The Journal of Social Psychology

ISSN: 0022-4545 (Print) 1940-1183 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vsoc20

The role of group identification in the well-being of

Spaniards with gypsy ethnicity

María del Carmen Gómez Berrocal, Carmen Porras & Sara Mata

To cite this article: María del Carmen Gómez Berrocal, Carmen Porras & Sara Mata (2019): The
role of group identification in the well-being of Spaniards with gypsy ethnicity, The Journal of Social
Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2019.1634504

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2019.1634504

Published online: 01 Jul 2019.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 41

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=vsoc20
THE JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2019.1634504

The role of group identification in the well-being of Spaniards with

gypsy ethnicity
María del Carmen Gómez Berrocal , Carmen Porras, and Sara Mata
Universidad de Granada Facultad de Psicologia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Objective: To describe the role of sex, age, educational level and psychosocial Received 24 September 2018
group-identification factors in well-being and satisfaction with life. Method: 229 Accepted 30 May 2019
Spanish Gypsies completed a survey of demographic data, psychological well- KEYWORDS
being, life satisfaction, ethnic identity and the individual’s inclusion of self within Group identification; ethnic
the ingroup. Results: (a) only level of studies is related to satisfaction with life; (b) identity; self-ingroup
participants with higher scores in ethnic identity reported more well-being and overlap; well-being; Spanish
more life satisfaction; and (c) assessment of ethnic belonging affects more areas gypsies
of well-being than does perception of closeness to the ingroup. Conclusion:
objective conditions of deprivation are not related to well-being as reported by
the participants; it is important to study how Spanish Gypsies value and perceive
their ethnicity in order to predict their well-being and satisfaction with life.

The Roma – known in Spain as Gypsies – constitute the largest ethnic minority in Europe, between
10 and 12 million people. In Spain there are between 600,000 and 750,000 Roma, 46% reside in the
south of Spain (Andalusia). The presence of Gypsies in Spain dates as far back as 1425. Initially they
were nomads and spoke their own language, but their culture and customs were rejected by the
settled, Spanish population that supported the ethnic, cultural and religious homogenization that was
being promoted by the Catholic Monarchs. Gypsies who have full rights as citizens of Spain can be
considered only since the democratic period that began in 1978 (Gómez- Berrocal, 2008).
Various sources (see the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Gypsy Secretariat
Foundation, Spanish Ministry of Health, Consumerism and Social Well-being) endorse the fact that
Gypsies in Europe suffer the direct and indirect effects of social exclusion (Stangor et al., 2003).
Poverty, assessed on the basis of objective sociodemographic indicators, is usually related to exclu-
sion. Although the conditions of the Gypsy community in Spain have improved during the last
30 years, they continue to suffer poverty and hardship. While 95% of Gypsy children are enrolled in
school, only 20% complete compulsory secondary education and 2% go to university. At present,
some 10,000 Gypsies in Spain live in shanties. However, other psychosocial factors seem to be
responsible for the exclusion (Morales & Bustillos, 2008). Stangor et al. (2003) talk about the indirect
effects of social exclusion, that is, the subjective perception of Gypsies that they have suffered some
type of discrimination. The European Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) states that 51% of the
Roma population in Spain say they have suffered discrimination and prejudice, although only 6%
report these situations. These reports are consistent with the evidence of prejudice and a negative
stereotype held by the non-Gypsy population against Gypsies (Gómez- Berrocal, 2008; Gómez-
Berrocal & Moya, 1999; Gómez-Berrocal & Navas, 2000). Gypsies are also the group most stigma-
tized as “socially deviant”, ahead of delinquents, prostitutes and drug addicts (Marichal & Quiles,
2000). But the social representation of Gypsies in Spain is also closely linked to flamenco art and
culture. This very art is a sign of Spanish identity in general, and of Andalusian identity in particular.

CONTACT María del Carmen Gómez Berrocal cgomezb@ugr.es Psicología Social, Universidad de Granada Facultad de
Psicologia, Campus Universitario de Cartuja, s/n., Granada 18071, Spain
© 2019 Taylor & Francis
2 M. D. C. GÓMEZ BERROCAL ET AL.

In fact, the link between Gypsy and Andalusian has been highlighted in various fashions and cultural
and literary pastimes, appearing outside the Gypsy sphere for the past three centuries (romantic
travel and a taste for all things flamenco, since the mid-19th century) (Clavería, 1951).
Taking into account these socio-cultural characteristics of Spanish Gypsies, the general objective
of this study is to describe the role played by certain demographic factors, and other factors related
to identification with the ethnic in-group, in the psychological well-being and life satisfaction of a
sample of Spanish Gypsies.
The well-being construct includes different dimensions. A cognitive dimension, or subjective
well-being, refers to self-esteem and satisfaction with life (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002).
Another, the psychological well-being, constitutes an affective dimension of well-being, referring
to a set of evaluative judgments and emotional reactions that are the consequence of exploiting
one’s capacities and thereby attributing meaning to life. In the individual context and in social
relationships, it alludes to a sense of mastery and competence (Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003; Ryff,
1989). Psychological well-being includes: self-acceptance, autonomy, personal growth, environ-
mental mastery, purpose in life and positive relations with others (Ryff, 1989). From a philoso-
phical point of view, well-being could be understood in two ways: a “hedonic” form that
represents the sum of the positive affective experiences of an individual (Ryff, Singer, &
Dienberg Love, 2004), and an “eudaimonic” form that results from striving to achieve meaning
and purpose in life, beyond simple self-gratification (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Psychometric studies
designed to test the discriminant validity between the two latent constructs of Hedonia and
Eudaimonia suggest a high correlation between them (Disabato, Goodman, Kashdan, Short, &
Jarden, 2016). In this sense, it is important not to confuse the predictors of well-being with one’s
own well-being (Kashdan, Biswas-Diener, & King, 2008). Research in this regard indicates that
eudaimonic motivations are more strongly related to well-being than hedonic motivations (e.g.,
Henderson, Knight, & Richardson, 2014; Huta & Ryan, 2010). Likewise, research in behavioral
genetics is contributing to the understanding of the main causes of well-being (Bartels, 2015).
The coefficient of heritability (h2), the proportion of the variance of the scores that can be
attributed to the genetic factors in a particular population, changes considerably depending on
the samples analyzed, and this change is more noticeable if they come from different cultures or
socio-economic levels. These results support the assumption that the environment, for instance
the socio-economic level, may plays a role in the people´s well-being.

