Pergamon Chemical Enoineerin 0 Science, Vol. 50, No. 16, pp.

2531-2543, 1995
Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain.
0009-2509/95 $9.50 + 0.00
0009-2509(95)00107-7

THE S I N G L E SCREW E X T R U S I O N O F PASTES t

A.S. BURBIDGE and J. BRIDGWATER

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cambridge, Pembroke Street,
Cambridge CB2 3RA, U.K.

(Received 18 August 1994)

Abstract--Screw extrusion is widely used but little is known about the design and operation of this type of
equipment save in the polymer industry. Particularly with the advent of high-performance, high-value
ceramic materials, it has become important to extend knowledge. Here a mathematical model for a flooded
screw brings together recent paste rheology and a model of screw extrusion developed previously for
frictional solids flow. The model suggests that helix angles in current use are significantly below the
optimum. Furthermore it appears that the deepest channel screws will produce the highest pressure
gradients, a fact already established in practice which is in contrast with screws for polymers. Experiments
both with and without flow on a 20 mm diameter laboratory extruder used screws of varying angle and
channel depth with pastes of various rheologles. Pressure measurements from experiments without flow
could show a marked offset from predictions with screws of low helix angles, this apparently being the result
of an increased surface shear stress at the barrel-paste interface. The effects of changing the screw speed
were reliably predicted. Experiments with flow carried out on a 76 mm diameter industrial machine showed
general consistency with predictions.

INTRODUCTION
Ceramic extrusion requires the mixing of a refractory
powder (the solid phase) with a liquid phase such as
water with starch, glucose or methyl-cellulose added
as rheology modifiers to improve the paste flow prop-
erties. Solid phases such as clay may be added as
binders in order that the green product has sufficient
strength and can be handled. These also influence the
rheology. An extrudate so formed can then be dried
and sintered, removing the liquid phase and burning
out any binders that may have been added, to form
a finished ceramic product. Similar thinking applies in
many other areas including food processing which
have been listed by Benbow and Bridgwater (1993).
Until recently paste extrusion has remained poorly
understood with the only reported applications being
empirical ones largely concerned with the extrusion of
bricks and china clays. Processing conditions were
not as critical as for plastics since the final product is
made to a lower tolerance. The requirement for low-
cost, poor-tolerance products can be associated his-
torically with a "black art" approach to ceramic screw
extruder design. Scientific publications concerned
with the theory of single screw extrusion of paste are
therefore very limited.
However, Ovenston and Benbow (1968) studied the
effects of die geometry on the extrusion of clay-like
material in the preparation of catalyst supports. Ex-
perimental results were used to make critical compari-
sons between the expressions developed by previous
workers. They further developed the theory of soft
Work performed at IRC in Materials for High Perfor-
mance Applications and Department of Chemical Engineer-
ing, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham
BI5 2TT, UK.
2531
metal extrusion for use with stiff pastes thus allowing
prediction of the effects of changing die length and
diameter. They were the first to separate and analyse
the flow into two distinctly different regions, firstly
a die entry region in which the effects arise due to bulk
deformation and secondly a dieland region in which
wall frictional shearing terms dominate. It will be
noted that there is a large extensional flow component
in the die entry region. Benhow (1971) showed that
pressure generated, P, due to extension in the flow of
catalyst pastes from a barrel of diameter Do into
a circular dieland of diameter D and length L was
given by
P = 2(a0 + ~V)ln(Do/D) + 4(L/D)(To + flV) (1)
where V is the mean extrudate velocity in the dieland
and the extrusion parameters are as follows: a0 is the
initial bulk yield stress of paste, • is the velocity of
bulk yield stress, z0 is the initial wall shear stress of
paste and fl is the velocity factor of wall shear stress.
The parameters a0 and ~ describe the influences due
to extension caused by changes in cross-sectional area
and Zo and fl describe these due to shear during flow
along a duct of constant cross-section. The material
flows as a plug due to the existence of lubricating
layers at external surfaces. Zo and fl are related both to
the properties of the solid phase and those of thin
layers of uncertain structure near to the surface.
Recently, Benbow et al. (1987) further developed
the theory to deal with dies of more complex ge-
ometry. They modified the previous expression as
follows:
P = (go + ~V)In(Ao/A) + L(C/A)(zo + flV) (2)
where the nomenclature is as before except that
2532 A.S. BURBIDGE and J. BRIDGWATER

