COLD WAR 1945-91

SYLLABUS
• Definition- Cold War
• Causes + Which side was to blame
• Origins of the Cold War : Yalta and Potsdam conferences; Truman doctrine and Marshall Plan/Aid; Molotov
Plan; COMENCON and Cominform; Rift widens – Soviet Expansion in Eastern Europe (1945-48) including the
communist coup in Czechoslovakia.
• The Cold War expands : Berlin Blockade; NATO; division of Germany; “thaw” in the Cold War (1953-59) –
how partial was it? Warsaw Pact; the Vietnam War (1954-75); crisis in east-west relations (1960-62); détente
(1970s); the Gulf Tonkin Incidents; 1960-62; The U-2 Affair; the Berlin Wall incident; the Cuban Missile Crisis;
• Breakup of the USSR & changes in Eastern Europe – USSR, Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia; reasons for
the collapse of USSR; economic failure; Gorbachev’s policies (Glasnost and Perestroika)
• Role played by Ronald Reagan and George W. Bush
• Fall of communism in East Europe in the following countries to be touched upon: Poland, Germany and
Czechoslovakia

WHAT WAS THE COLD WAR?

• Cold war is characterized by mutual distrust and suspicion between the democratic free world- Capitalist
America and Communist Russia
• War of ideologies
• Propaganda war
• Not a war of weapons
• State of extreme political unfriendliness
• War of nerves
• State of uneasy peace

CAUSES OF THE COLD WAR

• Differences of principles :
A. Communist Russia -
a) The communist system of organizing the state and society was based on the ideas of Karl Marx.
b) Believed that the wealth of a country should be collectively owned and shared by everybody.
c) The economy should be centrally planned and interests and well-being of the working classes
safeguarded by state social policies.
B. Capitalist America –
a) Operates on the basis of private ownership of a country’s wealth.
b) The driving forces behind capitalism are private enterprise in the pursuit of making profits.
c) Preservation of power of private wealth.
• Stalin’s foreign policies contributed to the tensions :
a) Aim was to take advantage of the military situation to strengthen Russian influence in Europe.
b) Tried to occupy as much German territory as he could.
c) The West was alarmed at what they took to be Soviet aggression
 • US and British politicians were hostile to the Soviet Government : (Why did USA bomb Hiroshima and
Nagasaki?)
a) During the war, the USA, under President Roosevelt, sent war materials of all kinds to Russia under a
system known as the ‘Lend-Lease’
b) But after Roosevelt died, in 1945, his successor Harry S. Truman was more suspicious and
toughened his attitude towards the communists.
c) Main motive for dropping the atomic bombs on Japan was not to simply defeat Japan, which was
ready to surrender anyway, but to show Stalin what might happen to Russia if he dared to go too far.
d) Stalin suspected that the USA and Britain were still keen to Communism- he felt that their delay in
launching the invasion of France was deliberately calculated to keep most of the Russians and bring
them to the point of exhaustion.
e) They did not tell Stalin about the existence of the atomic bomb until shortly before its use on Japan –
rejected his request that Russia should share in the occupation of Japan.

WHICH SIDE WAS TO BLAME?

(Why was Stalin not to be blamed?)

1. Stalin’s motives
a) Were sinister
b) He intended to spread communism through Europe and Asia
2. American entry into the Korean War
a) West’s self defense against Communist aggression
3. The Cold War ought not to be blamed on Stalin and Russians
a) Russia had suffered enormous losses during the war.
b) Stalin’s motives were purely defensive.
4. The actions of American politicians especially Truman provoked Russian hostility- revisionist view.
a) USA became critical of American foreign policy.
b) American involvement in the Vietnam war
5. The post- revisionist interpretation
a) They believed that American economic policies such as Martial Aid were deliberately designed to
increase US political influence in Europe.
b) Stalin has no long term plans to spread communism he was an opportunist who would take
advantage of any weakness in the West to expand Soviet influence.
6. The USA and the USSR created an atmosphere in which every international act could be interpreted in two
ways.
a) Self defense by one side.
b) Aggressive intent.

THE ORIGIN OF THE COLD WAR

THE YALTA CONFERENCE (February, 1945)
Q. What decisions were taken at the Yalta Conference?

1. Held in Russia (in the Crimea)

2. Attended by the three allied leaders: Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill
3. Plan what was to happen when the war ended
4. Agreement being reached on several points:
 a) A new organization – to be called the United Nations – should be set up to replace the failed League
of Nations
b) Germany was to be divided into zones – Russian, American and British ( a French zone was included
later) – while Berlin (which happened to be in the middle Russian zone ) would be split into
corresponding zones.
c) Free elections would be allowed in the states of Eastern Europe
d) Stalin promised to join the war against Japan on condition that Russia received the whole of
Sakhalin Island and some territory in Manchuria. (America didn’t want to do this – atom bombs
were dropped)

SQ – Why was the Yalta Conference a failure?