Socio-economic factors, well-being and satisfaction with life

Social exclusion has been linked to poverty; similarly, the objective characteristics of inequality or
deprivation related to demographic factors, such as age, income level, educational level, and
ethnicity, can negatively affect well-being (Barger, Donoho, & Wayment, 2009; Yang, 2008).
Empirical evidence shows inconsistent results. On the one hand, data show that the objective
situation with regard to age, educational level, work, and housing has a weak link with life
satisfaction; this would indicate that a lack of personal well-being does not result directly from
objective conditions, but from maladjustment when comparing objective reality to one’s aspirations
(Andrews & Robinson, 199; Andrews & Withey, 2012). On the other hand, the interaction between
heritability and environment has hardly been studied for well-being. Recent meta-analyzes indicate
that genetic factors contribute significantly to explaining approximately 35% of the variance of well-
being and satisfaction with life; and it seems that heritability is greater in better financial positions
(Bartels, 2015). In addition, the exact effect of age or sex on well-being and its components has not
yet been determined; there are notable differences in age regarding the etiology of life satisfaction,
and it is not clear whether sex could be an important factor for understanding individual differences
in well-being (Bartels, 2015). As a whole, the data suggest that it is important to analyze the specific
role played by demographic variables in the cognitive dimension of well-being (i.e. satisfaction with
life) and in the affective dimension of well-being (i.e. psychological well-being).
 THE JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 3

Group identification, well-being and satisfaction with life

To conceive of well-being as resulting from a person’s satisfaction with the characteristics of their
environment and their circumstances (Díaz et al., 2006) is especially simplistic when our analysis takes
into account group membership. It has been proposed that identification with a discriminated ingroup
may mitigate the negative consequences of exclusion (Branscombe, Schmitt, & Harvey, 999; Outten,
Schmitt, Garcia, & Branscombe, 2009; Schmitt, Branscombe, Postmes, & García, 2014). For the present
study it is important to define the dimensions involved in identification with the ingroup.
Leach et al. (2008) have proposed that identification with the ingroup involves the two dimensions
of self-investment and group-level self-definition. According to the SIT (Tajfel, 1981), self-investment
refers to positive feelings about the group as an entity (Postmes, Haslam, & Jans, 2013) and to the
emotional meaning and value that come with belonging to the group. The components of self-
investment include satisfaction from belonging to the group, a feeling of solidarity with other members
of the ingroup and the centrality of group membership in one’s self-concept (Leach et al., 2008). The
ethnic identity construct (Phinney, 1990) is related to the self-investment dimension described by
Leach. Phinney (1990) conceives of ethnic identity as a bidimensional construct that includes Identity
Search (learning and seeking the meaning of the ethnic ingroup), and Affirmation (commitment, sense
of belonging and satisfaction with the ingroup) (Ashmore, Deaux, & McLaughlin-Volpe, 2004). The
Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) (Phinney, 1992) is a frequently-used scale for assessment
of one’s identification with the ethnic in-group. It has two factors: the affirmation subscale and the
identity search subscale. The self-investment construct is similar to what the MEIM assesses.
Specifically, “the affirmation subscale includes items similar to our solidarity, centrality and satisfaction
components and the identity search subscale includes items similar to our centrality and satisfaction
components” (Leach et al., 2008, p. 155). On the other hand, neither of the MEIM subscales is related
in the same way to well-being. The identity search subscale correlates moderately and even negatively
with well-being, and the affirmation subscale correlates positively with well-being (Syed et al., 2013).
These results suggest the need to study the relationship of the MEIM subscales with both well-being
dimensions: satisfaction with life and psychological well-being.
Leach et al. (2008) assume that identification with the ingroup involves a cognitive aspect – the
group-level self-definition dimension which, according to Self-Categorization Theory (SCT, Turner,
Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987), manifests as a depersonalized self-perception whereby
individuals become self-stereotyped as similar to other members of their group. Schubert and Otten
(2002) have proposed a pictorial measure to assess individuals’ inclusion of the self in their ingroup.
This measure correlates positively to measures of social identity and individual self-stereotyping
measures (Coats, Smith, Claypool, & Banner, 2000; Leach et al., 2008). Self-perception as a member
of a stigmatized group underscores the importance of analyzing possible consequences on well-being
from taking on a negative or discredited image of one’s own group. In members of minority groups,
self-ascription of negative traits has been found to correlate more strongly with psychological well-
being and life satisfaction than does self-ascription of positive traits (Latrofa, Vaes, & Cadinu, 2012;
Latrofa, Vaes, Pastore, & Cadinu, 2009). This self-ascription of the negative stereotype is a pre-
sumably a reactional process that can serve to motivate members of disadvantaged groups to
undertake actions for social change and to feel better about their own group (Latrofa et al., 2009).
Studies from past decades have addressed the role of ethnic identification in the well-being of
people belonging to minority groups. Meta-analyses based on studies carried out in the United States
(Smith & Silva, 2011; Umaña-Taylor, 2011) indicate a medium effect size r = .25. In the European
context, similar results have been found, with Turkish youths born in Bulgaria and Germany
(Dimitrova, Aydinli, Chasiotis, Bender, & Van De Vijver, 2015), and with Roma adolescents and
their mothers (Dimitrova, Chasiotis, Bender, & van de Vijver, 2014). We do not know of any study
on the well-being of Spanish Gypsies that analyzes the role of their ethnicity. Assuming that group
identification is multidimensional (Ashmore et al., 2004; Leach et al., 2008), we propose that Gypsies
in Spain can internalize their group membership in an affective and cognitive way; and that the
4 M. D. C. GÓMEZ BERROCAL ET AL.