Ao and A are the cross-sectional areas of the die entry others, argued that this system may best be described
and dieland regions, respectively, and C is the wetted by a modified McKelvey et al. (1953) approach, i.e. by
perimeter of the dieland. solution of Navier-Stokes-type equations for a power
The present purpose is to develop the theories of law fluid.
Benbow et al. to provide a method of predicting the
ANALYSIS
pressure generation in a single screw extruder for
Consider a single screw extruder of average screw
pastes and to assess the validity of the approach.
helix angle ~b(Fig. 1) that is fully flooded with paste. In
SINGLE SCREW OPERATION addition let the screw be of constant pitch and chan-
nel depth and fitting closely inside of the barrel such
A simple representation of the process of single
that there is no clearance between the screw flight and
screw extrusion can be given as follows. The ceramic
the internal wall of the barrel. There is then no leak-
is first dropped into a feeding hopper from whence it
age of paste between the flight tips and the constrain-
falls onto a rotating single flighted screw. The screw is
ing wall of the barrel. If the pitch and channel depth
driven by a motor through a linkage and gearbox
were not constant, then the analysis to follow would
assembly. Friction between the material and the bar-
be more difficult since the extension of the paste in the
rel causes the paste to be conveyed towards the die
channel would also be need to be included.
assembly, where sufficient pressure is generated to
Let an angular velocity be imposed on the whole
drive the paste through the die to give an extruded
system such that the channel of the screw is stationary
product. Use of the single screw extruder is widely
and the barrel rotates to compensate for this. If the
established in forming processes. Many variants of the
effect of curvature of the channel is assumed to be
basic design exist and there are also twin and multiple
small as is commonly the case, then the channel can be
screw machines, the analysis of which is beyond the
unrolled and treated as a long rectangular groove
present scope. A theoretical analysis of a single screw
[Fig. l(c)]. The groove containing the paste will then
system processing pastes has remained elusive, design
have the moving surface of the barrel sliding across
being either empirical or copied from machines used
the top surface providing a force component which
in the polymer industry.
generates pressure and conveys paste along the chan-
Grunwell (1928) reported on extensive experiments
nel. It is further assumed that the screw is single
out on a high-tonnage industrial brick extruder. He
frighted, i.e. it is a single helix, and that the width of
produced machine-specific correlations for the effi-
the flight is negligible; these restrictions could be re-
ciency of single, double and triple winged augers but
laxed readily. The screw is taken to be fully flooded
was unable to develop any generally applicable in-
having paste contact with all three sides of the screw
sights. Similar studies were carried out by Reed (1962),
and with the barrel internal surface. Adaption to
by Johnson (1962), who experimented with clay pipe
account for the existence of one free screw surface
extruders, and by Lund et al. (1962), who empirically
requires a simple adjustment, leaving open the ques-
established optimum design characteristics for many
tion as to what conditions cause a face to lose contact
types of auger.
with the paste. Forces due to the weight of the paste
Parks and Hill (1959) appear to have produced the
are insignificant and may be expected to only be
only design model for screw extruders with ceramics
influential near the paste inlet. It is further assumed
to date. They took the work of Darnell and Mol
that the inner wall of the barrel is of sufficient rough-
(1956) who sought to develop a model for stress gen-
ness to ensure that the paste does not slip over the
eration during the feeding of solid particles, the mater-
surface. Work by Benbow and Bridgwater (1993) illus-
ial behaving as a frictional solid. A change was incorp-
trates that although gross surface roughness (rough-
orated such that the plug was assumed to be in con-
ness height/radius of dieland = 0.28) produced an
tact with only two of the three surfaces of the screw,
increase in pressure gradient in a circular pipe, smaller
i.e. the trailing face of the flight was assumed to be
(0.10) surface undulations produced little detectable
a free surface. This feature was included since such
pressure rise. It is thus likely that the effect of surface
behaviour had been observed widely in screw ex-
finish on the operation of a machine will not be great
truders working with clay. The weakness of this model
provided excessive surface lubrication is avoided.
is that it relies upon coefficients of friction between the
Consider now a stationary screw of diameter
surfaces of the machine and the extruding material.
D, with a channel depth h and average helix angle
Not only have these proven difficult to measure accu-
around which a barrel is allowed to rotate at a rate
rately even for single-phase systems composed of
N [Fig. l(a)]. Paste is extruded at a volumetric flow-
powders and granular solids (Darnell and Mol, 1956),
rate Q. Let the width of the channel measured normal
this tribology is not appropriate for a paste.
to the flights be w. The development proceeds in two
Work similar to that of Parks and Hill (1959) has
stages. Firstly geometric relationships between the
been done by Jasberg et al. (1979) for the extrusion of
barrel and paste plug velocities are derived. Secondly
defatted soy flakes. They argued that the flakes flowed
these are employed in a force balance on the paste.
as a solid plug and that the approach of Darnell and
v,, the relative velocity vector of the barrel surface
Mol could be effective. Experiments on the hot extru-
with respect to the paste plug, is given by
sion of polymer/ceramic mixtures designed for injec-
tion moulding by Mutsuddy (1987, 1989) amongst v, = v~ - vp (3)
 The single screw extrusion of pastes 2533
l Flowrate,
Q
(a)
vb = 7r.D,N

Velocity triangle (b)

n-Ds

L
Geometric triangle

I
I I

I I
I I

(c)
I Section of unrolled channel
Ds ~.-1
I
I

Fig. 1. Notation for and modelling of the single screw extruder.

where vb is the relative velocity vector of the screw and By the geometry of the velocity triangle [Fig. l(b)]
barrel and vp is the velocity vector of the paste plug
along the channel [-Fig. l(b)], va is the vector velocity
Ivz,I tan ~ nD~N tan ~b
Iv, I =
component of the paste plug along the axis of the (tan 0 + tan tp) cos 0 = (tan 0 + tan ~b)cos 0"
screw, i.e. perpendicular to the plane of rotation. Now, (6)
[va [ = Ivr [ sin 0 (4) Using eq. (4),

where 0 is the forward angle of movement of the paste riD, N tan 0 tan ~b
Iv~[ = (7)
relative to the plane of rotation. The overall flowrate tan 0 + tan q~
Q is given by the product of the flow area measured
perpendicular to the axis of the channel and the axial and also
velocity, i.e.
I%1 tan ~ sin 0 7tD~N tan 0
7l" 2 ]Vpl = (tan 0 + tan ~)cos 0 sin ~ = (tan 0 + tan ~p)cos ~"
O = ~[D~ - ( D s - 2h)2]lval (5)
(8)
2534 A.S. BURBIDGE a n d J. BRIDGWATER