5. Signs of trouble over what was to be done with Poland;

a) The Russian armies swept through Poland, driving the Germans back, they had set up a communist
government in Lublin, even though there was already a Polish government-in-exile in London.
b) It was agreed at Yalta that some members (non-communist) of the London-based government
should be allowed to join the Lublin government, while in return Russia would be allowed to keep a
strip of Eastern Poland.
c) Roosevelt and Churchill were not happy about Stalin’s demands that Poland shall be given all
German territories of the rivers east of Oder and Neisse; no agreement was reached on this point.

THE POTSDAM CONFERENCE

Distinct cooling of relations –

1. Main disagreement over Poland - German territory east of Oder and Neisse was being run by a pro-
communist Polish Government.
2. Expelling Germans – not agreed to at Yalta
3. Stalin was not informed about the decisions to use atomic bombs on Japan – Hiroshima and Nagasaki
bombed – the war ended without Russian help
4. USSR denied a share in the occupation of Japan

THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE

1. Soviet pressure on Greece and Turkey.
2. USA announced the ‘Doctrine of Containment’
3. USA sent massive amounts of arms and other supplies to Greece and financial aid to Turkey.
4. Permanent feature of the US foreign policy – no intention of returning to isolation.

THE MARSHALL PLAN / THE EUROPEAN RECOVERY PROGRAM

1. European recovery program – economic help to European countries
2. Economic extensions of the Truman Doctrine/ American offer of economic and financial aid to all European
nations
3. Countries had to draw up a joint plan.
4. Aims- prosperous Europe, a market for US exports
5. Communism – less likely to gain hold in prosperous Western Europe
6. Denounced by Soviet Union as ‘DOLLAR IMPERIALISM’ – Eastern European Satellites forbidden from
accepting it.
 THE MOLOTOV PLAN
Offer of Marshall Aid was basically a set of trade agreements between the USSR and its satellites to boost the trade
of Eastern Europe. The Molotov Plan was introduced in 1947 offering Russian aid to satellite states.

THE COMMUNIST INFORMATION BUREAU (COMINFORM)

All the communist satellites states had to become members and its aims were political: to make sure that all the
governments followed the same lines as the government of USSR in Moscow. It had to be Russian-style communism.

THE COUNCIL FOR MUTUAL ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE (COMENCON)

Aim was to help plan the economies of the individual states. All industry was nationalized. Nikita Khrushchev
wanted East Germany and Czechoslovakia to develop as the main industrial areas and Hungary and Romania to
concentrate on Agriculture.

SOVIET EXPANSION IN EASTERN EUROPE (1945-48)

Q. How did the establishment of Communist Government in Eastern Europe cause alarm in the West?

1. Eastern Europe caused alarm in the West. In the months following the Potsdam; the Russians systematically
interfered in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania, and Romania.
2. Stalin frightened the West further by a widely reported speech February, 1946 in which he said that
Communism and Capitalism could never line peacefully together and future wars were never inevitable until
the final victory of communists was achieved.
3. In some cases, their opponents were imprisoned or murdered. Churchill responded to all this in a speech of
his own at Fulton, Missouri, USA in March, 1946.
‘From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an Iron Curtain has descended across the continent.’
4. Claiming that the Russians were bent on ‘indefinite expansion of their powers and doctrines’, he called for a
Western alliance which would stand firm against the communist threat.
5. The rift between the East and the West: Stalin was over a hundred British MPs signed a motion criticizing the
Conservative leader for the attitude.

COMMUNIST TAKEOVER OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA

1. Only democratic state in Eastern Europe
2. Coalition government included communists.
3. Crisis in 1948 – Resentment at not being allowed to take Marshall Aid – Non-communists ministers resign,
fresh elections called for.
4. Signs of communists losing ground – decided to seize power in armed coup – death of foreign minister
Masaryk.
5. Elections duly held, only communist candidates
6. Czechoslovakia joined the Soviet block.
7. Iron curtain complete – only bridge between the East and west collapsed.