affective value of belonging and the perception of self-inclusion in the ingroup can have different
effects on well-being and satisfaction. The ethnic identity of Spanish Gypsies is linked to flamenco
art, highly regarded by other Spaniards and also internationally. Within the framework of the SIT,
affective identification with the ingroup can enhance the psychological well-being of Spanish Gypsies
(Haslam, Jetten, Postmes, & Haslam, 2009). However, cognitive identification involves internalizing
the stigma and negative stereotypes of Gypsies, held by the rest of society.
We tested the following hypotheses:

H1. Sociodemographic variables are expected to have a more significant effect on life satisfaction than on
psychological well-being (Andrews & Robinson, 1991; Andrews & Withey, 2012; Bartels, 2015).

H2. Participants who score higher (vs. those who score lower) on the measure of ethnic identity are
expected to have higher scores on psychological well-being and life satisfaction (Branscombe, Schmitt, &
Harvey, 1999; Ong, Phinney, & Dennis, 2006; Phinney, Cantu, & Kurtz, 1997; Schmitt et al., 2014).

H3. A different pattern of scores in well-being and life satisfaction will be found depending on different
aspects of the identification with the Gypsy ingroup: affirmation subscale, search subscale and measure of
self-ingroup overlap (Branscombe et al., 1999; Latrofa et al., 2012, 2009).

Method
Participants
The sample was composed of 229 participants (44.5% male and 55.5% female), with ages ranging
from 18 to 89 (Mage = 36.57, SD = 15.23). Of the entire sample, 29.7% had no education, 38.9% had
primary education, 27.5% secondary education and 3.5% university education. All of them met the
following inclusion criteria: a) age 18 or older; b) have Spanish nationality; c) consider themselves
Gypsies. Participants were recruited through mediators with Gypsy ethnicity, using convenience
sampling with quotas in order to obtain a similar population of men and women, distributed across
three age groups (ages 18–25, 26–40, and 41 and above).

Instruments
Sociodemographic data. Participants responded to a series of items pertaining to sociodemographic
information: gender, age, level of education and ethnic group.
Scale of psychological well-being (SPWB; Ryff & Keyes, 1995), adapted to a Spanish population
(Díaz et al., 2006). The scale consists of 39 items which are answered on a 6-point Likert scale: from
1 (totally disagree) to 6 (totally agree). High scores indicate greater psychological well-being. Items
are grouped into six factors, with adequate reliability in the Spanish version (Díaz et al., 2006): self-
acceptance (6 items, α = .83), ability to maintain positive relations with others (6 items, α = .81),
autonomy (8 items, α = .73), environmental mastery (6 items, α = .71), personal growth (7 items,
α = .68), and purpose in life (6 items, α = .83). Due to the alpha coefficients found in this sample (.61
self-acceptance, .74 positive relations, .64 autonomy, .50 environmental mastery, .59 personal growth
and .76 purpose in life), the environmental mastery subscale was not considered in our analyses.
Spanish version of the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin,
1985) by Atienza, Pons, Balaguer, and García-Merita (2000). This scale consists of 5 items that are
answered on a 7-point Likert scale: from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). High scores indicate
more satisfaction. The Spanish version has adequate reliability (α = .84) (Atienza et al., 2000). For the
present study sample, the Cronbach alpha was .74.
 THE JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 5

Spanish version of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM; Phinney, 1992) by Esteban
(2010). This measure consists of 12 items that are answered on a 5-point Likert scale: from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). High scores indicate a more highly developed ethnic identity.
There are two subscales: affirmation (7 items) and identity search (5 items). We examined whether
the two factors of the original scale could be ratified in the study sample. A first factorial analysis was
performed with the Oblimin rotation, although the correlation value between both dimensions was
0.314. Following the recommendations on the factorial analysis of items, which suggest Varimax
rotation when the correlations are below 0.50 (Carretero-Dios & Pérez, 2005, 2007). A Principal
Component Analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation was performed. This analysis suggests a structure
of two factors (5,900, 1,377) that coincide with the factors of the original scale. The items of the
Affirmation factor obtained weights between .872 and .696 and between .733 and .560 the items of
the Identity Search factor. However, in the analysis performed with our sample, item 10 (I actively
participate in the traditions of my ethnic group such as their music, food, language) saturates in
Affirmation factor and not in the Identity search factor. Internal consistency of the Spanish version
is adequate for total ethnic identity (.87 in ethnic natives and .80 in mixed-race), in affirmation (.83
in ethnic natives and .76 in mixed-race), and identity search (.78 in ethnic natives and .71 in mixed-
race) (Esteban, 2010). In the present study sample, Cronbach’s alpha was .90 for Affirmation
subscale, .71 for Identity search subscale and .89. for the total score.
Measure of self-ingroup overlap (SIO, based on Schubert & Otten, 2002). This measure is
composed of one item with seven diagrams representing gradually increasing identification with
the ingroup. Each diagram has two circles, a smaller one on the left labeled “self”, and a larger one
on the right labeled “Gypsies”. From diagrams 1 to 7, the two circles become gradually closer: they
are separated in diagrams 1 and 2, tangential in diagram 3, overlapping in diagrams 4, 5 and 6, and
concentric in diagram 7. The respondent’s task was to choose one of the seven diagrams that best
represents his or her closeness to the Gypsy group.