Expressions for Iv, I, Ivol and Iv~l have thus now been Cs
P = Fv, cos (0 + ~b) - --Fvp (15)
established in terms of nD~N. A relationship between Cb
the superficial speed of the barrel wall, Ivbl, and the
volumetric flowrate of the paste is thus or alternatively, using the geometry of a rectangular
channel,
7t 2 nD~ N tan 0 tan q~
Q=~[D~-(D,-2h) 2] tan0+tanq~ P=fv, cos(O+dp)- l+ Fvp (15a)
(9)
P provides a description of the pressure generation
or, in a dimensionless form,
per unit length of screw, and is controlled by the
4S tan 0 tan 4~ (10) values of the other five groups. ~b is the mean helix
R =
-- ~z2EI - - ( I - - T ) 2 ] tan 0 + tan ~b angle of the screw, and Tis a geometric factor describ-
ing the channel depth of the screw. Fvr and F~p provide
and so a description of the rheology of the paste coupled with
= x R . a geometric allowance for the relative surface vel-
0 tan- I(ta--ntan~b)
- R_]l (11) ocities at the barrel and screw surfaces respectively.
Since the rheology of the paste is the same in both
Here cases, Fo, and Fop are related and are not independent.
Finally there is S, a flowrate function.
Q (a dimensionless flow rate)
s=gb2 The steady-state operation of a rectangular chan-
neled screw can therefore be described by eq. (15)
2h together with eqs(10) and (11). Equation (15) can
T = -- (a dimensionless channel depth).
- - Ds readily be developed to use a four-parameter rheology
where % = Zo + f l v
We now have a set of relationships for the movement
of the barrel and the plug in terms of the forward feed AsincpdP_(zo + fllv, I) c~(~o+/~lv.I) (16)
angle of the plug 0, rotational speed N, inner diameter co Zo d x Zo CbZo
of the barrel Ds, and helix angle 4~ of the screw.
or a six-parameter rheoiogy (Benbow and Bridgwater,
In steady-state operation, the force balance acting
on a paste plug over an elemental length of the chan- 1993) where % = z0 + fltv"
nel dL [Fig. l(c)-I indicates that the component of Asin~b dP (Zo + / ~ l v , l") c~(ro +/~alvpl")
- (17)
barrel surface force acting along the screw channel Cbro dx *o Cb"C0
opposes the drag force due to the screw surface and
the force due to the back pressure. Thus
DISCUSSION OF M O D E L
c~%, cos(0 + $)dL = C,%pdL + A d P (12)
We now turn to consider the consequences of the
Where %, is the surface shear stress acting in the model and also provide some experimental evidence
direction of v,, %p is the surface shear stress acting in from equipment of two different scales.
the direction of Vp and c~, c, are the perimeters of (i) Numerical evaluation--current systems. Equation
contact between the paste and the inside surface of the (15) contains the related groups _Fo, and _Fvp. Thus,
barrel and the paste and the screw respectively. A de- introducing
notes the cross-sectional area of the channel. Hence,
G = finDs N
dP
A~=c~,%,cos(O+dp)-Cs%p. (13) -- "~0

we get
Introducing the length variable x which is measured
along the screw axis [Fig. l(b)] and rearranging, we { [ tan~p l } c o s ( 0 + cp)
have P= I+G (tan 0 + tan 40 cos 0

Asin~dP
Cb~o d x
%,
= --cos(0
~o
+ ~b) -
Cs%p
---
cb Zo "
(14)
T 1+ _[,tan0+-~a~-~)cos
tan0 6J)
(18)
This describes the behaviour of an extruding channel
whatever the geometry. Defining further dimension- with 0 defined by eqs (11) and (10) and thereby being
less groups as follows, a function of S, T and ~b. Hence the dimensionless
pressure gradient P. can be defined by G, S, T and 4~.
A sin q~dP Some standard values of G, S, T and ~b are known
P = - - (a dimensionless pressure gradient)
-- cb Zo dx from the design of extrusion machines but, for some,
a more detailed analysis is required. We consider each
ox = zv--5~ (a ratio of dynamic to static shear stresses) of the four dimensionless groups in turn:
Zo q~, the average helix angle of the screw, is usually
yields between 18 and 25 ° in the plastics industry, and from
 The single screw extrusion of pastes 2535