NOTES –
• CIS – Commonwealth of Independent States – 15 countries
• Marshall Plan was also known as then European Recovery Program – Soviet Union referred to it as Dollar
Imperialism
• First Chancellor of Free Germany – Helmett Kohl
• Iron Man of Germany – Otto von Bismarck
• Russian premier who was pro-democratic – Mikhail Gorbachev
• Czechoslovakia was the only country in eastern Europe that was still under the influence of Capitalism-
captured America’s interest.
 COURSE OF THE COLD WAR
BERLIN BLOCKADE
1. Four power occupation of Germany
2. Three Western powers trying to organize recovery of their zones
3. Russia treated its zone as a satellite; drained its resources
4. Three western zones merged to form single unit – 1948
5. Stalin wanted to keep the Russian zone separate with its pro-Russian governance
6. Relative prosperity in contrast to marked poverty in Russian Zone
7. Western powers introduced new currency, ended price controls in their zone
8. Russians felt it was not possible to have two currencies in the same city
9. Closed all surface links between West Germany and West Berlin
10. Objective was to reduce West Berlin to a point of starvation and compel Western powers to withdraw
from the city
11. The Western Powers decided to airlift supplies to West Berlin
12. After ten months, the Russians lifted the blockade
13. Psychological boast for the Western Powers
14. Relations with Russia touched rock bottom – NATO formed
• NOTE: WHICH MAJOR CRISIS IN EUROPE LED TO THE FORMATION OF NATO : BERLIN BLOCKADE

THE NORTH- ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANISATION (NATO) – 1949

A. WHEN WAS NATO FORMED?
B. NAME THE COUNTRIES THAT SIGNED THE ‘BRUSSELS DEFENCE TREATY’
C. WHAT WAS THE CONCLUSION THAT THEY REACHED?

ANSWER:

1. FORMATION OF NATO – (ANS A+B)

1. North Atlantic Treaty Organization took place in 1949

2. Berlin blockade showed the West’s military unreadiness and frightened them into making definite preparations.
Britain, France, Poland, Belgium, and Luxemburg had signed the Brussels Defense Treaty promising military
collaboration in case of war; joined by USA, Canada, Portugal, Denmark, Eire (Ireland), Italy and Norway.
3. All signed the North Atlantic Treaty agreeing to regard an attack on any of them as an attack on all.

2. THE TWO GERMANIES – (ANS C) (DIVISION OF GERMANY)

1. A united Germany, the Western powers went ahead alone and set up the German Federal Republic known as
West Germany
2. Elections held and Konrad Adenaver became the first Chancellor.
3. The Russians setting up their zones as the German Democratic Republic or East Germany
4. Germany remained divided until the collapse of the Communism in East Germany made it possible early in 1990 to
reunite the two states into a single Germany.

3. MORE NUCLEAR WEAPONS –

1. The USSR had successfully exploded an atomic bomb, an arms race began to develop
2. Truman responded by giving a ‘Go Ahead’ for the USA to produce hydrogen bomb many times more
powerful than the atomic bomb
 THAW IN THE COLD WAR (1953-59)
Q. How did the thaw show itself?
1. The first signs
a) Peace agreement at Panmunjom ended the Korean War in July, 1953.
b) The following year the war in Indo-China ended
2. The Russians made important concessions in 1955
a) They agreed to give up their military base in Finland
b) They lifted their veto on the admission of 16 new member states to the UN
c) The quarrel with Yugoslavia was healed when Khrushchev paid a visit to Tito
d) The Cominform was abandoned, suggesting more freedom for the satellite states
3. The signing of the Austrian State Treaty
a) At the end of war in 1945, Austria was divided into 4 zones of occupation, with the capital, Vienna, in
the Russian zone
b) Unlike Germany, she was allowed her own government because she was viewed not as a defeated
enemy but as a state liberated from the Nazis.
c) The Austrian Government had only limited powers, and the problem was similar to the one in
Germany.
d) Whereas, the three Western occupying powers organized the recovery of their zones, the Russians
insisted on squeezing repartitions, mainly in the form of food supplies from theirs.
e) No permanent settlement seemed likely, but early in 1955 the Russians were persuaded, mainly by
the Austrian Government, to be more cooperative. They were also afraid of a merger between West
Germany and Western Austria.
f) As a result of agreement,
i. All occupying troops were withdrawn
ii. Austria became independent, with her 1937 frontiers
iii. She was not to unite with Germany
iv. Her armed forces were strictly limited
v. She was to remain neutral in any dispute between East and West
vi. Austrians were unhappy about the loss of German-speaking area of the south Tyrol, which
Italy was allowed to keep
Q. Discuss the reasons for the thaw in the Cold War in 1950s? Give examples to show that the thaw is only partial?

1. DEATH OF STALIN –
• New leaders like Bulganin, Khrushchev wanted to improve relations with USA
• Both sides had developed the hydrogen bomb, even a minor crisis could lead to a nuclear war
• Khrushchev was convinced that “peaceful coexistence” with the West was the one and only option to
prevent a nuclear war.
• Khrushchev believed that Communists domination would be established not by war but by the recognition of
the superiority of the Soviet Economic System.
• Neutral states could not be won over by lavish economic aid.
• McCarthy was discredited (1954) and the anti-communist hysteria in the USA declined.
• President Eisenhower proposed development of friendly ties with Russia
• However, thaw was only partial
2. A) Ruthless suspensions of Hungarian uprising by Soviet Union showed limits of freedom of satellite states
B) Warsaw Pact (1955) signed between the USSR and satellite states counteract the increasing power of
NATO (West Germany joined NATO)
C) Both sides continued to build nuclear arms/ Russian lead in making ICBMs and Sputnik; USA responded in
kind
 Q. In what way did the formation of NATO helped in reversal of American Foreign Policy? / Why was the
formation of NATO highly significant in the context of American Foreign Policy?