Procedure
First, we obtained permission from the Human Research Ethics Committee of the University of
Granada (Spain). Each participant received a booklet with the measures described. Participation was
voluntary, non-remunerated and there was informed consent. The participants took 40–50 minutes
to answer. The booklet was administered face-to-face, filled out individually, with written instruc-
tions. It was presented as a study for the purpose of collecting information on certain aspects relating
to ethnic origin.
The instruments were administered by mediators with Gypsy ethnicity, blind to the research
objectives. They were trained in order to ensure correct completion of the questionnaire. Each one
administered 22 booklets. Sampling was incidental, non-probabilistic. A postgraduate student
supervised correct administration and performed the data entry.

Data analysis
In order to identify the effects of the sociodemographic variables on our variables of interest, the
sample was organized according to: (1) Gender (n = 228); (2) Age group (n = 187), ages 18 to 25
(30.9%), 26 to 40 (30.8%) and 41 and above (38.3%); and (3) level of education (n = 227); low: no
formal education or only primary education (68.9%); medium-to-high: secondary or university
education (31.1%).
In order to analyze the effect of ethnic identity, we considered how strongly developed this
identity was across the total sample (n = 228) (MEIM-Total), and then divided the sample in two,
based on the median.
In order to analyze the differential effect of different aspects of identification with the Gypsy
ingroup, we first considered outcomes from the MEIM subscales. To do so, the sample was divided
6 M. D. C. GÓMEZ BERROCAL ET AL.

in two groups based on the median scores from the affirmation subscale (n = 228) and the identity
search subscale (n = 229), respectively. Second, in order to analyze the degree of individual-ingroup
overlap, 3 categories were established according to the response on the SIO: closeness without
containment (diagrams 1, 2 and 3; n = 43), closeness and intersection (diagrams 4 and 5, n = 36),
and closeness and containment (diagrams 6 and 7, n = 132).
Our statistical analyses included several MANOVAs in order to learn the effects of sociodemo-
graphic variables, MEIM-total, affirmation subscale, identity search subscale and three categories of
self-ingroup overlap, on the different scales of psychological well-being. ANOVAs and t tests for
independent samples were also used, in order to identify the effects of the same variables on life
satisfaction. Data were processed using SPSS version 20.0.

Results
Our results confirm H1 only partially. MANOVA results showed no significant differences on any of the
SPWB subscales as a function of the factors gender, age group or level of education. With regard to the
SWLS, results from comparisons of means (Student’s t and ANOVA) showed significant differences only
as a function of level of education t(225) = − 3.661, p = .0001, d = .53, r = .26 (Meducation-low = 4.08,
SD = 1.09; Meducation-mid-to-high = 4.63, SD = 0.96) in favor of participants with a higher level of education.
Neither gender-based nor age-based differences were obtained (see Table 1).
As a preliminary to between-group comparison, we performed correlational analysis of study
variables. Results showed positive significant correlations between the MEIM subscales and measures
of psychological well-being and satisfaction. Specifically, the MEIM affirmation showed significant
correlations with all psychological well-being scores, that is, self-acceptance (p = .05), ability to
maintain positive relations with others (p = .01), autonomy (p = .01), environmental mastery
(p = .01), personal growth (p = .01), and purpose in life (p = .01); and also with life satisfaction
score (p = .05). MEIM identity search showed significant correlations with environmental mastery
(p = .01), purpose in life (p = .01) and with life satisfaction score (p = .05) (see Table 2).
In agreement with H2, we found higher scores on the SPWB and the SWLS in participants with
higher scores in ethnic identity. MANOVA results showed significant differences on the SPWB as a
whole, as a function of MEIM-Total λ = 0.865, F(5,204) = 6.359, p = .0001, η2 = .13, po. = .99.
Univariate analyses showed differences on all the well-being subscales: positive relations, autonomy,
purpose in life, self-acceptance and personal growth, where the participant group with MEIM-total
above the median presented greater psychological well-being (see Table 3). As for differential effects

Table 1. Comparison of means in psychological well-being and life satisfaction, as a function of the factors gender, age group and
level of education.
Gender Age Group (n = 187) Level of Education (n = 227)
Psychological well-being Λ F p η2 s.p. λ F p η2 s.p. λ F p η2 s.p.
.994 .236 .94 .006 .11 .934 1.163 .31 .03 .61 .956 1.873 .10 .04 .63
Life satisfaction T p d r F p η2 s.p. t p d r
.707 .48 .009 .005 .323 .72 .004 .10 −3.661 .0001 .53 .26