20 to 22 ° in the ceramics industry. The values of 18,
20, 22 and 24 ° are chosen for assessment here.
T is the value of 2h/D, which is commonly 0.6 for
ceramic systems. Values of T examined are 0.4, 0.5, 0.6
and 0.7.
G covers a broader range of values being dependent
on the size of machine and the type of paste being
extruded. For practical machines, the values of D are
approximately between 0.02 and 0.50 m, with the
screws generally rotating at around 0.5 rev/s. The
values of ~o and fl can be found from typical paste
formulations: ro varies between 0.030 MPa for an
alumina gel to about 0.048 MPa for an alumina and
clay mixture; values of fl range between 0.200 MPa
s/m for plasticene to about 3 MPa s/m for alumina
gels heavily loaded with zeolites. The maximum and
minimum values of _G calculated are therefore 78.5
and 0.13 respectively. The values of G_Gconsidered
_ are
0, 10.0, 30.0 and 50.0.
S is a flowrate function, and cannot be assessed
without knowledge of the die used. Dimensional anal-
ysis and analysis of data on the range of conditions
employed by manufacturers (Benbow and Bridgwater,
1993) suggest that Q should be proportional to D~. In
practice, unrestricted values of S are found to lie
between 0.22 and 0.35. To allow for die restrictions,
S was taken as 0.06,0.10,0.14 and 0.18.
A summary of predictions made by the model can
be found in Table 1; it is to be seen that negative
values of _P can arise, this meaning that the screw in
these circumstances acts as a pressure sink, and not
a pressure generator. The feed is being forced through
the system with the rotating screw restricting rather
than enhancing flow.
Table 1. Predicted effect of design parameters on ceramic
screw systems in current use
~b(deg) G T S O(deg) P
Effect of varying ~p
18 10.0 0.60 0.06 7.19 1.09 of using extreme values of _G,_S, T and ~b. Table
20 10.0 0.60 0.06 6.91 1.93 2 shows the effects predicted for using an average
22 10.0 0.60 0.06 6.69 2.55 screw helix angle over a much larger range than is
24 10.0 0.60 0.06 6.51 3.01 used in industry. There is a peak in performance at
If the helix angle ~bis increased from 18 to 24 ° with
all other variables held constant, then the pressure
gradient increases by a factor of about three with little
drop in the forward feed angle, 0. This suggests that
a 24 ° screw could deliver the same volumetric flow as
an 18° screw but at a higher outlet pressure. Thus
a helix angle of 24° would give a shorter axial length
of screw.
Increasing the channel depth Tofthe screw predicts
an increase in the pressure gradient and a decrease in
the forward feed angle 0. This is due to continuity
since the volume flowrate is constant and the cross-
sectional area of the channel is proportional to T.
Hence the pressure increases since the value of Iv~ and
hence the drag at the screw surface are inversely
related to the flow area. This effect is partly opposed
by the small increase of resisting surface area due to
the increase in channel depth. This leads to the con-
clusion that the deeper the screw channel, the greater
the pressure gradient it can generate. This may ex-
plain why screws designed for extruding ceramics are
generally deeper than those used for polymers.
Considering the effect of varying _G reveals much
greater scope for variation. The lowest value of G in-
vestigated was 0, equating to a paste with no velocity
dependence (i.e. fl = 0). Then Fob and Fvp both become
unity. Consequently the screw term (Fvp) dominates
the equation because of its larger contacting area
(ca > Cb)and the pressure gradient is negative. In prac-
rice the screw would simply generate no pressure and
fail to extrude unless the machine is fed by force.
Increasing G increases the pressure gradient. For
example when G is increased from 10 to 50, the value
of P increases from 1.93 to 12.3. Changing G will
necessarily have no effect on the value of the forward
feed angle 0, since 0 is geometric in its origin and
defined independently of _G.
Finally, increasing the flowrate function S has
through continuity the effect of increasing the forward
feed angle 0 and reducing the pressure gradient P.
(ii) Numerical evaluation--full range of parameters.
We now extend the discussion to consider the effects

Effect of varying T about 35°, which is much higher than that in standard
20 10.0 0.40 0.06 10.1 0.62
20 10.0 0.50 0.06 8.04 1.47
20 10.0 0.60 0.06 6.91 1.93
20 10.0 0.70 0.06 6.23 2.13 Table 2. Predicted effect of extreme values of screw helix
angle, ~b, on pressure generation P
Effect of varying G
20 0.0 0.60 0.06 6.91 -- 0.67 ~b(deg) G T S 0(deg) P
20 10.0 0.60 0.06 6.91 1.93
20 30.0 0.60 0.06 6.91 7.12 11 10.0 0.60 0.06 9.69 -- 5.55
20 50.0 0.60 0.06 6.91 12.30 21 10.0 0.60 0.06 6.79 2.26
31 10.0 0.60 0.06 6.11 3.81
Effect of varying S 41 10.0 0.60 0.06 5.79 3.76
24 30.0 0.60 0.06 6.91 1.93 51 10.0 0.60 0.06 5.60 2.97
24 30.0 0.60 0.10 14.5 -- 2.68 61 10.0 0.60 0.06 5.46 1.72
24 30.0 0.60 0.14 26.9 -- 7.35 71 10.0 0.60 0.06 5.36 0.17
24 30.0 0.60 0.18 47.4 - 12.2 81 10.0 0.60 0.06 5.27 -- 1.58
2536 A.S. BURBIDGE and J. BRIDGWATER

