, Bacteria, and Archaea
Eukaryotes
 more complex cells, containing a true nucleus
and many membrane-bound organelles
 algae, protozoa, fungi, plants, animals, humans
Viruses
 result of regressive or reverse evolution
 composed of only a few genes protected by a
protein coat, and sometimes may contain one or
a few enzymes
 reproduce depending on the energy and
metabolic machinery of a host cell
 acellular (not composed of cells)
Eukaryotic Cell Structure
 eu = true; karyo = nut or nucleus
 have a true nucleus, where DNA is found
enclosed by a nuclear membrane
 10 to 30 μm in diameter, about 10 times larger
than most prokaryotic cells
Cell Membrane
 plasma, cytoplasmic, or cellular membrane
 enclose and hold the cell
 mosaic composed of large molecules of proteins
and phospholipids
 separates the contents of the cell from the
outside world
 regulates the passage of nutrients, waste
products, and secretions into and out of the cell
 is selective permeability, so only certain
substances may enter and leave the cell
Nucleus (pl., nuclei)
 controls the functions of the entire cell
 command center
 true nucleus consists of nucleoplasm,
chromosomes, and a nuclear membrane
o Nucleoplasm - (type of protoplasm) is the
gelatinous matrix or base material of the nucleus
o Nuclear Membrane - serves as a “skin” around
the nucleus that contains holes (nuclear pores)
where large molecules can enter and exit the
nucleus
o Chromosomes - suspended in the nucleoplasm.
Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of linear DNA
 molecules and proteins (histones and nonhistone
proteins)
 Histones are positively charged, low-molecular-
weight proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei.
They act as spools around which DNA winds.
This winding enables the compaction necessary
to fit the large genomes of eukaryotes inside cell
nuclei. A compacted DNA molecule is about
40,000 times shorter than the non-compacted
molecule
Genes
 Located along the DNA molecules
 sometimes described as “beads on a string,” but
each bead (gene) is actually a particular segment
of the DNA molecule
 contains the genetic information that enables the
cell to produce one or more gene products
 gene products are proteins, but some genes code
for the production of two types of ribonucleic
acid (RNA): ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
and transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) molecule
 complete collection of genes is referred as
genotype (or genome)
 number and composition of chromosomes and the
number of genes on each chromosome are
characteristic of the particular species of organism
 Different species have different numbers and sizes
of chromosomes.
 Ex: Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (23
pairs), each consisting of thousands of genes.
 It has been estimated that the human genome
consists of between 20,000 and 25,000 genes.
Nucleolus
 a dark (electron dense) area that can be seen in
the nucleus when observed using a transmission
electron microscope
 is where rRNA molecules are manufacture
 rRNA molecules then exit the nucleus and
become part of the structure of ribosomes
Cytoplasm
 (a type of protoplasm) is a semifluid, gelatinous,
nutrient matrix
 Houses insoluble storage granules and various
cytoplasmic organelles, including endoplasmic
reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi complexes,
mitochondria, centrioles, microtubules, lysosomes,
and other membrane-bound vacuoles
 where most of the cell’s metabolic reactions occur
 semifluid portion of the cytoplasm, excluding the
granules and organelles, is sometimes referred to as
the cytosol
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 highly convoluted system of membranes that are
interconnected and arranged to form a transport
network of tubules and flattened sacs within the
cytoplasm
 Rough ER has a rough, granular appearance when
observed by transmission electron microscopy
caused by the many ribosomes attached to the outer
surface of the membranes
 Smoot ER is where ribosomes are not attached
Ribosomes
 Eukaryotic ribosomes are 18 to 22 nm in diameter.
 consist mainly of rRNA and protein and play an
important part in the synthesis of proteins
 sites of protein synthesis ( manufacture)
 each is composed of a large subunit (the 60S
subunit) and a small subunit (the 40S subunit)—that
are produced in the nucleolus
 subunits are then transported to the cytoplasm where
they remain separate until such time as they join
together with an mRNA molecule to initiate protein
synthesis
 When united, the 40S and 60S subunits form an 80S
ribosome (S = Svedberg units)
 40S, 60S, 80S are called sedimentation coefficients
which expresses the rate at which a particle or
molecule moves in a centrifugal field
Golgi Complex
 Golgi apparatus or Golgi body
 Referred to as packaging plants
 Most of the proteins released from the ER are not
mature. They must undergo further processing in the
Golgi before they are able to perform their functions
within or outside of the cell.
 connects or communicates with the ER
 stack of flattened, membranous sacs
 completes the transformation of newly synthesized
proteins into mature, functional ones and packages
them into small, membrane-enclosed vesicles for
storage within the cell or export outside the cell
(process of exocytosis or secretion)
Lysosomes
 found in all eukaryotes
 small (about 1-μm diameter) vesicles that originate
at the Golgi complex
 contain lysozyme and other digestive enzymes that
break down foreign material taken into the cell by
phagocytosis
 phagocytosis is the engulfing of large particles by
amebas and certain types of white blood cells called
phagocytes
 also aid in breaking down worn out parts of the cell
and may destroy the entire cell by a process called
autolysis if the cell is damaged or deteriorating
 microtubules and microfilaments are essential for
various activities, such as cell division, contraction,
motility and the movement of chromosomes within
the cell

Peroxisomes
 found in most eukaryotic cells, but are especially
prominent in mammalian liver cells
 membrane-bound vesicles in which hydrogen
peroxide is both generated and broken down
 contain the enzyme catalase, which catalyzes (speeds
up) the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into water
and oxygen

Mitochondria (sing., mitochondrion)

 energy necessary for cellular function is provided by
the formation of high-energy phosphate molecules
such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
 ATP molecules are the major energy-carrying or
energy-storing molecules within cells.
 “power plants,” “powerhouses,” or “energy
factories”
 0.5 to 1 μm in diameter and up to 7 μm in length
 where most of the ATP molecules are formed by
cellular respiration
 during respiration, energy is released from glucose
molecules and other nutrients to drive other cellular
functions

Plastids
 Plant cells contain both mitochondria and another
type of energy-producing organelle, called a plastid.
 membrane-bound structures containing various
photosynthetic pigment
 sites of photosynthesis
 Chloroplasts, one type of plastid, contain a green,
photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll
o Photosynthesis is the process by which light
energy is used to convert carbon dioxide and
water into carbohydrates and oxygen
o The chemical bonds in the carbohydrate
molecules represent stored energy.
o Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy
into chemical energy.

Cytoskeleton
 system of fibers present throughout the cytoplasm
 three types of cytoskeletal fibers: microtubules,
microfilaments (actin filaments), and intermediate
filament - serve to strengthen, support, and stiffen
the cell, and give the cell its shape
 Microtubules are slender, hollow tubules composed
of spherical protein subunits called tubulins