Table 2. Correlations between the study variables: MEIM subscales, SPWB subscales and SWLS.
SPWB- SPWB- SPWB-
SPWB-Self- SPWB-Positive SPWB- Environmental Personal Purpose in SPWB-
acceptance Relations Autonomy Mastery Growth Life Total SWLS
MEIM .136* .245** .230** .338** .218** .373** .337** .165*
Affirmation
MEIM .093 .013 .057 .230** .116 .288** .156* .127
Identity
Search
MEIM Total .128 .164* .167* .315** .190** .366** .285** .159*
 THE JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 7

in life satisfaction, Student’s t results showed significant differences in the SWSL as a function of
MEIM-Total, in favor of participants who scored above the median (see Table 4).
In accordance with H3, we found a different pattern of scores in well-being and life satisfaction as a
function of the different aspects of group identification. MANOVA results showed significant differences
on the SPWB as a whole, as a function of the score on the MEIM affirmation subscale λ = 0.829, F
(5,204) = 8.439, p = .0001, η2 = .17, po. = 1. Results from univariate analyses showed significant
differences in all the well-being subscales: positive relations, autonomy, purpose in life, self-acceptance
and personal growth, with participants who scored above the median presenting greater psychological
well-being (see Table 3). MANOVA results, for their part, showed significant differences in the SPWB as
a whole, as a function of the score on the MEIM identity search subscale λ = 0.933, F(5,205) = 2.949,

Table 3. Univariate analyses of the effect of ethnic identity (MEIM-total, Affirmation and Identity Search above vs. below the
median) and self-ingroup overlap (Closeness without containment, Closeness and intersection, Closeness and containment) on
psychological well-being.
M SD F η2 s.p.
Positive relations MEIM-Total AM 4.66 .97 13.263** .06 .95
MEIM-Total BM 4.18 .94
Affirmation AM 4.75 .98 25.489** .11 .99
Affirmation BM 4.10 .88
Identity Search AM 4.40 .99 0.035 .000 .05
Identity Search BM 4.42 .97
Closeness without containment 3.94 .95 7.812** .07 .95
Closeness and intersection 4.33 .99
Closeness and containment 4.59 .94
Autonomy MEIM-Total AM 4.29 .86 8.384** .04 .82
MEIM-Total BM 3.92 .98
Affirmation AM 4.38 .83 17.898** .08 .99
Affirmation BM 3.85 .97
Identity Search AM 4.17 .95 0.774 .004 .14
Identity Search BM 4.05 .92
Closeness without containment 3.92 .89 2.344 .02 .47
Closeness and intersection 3.94 1.03
Closeness and containment 4.21 .91
Purpose in life MEIM-Total AM 4.67 .85 26.073** .11 .99
MEIM-Total BM 4.10 .77
Affirmation AM 4.70 .88 30.802** .13 1
Affirmation BM 4.09 .71
Identity Search AM 4.60 .81 10.652** .05 .90
Identity Search BM 4.22 .87
Closeness without containment 4.21 .91 1.962 .02 .40
Closeness and intersection 4.29 .79
Closeness and containment 4.48 .86
Self-acceptance MEIM-Total AM 4.26 .67 18.686** .08 .99
MEIM-Total BM 3.84 .72
Affirmation AM 4.28 .72 21.832** .09 .99
Affirmation BM 3.83 .67
Identity Search AM 4.16 .68 3.556 .02 .47
Identity Search BM 3.97 .76
Closeness without containment 3.81 .59 5.153** .05 .82
Closeness and intersection 3.91 .65
Closeness and containment 4.17 .76
Personal growth MEIM-Total AM 4.36 .73 10.240** .05 .89
MEIM-Total BM 4.05 .68
Affirmation AM 4.41 .72 17.268** .08 .98
Affirmation BM 4.01 .66
Identity Search AM 4.30 .75 3.252 .01 .43
Identity Search BM 4.12 .69
Closeness without containment 3.98 .69 2.876 .03 .56
Closeness and intersection 4.18 .68
Closeness and containment 4.28 .73
Note. AM = above the median; BM = below the median
**p < .01
8 M. D. C. GÓMEZ BERROCAL ET AL.

Table 4. Effect of ethnic identity (MEIM-Total, Affirmation and Identity Search above vs. below the median) and self-ingroup
overlap (Closeness without containment, Closeness and Intersection, Closeness and containment) on Purpose in Life.
M SD t d r
Life satisfaction MEIM-Total AM 4.48 1.04 −3.321** .44 .21
MEIM-Total BM 4.02 1.08
Affirmation AM 4.44 1.12 −2.603** .34 .17
Affirmation BM 4.07 1.02
Identity Search AM 4.27 .98 −2.224* .15 .07
Identity Search BM 4.11 1.15
F η2 s.p.
Closeness without containment 4.02 1.14 1.443 .01 .31
Closeness and intersection 3.33 1.05
Closeness and containment 4.32 1.08
Note. AM = above the median; BM = below the median
**p < .01; * p < .05

p = .014, η2 = .07, po. = 85. However, the univariate analyses showed differences only in the purpose in
life subscale, in favor of participants who scored above the median (see Table 3).
Similarly, the effect of self-ingroup overlap on well-being was different from that of the MEIM
subscales. MANOVA results showed significant differences on the SPWB as a whole, according to
the degree of self-ingroup overlap (SIO) λ = 0.904, F (10,408) = 2.116, p = .022, η2 = .05, po. = .90.
Univariate analyses showed significant differences in positive relations and in self-acceptance. Post
hoc analyses with the Bonferroni statistic showed that on both subscales, there were differences
between the Closeness without containment group and the Closeness and containment group
(positive relations p = .0001; self-acceptance p = .012), where participants who perceived themselves
as close and included within the ingroup presented higher levels of well-being (see Table 3). Finally,
the MEIM subscales and the three categories of self-ingroup overlap (SIO) had different effects on
life satisfaction. Student’s t results showed significant differences in the SWLS as a function of the
affirmation subscale and the search subscale in favor of participants who scored higher than the
median in all cases (see Table 4). However, ANOVA results showed that there were no significant
differences in life satisfaction as a function of the three SIO categories (see Table 4).