use, but coincides with predictions made by Adams inevitable that the paste is being pumped through the
et al. (1993) who used a technique of complex non- rotating screw. It is interesting to note that for very
isothermal Darnell and Mol modelling for food paste deep channels (large values of T__)there would appear
systems with a number of parameters differing from to be an optimum at around 0.80 (compared with
those used here. Experimental details were not given T = 0.70 from Table 1) which is about the deepest
by these workers; an empirically determined Tresca channelled screw that could be used in a practical
boundary condition was employed. The selection of machine. It should be noted that the error due to the
a helix angle is dependent on the values of the other "unrolling" of the screw channel is increasingly signifi-
design groups G, T, S and P for the system, so con- cant as T is increased.
cluding that helix angles in current use are generally Table 5 investigates the effects of extreme values of
too small would perhaps be imprudent at this junc- the flowrate function, S. If we consider the case of
ture. However, from a study of the open literature the a screw pumping against a blocked channel (S = 0)
reasoning for selecting ~b to be around 22 ° is certainly the maximum pressure gradient is obtained. Increas-
not clear. ing the values of S leads ultimately to large adverse
Table 3 demonstrates that pressure is roughly pro- pressure gradients and large forward feed angles.
portional to values of__Gover the full range of values
tested. The higher values of G are unlikely to be Laboratory evaluation
achieved in practice without significant shear-thicken- A small single screw extruder was designed and
ing since the shear rate dependence of the paste must built to allow laboratory-scale experimentation on
be large. This kind of behaviour is not desirable since model systems (Fig. 2). The rig was designed around
it is difficult to control and machine damage could a constant pitch brass screw of outside diameter
easily occur. 20 mm, core diameter 9 mm, helix angle 16.7 C' and
Values of T are physically constrained because of length 110 mm. It sits inside a close-fitting stainless
the need for the core of the screw to provide mechan- steel barrel 150 m m in length and 20 mm inside dia-
ical strength. When possible leakage effects around meter allowing feed to a point 109 mm measured
the flight tip are considered also, it is difficult to axially from the tip of the screw. At the feed port
envisage a practical screw with a value of T outside of a short vertical tube of 20 mm inside diameter termin-
the range from 0.8 to 0.1. However, for completeness, ates in a flange of 76 mm allowing for the attachment
extreme values of T are considered in Table 4. For of dies of varying length and diameter. The screw is
very shallow channels (small values o f T ) , the forward connected to a gearbox which is driven by a 150 W
feed angle 0 is forced to take on very large values. In electric motor via a moulded soft plastic linkage.
physical terms, the largest possible value of 0 is Control of the screw speed is by means of a poten-
90 ° - ~b, since any value larger than this implies that tiometer. A one-eighth inch nominal diameter
Iv~l is greater than the barrel velocity and it is then threaded tap situated 20 mm behind the die allows for
attachment of a small pressure transducer, 4. Three
other threaded pressure taps are positioned along the
barrel as shown.
Table 3. Predicted effect ofextreme values of G, on pressure
generation The two model pastes used in this study were de-
noted mix25A and plastic body. Mix25A is a laborat-
~b(deg) G T S 0(deg) P ory standard formulated as 25.5 w t % each of 280, 400
and 1200 grade Universal Abrasives a-alumina pow-
20 1.0 0.60 0.06 6.91 - 0.41 der, 2.91 wt% each of potato starch and bentonite,
20 2.0 0.60 0.06 6.91 - 0.15
20 3.0 0.60 0.06 6.91 0.11 and finally 17.6 wt% of deionised water. The powders
20 10.0 0.60 0.06 6.91 1.93 were dry mixed in a Hobart paddle mixer for 20 min,
20 30.0 0.60 0.06 6.91 7.12
20 3110 0.60 0.06 6.91 77.2
20 30110 0.60 0.06 6.91 778
Table 5. Predicted effect ofextreme values of S on pressure
generation

Table 4. Predicted effect of extreme values T on pressure q~(deg) G T S 0(deg) P

generation
20 10.0 0.60 0.00 0.00 8.78
gb(deg) G T S 0(deg) P 20 10.0 0.60 0.005 0.44 8.21
20 10.0 0.60 0.010 0.91 7.64
20 10.0 0.05 0.06 145 - 37.6 20 10.0 0.60 0.015 1.39 7.06
20 10.0 0.10 0.06 104 - 15.7 20 10.0 0.60 0.030 2.97 5.36
20 10.0 0.15 0.06 48.4 - 8.60 20 10.0 0.60 0.200 61.1 - 14.7
20 10.0 0.20 0.06 26.9 - 4.67 20 10.0 0.60 0.210 68.4 - 15.9
20 10.0 0.30 0.06 14.3 - 1.04 20 10.0 0.60 0.220 75.8 - 17.2
20 10.0 0.80 0.06 5.81 2.17 20 10.0 0.60 0.230 83.0 - 18.5
20 10.0 0.90 0.06 5.59 2.06 20 10.0 0.60 0.240 89.8 - 19.7
20 10.0 0.95 0.06 5.53 1.96 20 10.0 0.60 0.250 96.3 - 20.1
 The single screw extrusion of pastes
Fig. 2. Laboratory-scale single screw extruder.
the liquid having then being added before a further
20 min of wet mixing. Finally the paste was pugged
twice by passing it through the Hobart screw mincer
attachment to improve its extrusion properties. Plas-
tic body is a commercial clay produced by British
Industrial Sand Ltd for pottery use and consequently
is not very homogeneous. It was used for industrial-
scale experiments due to its availability in the large
quantities required. Plastic body was also used with
the 20 mm extruder as a paste of contrasting rheology
to mix25A.
The calculation of rheological parameters Zo,
fll and n followed the procedure presented by Benbow
and Bridgwater (1993). Briefly, this consisted of in-
strumented ram extrusion through a set of dies of
identical diameter but differing lengths. Subtraction of
pressure drop vs dieland extrusion speed character-
istic curves for dies of different lengths allowed the
calculation of surface shear stress as a function of
velocity. Curve fitting techniques implemented on
a PC were then used to derive values of either Zo, fll
and n or z0 and fl as required.
It should be noted that the ratio of the pressure
drop due to the die entrance to that due to the dieland
shearing is large. The effect of this is such that the
measurement of the parameters z0, fll and n becomes
relatively inaccurate adversely affecting any predic-
tions made by the screw model using these data. It is
probable then that in the future the predictions may
be improved by redesigning the ram extrusion system.
To this end systems based around a long die with
radial stress transducers at points along the axis are
currently under investigation.
Pressure measurement along the 20 mm screw ex-
truder barrel were made with four Sensotec model
2537
---imm0
S subminiature 20 M P a pressure transducers. These
were positioned in 4 mm threaded holes numbered
sequentially from 1 to 4, 1 being at the inlet and 4 at
the die end of the screw extruder (Fig. 2). Hence three
axial pressure gradients were derived as follows: G r l
are the measured axial pressure gradients at the feed
end of the screw and have been calculated from
measurements by transducers 1 and 2; Gr2 are the
corresponding calculated values for tile centre section
of the screw and are from data for transducers 2 and 3;
Gr3 are the corresponding calculated values for the
delivery section of the screw being from data for
transducers 3 and 4 (Fig. 2). Pressure measurements
close to the inlet proved unsuitable due to the bulk
consolidation process taking place and those close to
the die dependent on the particular die used. The
pressure gradient calculated for the centre section of
the screw (Gr2) is therefore considered as the best
characteristic of the system.
An important prediction of the model is that the
pressure gradient is constant along the screw, this
being at odds with models based on frictional bound-
ary conditions such as that of Parks and Hill (1959).
Experimental work presented here presents no in-
formation in this respect, although considerable ex-
perimental work has been carried out by Laenger
(1992). This lends significant support since he found
that the pressure gradient was constant along the
length of a single screw extruder working with clay.
Experiments were carried out using the 20 mm dia-
meter laboratory machine to drive paste through a die
of 3 mm diameter and 48 mm axial length at various
volumetric flowrates. The volumetric flowrate was
maintained at a constant rate by an Instron strain
frame (Fig. 2). In this way the paste flowrate could be
2538
controlled independently of the screw speed and
hence in some cases negative pressure gradients were
maintained across the screw. Experiments at a zero
flowrate were performed by the use of a blank die.
Figure 3 compares experimental measurements
with predictions made for an "unrolled" rectangular
screw channel. Predictions consistently underestimate
the pressure for these experiments. Allowance can be
made for the reduction of the screw-channel paste
contact area due to the curvature of the channel, in
which case the predictions are significantly improved
(Fig. 4) taking
co = 2h + 7rD sin ~b
for an unrolled rectangular channel and
for a helical channel.
A.S. BURmDGEand J. BIUDGWATER
However, use of McKelvey's "unrolled" channel re-
mains appropriate for polymer extruders where the
channels are generally shallow and the error in the
screw polymer contact area is small.
Figures 4, 5 and 6 compare experiment with predic-
tion for screws of identical pitch, but varying channel
depth; the predictions are all for curved channels.
Comparison suggests that the greatest pressure gradi-
ents are generated by the shallowest screw. In general,
the effect of screw speed is predicted reasonably for
higher volumetric flowrates although there is con-
siderable deviation as the throughput is reduced. It
can be argued that the phenomena of liquid migration
and consolidation will cause localised variations in
~o,/~1 and n at the barrel surface especially as the paste
at this surface is not exchanged radially or able to
move axially. If the values of Zo are consequently
assumed to be higher at this fast moving barrel surface
then the predictions can be improved. These consoli-
dation phenomena will require further investigation
in the future.

25

20

15 ¸
• Q=O m31s
• Q=-1.29E-8 m3/s
@ 1o • Q=1.72E-8 m3/s
o Q=2.15E-8 m3/s
Q=O m 3 / s
5
-- -- Q=1.29E-8 m 3 / s
o ..... Q = 1.72E-8m3/s
- Q=2.15E-8 m31s

0.05 _ ~ .---~-~ -~G='.'.~ -'-='--~ ~-~ ""='~'~ 0.15 0.2 0.25

-5

screw speed ffevl=)

Fig. 3. Axial pressure gradient vs screw speed and volumetric flowrate for mix25A Zo = 0.01 MPa,/~2 =
0.8 MPa(s/m) °'45, n = 0.45; screw o f mean hefix angle 16.3 °, outside diameter 20 mm and core diameter
7.4 mm. Predictions for fiat unrolled rectangular channel.

25

20

15

• Q=l.29E-8 m3/s
10
• Q=l.72E-8 m 3 / s
• Q=2.15E-8 m 3 / s
Q=0 m3/s
5
• - Q=l.29E.5 m3/s I
.... Q,=1.72E-8m3/s
• - - - -- Q=2.15E-8 m 3 / s
I I t I I
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

~w meeo 0~vl=)

Fig. 4. Axial pressure gradient vs speed and volumetric flowrate for mix25A Zo = 0.01 MPa, ~1 =

0.8 MPa(s/m) °''s, n = 0.45; screw o f mean helix angle 16.3 °, outside diameter 20 mm and core diameter
TA rnm. Predictions for curved channel.
 The single screw extrusion of pastes 2539

2O

15-
• II
• Q = O m3/s
• ~-8.58E-9 m31s
10- • Q=I.72E-8 m3/s
"o
e Q=2.15E-8 m3/s
Q = O m3/s
5" -- -- Q=8.58E-9 rn3/s
.- Q=1.72E-8m3/s
- - Q=2.15E-8 m3/s
0 I I i I L
0.0.5 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
screw ~ (roy/8)

FiB. 5. Axial pressure gradient vs screw speed and volumetric flowrate for mix25A To = 0.01 MPa, fll =
0.8 MPa(s/m)°'`s, n = 0.45; screw of mean helix angle 14.9°, outside diameter 20 mm and core diameter
8.5 ram. Predictions for curved channel.