Discussion
Considering how little we know about group identification and well-being in the Spanish population
with Gypsy ethnicity, this research study was designed to verify the effect on well-being and life
satisfaction produced by two types of factors – demographic and psychosocial factors related to
group identification – in a sample from this population.
Our results indicate that objective sociodemographic conditions were not related to psychological
well-being, and only level of studies was related to satisfaction with life. In other words, although the
participants lived in objectively modest conditions, this did not affect their psychological well-being,
perhaps because the impact of objective conditions was mediated by personal aspirations (Andrews
& Robinson, 1991; Andrews & Withey, 2012). Satisfaction with life is a result of the personal balance
between objective conditions and aspirations, and in this sample, life satisfaction was related
positively only to level of studies. These findings may have implications for the situation of
Gypsies in Spain. If the personal well-being of Gypsies depends on a subjective balance between
aspirations and objective living conditions, then, inasmuch as group members do not acquire or
internalize expectations for improvement in their objective situation, they will not feel dissatisfaction
or motivation to change the conditions of deprivation which persist among Gypsies in Spain.
Considering recent reports, such as those reported by Bartels (2015), our results indicate that the
satisfaction with life, but not the psychological well-being, of Spanish gypsies is related to environ-
mental factors.
 THE JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 9

In accordance with H2, participants with higher scores on the MEIM reported more well-being
and more life satisfaction. That is, the study participants who most valued the Gypsy identity (Leach
et al., 2008) experienced more psychological well-being and also greater satisfaction with life. These
results support the tenets of the SIT (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) and other results from studies on ethnic
identity and well-being (Ong et al., 2006; Phinney et al., 1997). Although the “rejection-identifica-
tion” hypothesis (Branscombe et al., 1999; Schmitt et al., 2014) was not tested in this study, and more
research is needed, our results indicate that the study participants with a tendency to highly value
their positive ethnicity (vs. those who do not have such a marked tendency) reported greater well-
being and life satisfaction, despite the prejudice and stigmatization of Gypsies that exists in Spanish
society. Future research should test whether this motivation to positively identify with the ingroup is
a strategy that satisfies the need to be accepted and compensates for the perception of discrimination
(Branscombe et al., 1999).
In line with the reasoning of Leach et al. (2008), these results validate the difference between the
affective and cognitive dimensions of identification with the ingroup. Specifically, the results showed that
aspects of identification related to satisfaction, solidarity and centrality of belonging to the Gypsy
community (MEIM scale) produced an effect on more areas of psychological well-being than did
perception of closeness to the ingroup (SIO self-ingroup overlap measurement). In addition, the
MEIM subscales, but not the SIO, were significantly related to satisfaction with life. In the SIT frame-
work, the results indicate that participants’ affective identification with the ingroup enhanced their
psychological well-being and their satisfaction with life (Haslam et al., 2009). Also, in line with previous
findings, we found that the identity search subscale correlated with fewer dimensions of psychological
well-being than did the affirmation subscale (Syed et al., 2013).
We have found that group identification, understood as the perception of individual self-inclusion
in the ingroup, is not related to satisfaction, but it is related to well-being in positive relationships
with other members of the ingroup and in self-acceptance. These results can be interpreted in the
framework of the SIT (Tajfel and Turner) and the SCT (Turner et al., 1987), and concur with
previous findings (Latrofa et al., 2012, 2009), since they suggest that cognitive identification of
members of discredited minority groups allows them to attain greater well-being and, in the case of
our sample, is not related to satisfaction with life.

Limitations and future research directions

Some limitations must be mentioned. First, an associative correlation design has been used and this
limits conclusions about the pattern of the relationship between the variables studied. For future
research, structural equation models would be useful for clarifying the relationships among ethnic
identity, psychosocial functioning and other possible mediating factors such as ego identity and
sociodemographic factors. Second, although the low-moderate magnitude of the effect sizes was
consistent with previous studies, we believe that age of the participants may have affected this in two
ways, 42 participants did not indicate their age and 38.3% were over 40. Studies with younger
participants tend to report larger average effect sizes than studies with participants over 40; there-
fore, future research is needed to verify this. Third, we consider that the MEIM is an indicator of the
affective dimension of ethnic identification. Although this assumption was not directly tested in our
study, some of our findings bring us closer to the idea that the MEIM differs from the measure of
perceived closeness between self and the ingroup. Future research should use the MEIM to verify the
structure and measurement of ethnic identity in the Spanish Gypsy population and confirm its
convergent validity with other measures of the cognitive dimension of minority ethnicity.

Conclusions
This research contributes to a discussion of the role played by demographic factors and ethnicity-related
psychosocial factors on the well-being and satisfaction of Roma people in Spain. The results suggest that
10 M. D. C. GÓMEZ BERROCAL ET AL.

objective conditions of deprivation do not affect the well-being of Spanish Gypsies; the objective
conditions are probably mediated by the expectations for improvement held by this ethnic minority.
The results indicated that people with a higher level of education were more satisfied. For this reason,
policies that promote educational training would be required in order for Spanish Gypsies to aspire to
improved living conditions. More research is required to find out whether satisfaction with life could
depend, to a greater extent than well-being, on the environmental conditions faced by the person,
whether for economic, educational or cultural reasons. Finally, the MEIM has been associated with well-
being and satisfaction, but perception of closeness to the ingroup is only related to some dimensions of
well-being. Understanding the attitude of Spanish Gypsies towards their ethnicity can offer a more
reliable, valid means of predicting the psychological state of this ethnic minority.

Acknowledgement
We are grateful to the participants and staff from the Consorcio para el Desarrollo Vega-Sierra Elvira [Vega-Sierra
Elvira Development Consortium] of the province of Granada, Spain.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors
María del Carmen Gómez Berrocal, is teaching and researcher in Social Psychology, at the University of Granada
(Spain).

Carmen Porras, is teaching and research staff of the University of Granada (Spain).

Sara Mata, PhD, is an associate professor and researcher in Clinical Psychology at the University of Granada (Spain).

Data availability statement

The data described in this article are openly available in the Open Science Framework at https://osf.io/s8z9j/registrations

Open Scholarship

This article has earned the Center for Open science badges for Open Materials through Open Practices Disclosure. The
materials are openly accessible at https://osf.io/s8z9j/registrations

ORCID
María del Carmen Gómez Berrocal http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0058-7206

References
Andrews, F. M., & Robinson, J. P. (1991). Measures of subjective well-being. Measures of Personality and Social
Psychological Attitudes, 1, 61–114.
Andrews, F. M., & Withey, S. B. (2012). Social indicators of well-being: Americans’ perceptions of life quality. Berlin/
Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Science & Business Media.
 THE JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 11

Ashmore, R. D., Deaux, K., & McLaughlin-Volpe, T. (2004). An organizing framework for collective identity:
Articulation and significance of multidimensionality. Psychological Bulletin, 130(1), 80–114. doi:10.1037/0033-
2909.130.1.80
Atienza, F. L., Pons, D., Balaguer, I., & García-Merita, M. (2000). Propiedades psicométricas de la Escala de
Satisfacción con la Vida en adolescentes [Psychometric properties of the life satisfaction scale in adolescents].
Psicothema, 12(2), 314–319.
Barger, S. D., Donoho, C. J., & Wayment, H. A. (2009). The relative contributions of race/ethnicity, socioeconomic
status, health, and social relationships to life satisfaction in the United States. Quality of Life Research, 18(2), 179–
189. doi:10.1007/s11136-008-9426-2
Bartels, M. (2015). Genetics of wellbeing and its components satisfaction with life, happiness, and quality of life: A
review and meta-analysis of heritability studies. Behavior Genetics, 45(2), 137–156. doi:10.1007/s10519-015-9713-y
Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Harvey, R. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African
Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1),
135–149. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.135
Carretero-Dios, H., & Pérez, C. (2005). Normas para el desarrollo y revisión de estudios instrumentales. International
Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 5(3), 521–551.
Carretero-Dios, H., & Pérez, C. (2007). Standards for the development and review of instrumental studies:
Considerations about test selection in psychological research. International Journal of Clinical and Health
Psychology, 7(3), 863–882.
Clavería, C. (1951). Estudios sobre los gitanismos del español. [Studies on Gypsyisms in Spanish]. Madrid, Spain: CSIC.
Coats, S., Smith, E. R., Claypool, H. M., & Banner, M. J. (2000). Overlapping mental representations of self and
ingroup: Reaction time evidence and its relationship with explicit measures of group identification. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 304–315. doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1416
Díaz, D., Rodríguez-Carvajal, R., Blanco, A., Moreno-Jiménez, B., Gallardo, I., Valle, C., & Van Dierendonck, D.
(2006). Adaptación española de las escalas de bienestar psicológico de Riff [Spanish adaptation of Riff’s scales of
psychological well-being]. Psicothema, 18(3), 527–577.
Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive
evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 403–425. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145056
Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality
Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Dimitrova, R., Aydinli, A., Chasiotis, A., Bender, M., & Van De Vijver, F. J. (2015). Heritage identity and maintenance
enhance well-being of Turkish-Bulgarian and Turkish-German adolescents. Social Psychology, 46(2), 93–103.
doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000230
Dimitrova, R., Chasiotis, A., Bender, M., & van de Vijver, F. J. (2014). Collective identity and well-being of Bulgarian
Roma adolescents and their mothers. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(3), 375–386. doi:10.1007/s10964-013-
0043-1
Disabato, D. J., Goodman, F. R., Kashdan, T. B., Short, J. L., & Jarden, A. (2016). Different types of well-being? A
cross-cultural examination of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Psychological Assessment, 28(5), 471.
doi:10.1037/pas0000276
Esteban, M. (2010). Propiedades psicométricas y estructura factorial de la Escala de Identidad Etnica Multigrupo en
español (MEIM) [Psychometric properties and factor structure of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Scale in Spanish].
Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 42(3), 405–41.
Gómez- Berrocal, C. (2008). Lenguaje y relaciones intergrupales [Language and inter-group relations]. In J. F. Morales,
C. Huici, A. Gómez, & E. Gaviria (coords), Método, teoría e investigación en psicología social (pp. 641–660). Madrid,
Spain: Pearson Educación.
Gómez-Berrocal, C., & Moya, M. (1999). El prejuicio hacia los gitanos: Características diferenciales [Prejudice towards
Gypsies: Differentiating features]. Revista De Psicología Social, 14(1), 15–40. doi:10.1174/021347499760260055
Gómez-Berrocal, C., & Navas, M. (2000). Predictores del prejuicio manifiesto y sutil hacia los gitanos [Predictors of
manifest and subtle prejudice towards Gypsies]. Revista De Psicología Social, 15(1), 3–30. doi:10.1174/
021347400760259848
Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., Postmes, T., & Haslam, C. (2009). Social identity, health and well-being: An emerging agenda
for applied psychology. Applied Psychology, 58(1), 1–23. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00379.x
Henderson, L. W., Knight, T., & Richardson, B. (2014). The hedonic and eudaimonic validity of the orientations to
happiness scale. Social Indicators Research, 115(3), 1087–1099. doi:10.1007/s11205-013-0264-4
Huta, V., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). Pursuing pleasure or virtue: The differential and overlapping well-being benefits of
hedonic and eudaimonic motives. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11(6), 735–762. doi:10.1007/s10902-009-9171-4
Kashdan, T. B., Biswas-Diener, R., & King, L. A. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: The costs of distinguishing between
hedonics and eudaimonia. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(4), 219–233. doi:10.1080/17439760802303044
Keyes, C. L., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 1007–1022. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007
12 M. D. C. GÓMEZ BERROCAL ET AL.