20.

18-

16

14.

~ 12

• Q = O m3/s

~s
'o
•
•
Q=1.29E-8 m3/s
Q=1.72E-8 rn3/s

6 o Q=2.15E-8 m3/s

~ ~_,..~ ~ ~.r.~ ~ ~ ~ ~--'~ ~ "~'-~ Q = O m3/s

4 .
-- -- Q=1.29E-8 m3/s
.... Q=1.72E-Sm3/s
2
o - Q=2.15E-8 m3/s
0 • • e i t
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

~:mw ~ (mvls)

Fig. 6. Axial pressure gradient vs screw speed and volumetric flowrate for mix25A Zo = 0.01 MPa, flj =
0.8 MPa(s/m)°'`s, n = 0.45; screw of mean helix angle 18.7°, outside diameter 20 mm and core diameter
6.0 mm. Predictions for curved channel.

Overall comparison between experimental data for
different screws becomes easier if only the dynamic
part of the pressure gradient is considered. The dy-
namic part will be defined as the difference in the
pressure gradient generated for N = 0.245 and
N = 0.0245 rev/s. Figure 7 shows these dynamic pres-
sure gradients for all of the screws tested at zero
volumetric flowrate. It is dear that there is an opti-
mum dimensionless channel depth somewhere be-
tween 0.22 and 0.32 and also that higher pressure
gradients are generated at the lower screw angles. It is
unclear how changing the volumetric throughput of
the screw system will affect these values.
Finally, Fig. 8 illustrates the effects of another
paste. Dynamic pressure gradients are again used to
remove any effects caused by consolidation at the
barrel surface, the value of pressure gradient at
N = 0.0245 rev/s being subtracted from the data for
all speeds. The relationship is different from that for
mix25A (Figs 3-6) and the predictions still show good
agreement. This suggests that the dynamic effects of
the paste rheology have been correctly included in the
model system.
Industrial-scale evaluation
Industrial-scale experiments were also carried out
although here the control of the paste was quite diffi-
cult. A Bennett and Sayer single screw extruder
(Fig. 9) was used having a maximum unrestricted
flowrate (i.e. the conveying rate with no die plate at
maximum speed) of 600 kg/h and a screw speed con-
tinuously variable between 10 and 60 rpm. Paste is fed
into a hopper above a pair of counter-rotating shafts.
One shaft, section AA, drives a deep grooved feeding
roller similar to that found on some types of pelletiz-
ing roll extrusion presses; the second drives the feed
2540 A.S. BURBIDGE and J. BRIDGWATER
12 ¸

10

- e . - h/D=0.221
- - I I - - h/D--0.29 /
8
--;~- h/D=0.32 /
X WD=0.35|

• 6
l,<

"0
4

0 b I I I I I I I I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

helix angle (degrees)

Fig. 7. Experimental dynamic axial pressure gradient (pressure change between N = 0.0245 and
0.245 rev/s) vs helix angle with screw channel depth as a parameter for mix25A To = 0.01 MPa,
/~1 = 0.8 MPa(s/m) °'45, n = 0.45; at zero volumetric flowrate.

5.00¸

4.50

4.00¸

3.50

3.00

L•, 2.50
x

•o 2.OO

1.50 -
t- prs,,,oo I
t • expenment J
1.00.

0.50.

0.00 JL j I i I J
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
screw speed (rev/s)

Fig. 8. Dynamic axial pressure gradient (pressure change between N = 0.0245 and 0.245 rev/s) vs screw
speed at zero volumetric flowrate for plastic body To = 0.01 MPa, fll = 2.9 MPa(s/m) 1"2, n = 1.2; screw of
m e a n helix angle 35.3 °, outside diameter 20 m m and core diameter 7.4 mm. Predictions for curved channel.
 The single screw extrusion of pastes 2541

AA I BB I CC I DD
I I I

I I I
Feed.
I I scre~l Output
screw screw

Feed screw Feed roller

screw
~_~ ,oiler 2
Section through Section through Section through Section through
plane AA plane BB plane CC plane DD

Fig. 9. Bennett and Sayer 3 in. diameter single screw extruder.

12
screw, section BB. Paste falls onto the roller and is
then forced into the single flighted helical screw (sec-
tion AA). The paste is then conveyed along the feeding ~ "

o° l,\ leoeeO
]Increasing screw

I
• lO RPM

.20.
screw (section BB) into a vacuum chamber from 5= & 30 RPM

whence it drops onto a second roller (section CC) Q • X 50 RPM

which then feeds the final pressure generating screw
(section DD). 2

The final screw, the one to which the pressure and 0

flow measurements relate, is of outside diameter
80 mm, internal diameter 40 mm and has flight spac-
ings of 61, 61, 40, 40 and 40 mm measured along the
axis of the machine. The spacing is defined as the
distance from the front tip of one screw flight to an
identical point on the adjacent downstream flight
along the axis of the screw. The mean helix angles for
the screw are deduced as ~ = 19.7° for the first two
turns, and ~ = 13.4° for the delivery part of the screw.
The change in the period occurs just as the screw
enters the enclosed portion, i.e. where the barrel sec-
tion begins. The flight width perpendicular to the
helix is 12 mm and the part of the screw enclosed by
the barrel section is of length 124 mm and internal
diameter 83 ram. There is therefore a tip to wall gap of
1.5 mm through which paste leakage can occur. The
dimensionless channel depth ._T= 2h/D = 0.5.
Figure 10 illustrates the results of pressure measure-
ments taken at the die for this single screw extruder.
The pressure gradients were calculated on the basis
that only the 13.4° part of the screw was fully flooded,
but it was not possible to ascertain whether this was
attained. The material was of variable quality and the
quantities required rendered conditions difficult. The
measurements are comparable with the predictions of
the model when the intrinsic accuracy of the experi-
ment is taken into consideration, with both the mag-
0 2 4 6 8 10
Volumetric f l o w r a ~ , Q (m3"le-,~e)
Fig. 10. Axial pressure gradient for Bennett and Sayer ma-
chine extruding plastic body for which To = 0.01 MPa,
fll = 2.90 MPa(s/m)1"2, n = 1.2.
nitudes and trends of the predictions being broadly
correct. The influence of screw speed was satisfactorily
predicted with the flowrate at a given pressure differ-
ing by a factor of up to two. There is thus evidence,
within the acctiracy of the experiment, that the effects
of scale are satisfactorily included.
CONCLUSIONS
A theory based upon a model of paste rheology has
been coupled to the approach of Darnell and Mol to
yield a model for the rate of pressure generation in
a fully flooded single screw.
Generalisations about the predictions made are
rather awkward to make due to the interaction of the
design parameters. It is found that (i) the screw should
have a dimensionless channel depth close to 0.30 and
(ii) the surface shear stress of the paste should exhibit
a considerable velocity dependence since it is this
shearing force that is directly responsible for the pres-
sure generation.
2542 A.S. BURmDGEand J. BRIDGWATER
Experiments show that the dynamic trends of the
data were predicted to good agreement in all cases.
However, in the case of low or zero flowrates, there
appear to be changes in the surface properties of
pastes that affect the shear stresses causing the abso-
lute values of the predictions to b e too low. This
becomes insignificant when the flowrate is higher.
From separate larger scale work, the effect of scale
appears to have been correctly identified although
more reliable data are desirable.
Some of the difficulty in the model predictions was
due to the characterisation of the paste rheology
which was used as an input for the predictive systems;
despite this, the dynamic rheological effects in particu-
lar seem to have been correctly identified. One
method of improving the measurement of the dieland
paste parameters (~0,/~ and n) is to design a very long
die with pressure transducers at intervals along its
length and this is in hand. An advantage of such
a method is that it could allow for measurement of the
dieland parameters completely separately from those
for the die entry region,
The work also indicates that the physical mecha-
nism arising when pastes are exposed for a long time
to shear need study together with direct measure-
ments of the surface shear stress.
There are a number of further challenges. It is
known that sometimes pastes lose contact with the
trailing face of the screw. Analysis of this is of interest
in its own right and is important in that it influences
the wetted area of the paste in contact with the screw.
The more difficult issue of flow between the tips of the
screw flights and the barrel awaits analysis as do the
more complex flows in twin screws.
Acknowledaements--The work presented in this paper was
carried out under the financial support of the Institut
Fran~ais du P&role, CEDI, Solaize, France. Thanks are also
due to the Department of Industrial Ceramics in the Univer-
sity of Staffordshire for use of their Bennett and Sayer 76 mm
screw extruder.
NOTATION
Ao cross-sectional area of die entry, m 2
A cross-sectional area of dieland or screw
channel, m 2
Cb perimeter of barrel or paste contact perpen-
dicular to screw channel ( = n D sin0), m
perimeter of screw or paste contact perpen-
¢s
dicular to screw channel [ = 2h + nDsinO
("unrolled" rectangular channel) or = 2h
(1 - h/D) + riD(1 - 2h/D) sin0 (helical chart
nel)], m
C circumference of dieland, m
D diameter of dieland, m
Do barrel diameter, m
Ds internal diameter of screw barrel, m
h depth of screw channel, m
L length of dieland or screw channel (meas-
ured along the channel axis), m
wall velocity exponent
N angular rotation rate, s-1
P pressure, M P a
Q volumetric flowrate, m3/s
vo axial ' velocity vector of paste plug in screw
extruder, m/s
Vb relative velocity vector of screw and barrel,
m/s
vo velocity vector of paste plug, m/s
v, relative velocity of paste plug and barrel,
m/s
V mean extrudate velocity in dieland, m/s
w width of channel normal to the flights, m
x Cartesian length axis measured along axis of
screw
Greek letters
velocity factor of bulk yield stress, MPa s/m
fl velocity factor of wall shear stress, MPa s/m
fll power law velocity factor for wall shear
stress, MPa(s/m)"
0 forward feed angle of paste
ao initial bulk yield stress of paste, MPa
%p shear stress at velocity Vp, M P a
%, shear stress at velocity v,, MPa
Xo initial wall shear stress of paste, MPa
helix angle of screw
Dimensionless groups
Fvv ratio of dynamic to static shear stress at
Ivpl -- xvdz0
Fvr ratio of dynamic to static shear stress at
Iv,I = ~p/T0
G surface velocity independent shear stress ra-
tio ( = BnDN/~o)
P dimensionless pressure gradient ( = ((A sin ~p)/
(Cb~o))/(dS/dx)
R_ dimensionless flowrate group { = 4 Q /
7r2D~N[D~ -- (Ds - 2h)2])
_S dimensionless flowrate ( = Q/ND~)
T dimensionless channel depth ( = 2h/D,)
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