Latrofa, M., Vaes, J., & Cadinu, M. (2012). Self-stereotyping: The central role of an ingroup threatening identity. The
Journal of Social Psychology, 152(1), 92–111. doi:10.1080/00224545.2011.565382
Latrofa, M., Vaes, J., Pastore, M., & Cadinu, M. (2009). “United we stand, divided we fall”! The protective function of
self-stereotyping for stigmatised members’ psychological well-being. Applied Psychology: An International Review,
58(1), 84–104. doi:10.1111/apps.2009.58.issue-1
Leach, C. W., Van Zomeren, M., Zebel, S., Vliek, M. L., Pennekamp, S. F., Doosje, B., … Spears, R. (2008). Group-level
self-definition and self-investment: A hierarchical (multicomponent) model of ingroup identification. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 144–165. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.144
Marichal, F., & Quiles, M. N. (2000). La organización del estigma en categorías: Actualización de la taxonomía de
Goffman [Organization of stigma into categories: updating Goffman’s taxonomy]. Psicothema, 12(3), 458–465.
Morales, J. F., & Bustillos, A. (2008). La exclusión social [Social exclusion]. In J. F. Morales, C. Huici, A. Gómez, & E.
Gaviria (coords), Método, teoría e investigación en psicología social (pp. 574–589). Madrid, Spain: Pearson
Educación.
Ong, A. D., Phinney, J. S., & Dennis, J. (2006). Competence under challenge: Exploring the protective influence of
parental support and ethnic identity in Latino college students. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 961–979. doi:10.1016/j.
adolescence.2006.04.010
Outten, H., Schmitt, M., Garcia, D., & Branscombe, N. (2009). Coping options: Missing links between minority group
identification and psychological well-being. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 58(1), 146–170.
doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00386.x
Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 499–
514. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.499
Phinney, J. S. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of
Adolescent Research, 7(2), 156–176. doi:10.1177/074355489272003
Phinney, J. S., Cantu, C. L., & Kurtz, D. A. (1997). Ethnic and American identity as predictors of self-esteem among
African American, Latino, and White adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26(2), 165–185. doi:10.1023/
A:1024500514834
Postmes, T., Haslam, S. A., & Jans, L. (2013). A single-item measure of social identification: Reliability, validity, and
utility. British Journal of Social Psychology, 52(4), 597–617. doi:10.1111/bjso.12006
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and
eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141–166. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 69(4), 719–727. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719
Ryff, C. D., Singer, B. H., & Dienberg Love, G. (2004). Positive health: Connecting well–Being with biology.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 359(1449), 1383–1394.
doi:10.1098/rstb.2004.1521
Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Postmes, T., & García, A. (2014). The consequences of perceived discrimination for
psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 921–948. doi:10.1037/a0035754
Schubert, T. W., & Otten, S. (2002). Overlap of self, ingroup, and outgroup: Pictorial measures of self-categorization.
Self and Identity, 1(4), 353–376. doi:10.1080/152988602760328012
Smith, T. B., & Silva, L. (2011). Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: A meta-analysis. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 58(1), 42–60. doi:10.1037/a0021528
Stangor, C., Swim, J. K., Sechrist, G. B., Decoster, J., Van Allen, K. L., & Ottenbreit, A. (2003). Ask, answer, and
announce: Three stages in perceiving and responding to discrimination. European Review of Social Psychology, 14
(1), 277–311. doi:10.1080/10463280340000090
Syed, M., Walker, L. H., Lee, R. M., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Schwartz, S. J., … Huynh, Q. L. (2013). A
two-factor model of ethnic identity exploration: Implications for identity coherence and well-being. Cultural
Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(2), 143–154. doi:10.1037/a0030564
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.),
Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-
categorization theory. Oxford, England: Blackwell.
Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2011). Ethnic identity. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx & V. L. Vignoles (Eds.) The handbook of
identity theory and research (pp. 791–809). New York, NY: Springer.
Yang, Y. (2008). Social inequalities in happiness in the United States, 1972 to 2004: An age-period-cohort analysis.
American Sociological Review, 73(2), 204–226. doi:10.1177/000312240807300202