A. 1. Americans had abandoned their policy of isolation / no entangling alliance.

2. Had for the first time pledged them in advance to military action.

DÉTENTE IN THE 1970s: REASONS

1. The Cuban Missile Crisis had brought USA and USSR to their senses and made them conscious of the
terrifying implications of a nuclear war
2. The process of Détente was set in motion
3. Both sides were sickened by the horrors of the Vietnam War
4. USSR: The expenses of keeping up with the Americans were crippling
5. Urgent need to reduce defense expenditure: divert and utilize funds for the economic recovery of USSR and
the satellite states; raising living standards to Western levels. Communist bloc threatened by economic
unrest.
6. Relations between Communist China and USA began to improve in 1971. Russians, who were at bad terms
with China, did not want to be isolated.
7. USA: realized that there were better options of dealing effectively with Communism. Military power had
limitations; had proved a failure in Vietnam; signs of preference for the return to isolation.
8. China: anxious about its isolation; nervous about American intentions in Vietnam; unhappy with increasing
tensions in USSR.
9. Nations of Western Europe: fear that they would have to bear the brunt in the event of a nuclear attack.
10. Policy of ‘OSTOPOLITIK’ adopted by West Germany (better relations with Eastern Europe)
11. With the buildup of Nuclear Arsenal both sides became increasingly fearful of catastrophic nuclear war with
no real winner.

NOTE: Which country were Britain and Germany fighting over? - Morocco

SUPPORT FOR GREATER UNITY IN EUROPE

1. Best way for Europe to recover from the ravages of the Second World War – pool resources and work
together for mutual benefits.
2. Individual states too small and economies too weak to be economically viable and survive in a world
dominated by superpowers: USA and USSR
3. A united Western Europe could effectively combat the threat of communism from Russian and influence of
US (third force)
4. European unity would help Germany to gain quicker recognition and acceptance as a responsible nation.
5. It would establish peace and stability in Europe
6. Franco-German rivalry would come to an end.

THE WARSAW PACT (1955)

1. The Warsaw Pact signed between Russia and her satellite states shortly after West Germany was admitted
to NATO. The pact was a mutual defense agreement which the West group, as a gesture against Germany’s
membership of NATO.
2. The Russians continued to build up their nuclear armaments.
3. The situation in Berlin caused more tension
4. Most provocative of all was when Khrushchev installed Soviet missiles from Cuba less than a hundred miles
from the American Coast (1962)
 THE U-2 AFFAIR (1960-62)
Q. How did the U-2 affair and the building of the Berlin Wall lead to the escalation of tension between the USSR
and USA?

1. Encouraged by Russia’s lead in areas of the nuclear arms race, Khrushchev announced that the USSR no
longer recognized the rights of the Western powers in Berlin
2. The Americans made it clear that they would resist any attempt to push them out, Khrushchev did not press
the point
3. THE U-2 AFFAIR: Khrushchev felt aggrieved when an American U-2 spy plane was shot down inside Russia.
President Eisenhower declined to apologize, defending America’s right to make reconnaissance flights as the
affair ruined the summit conference which was about to begin in Paris.
4. Khrushchev suggested to the new American President John F. Kennedy that the West should withdraw from
Germany.
5. (How did they erect the Berlin Wall?)
The Communists were embarrassed at the large number of refugees escaping from East Germany to West.
6. When Kennedy refused to withdraw from Berlin, the Berlin Wall was erected.

THE ARMS RACE BEGAN TO ACCELERATE: (THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE)

1. Americans made the much more powerful hydrogen bomb towards the end of 1952, the Russians did the
same the following year and had soon developed a bomber with a range long enough to reach the USA.
2. The Russians who took the lead in August, 1957 when they produced a new type of weapon- ICBMs.
3. The Americans also began to build nuclear missiles with a shorter range; these were known as Jupiter and
Thor and they could reach the USSR from launching sites in Europe and Turkey.
4. When the Russians successfully launched the world’s first earth satellite Sputnik-1 in 1958.

THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS (1962)

1. Cuba became involved in the Cold War in 1959 when Fidel Castro who had just seized power from the
corrupt American-backed dictator Batista (pro-American), outraged the USA
2. Nationalizing American-owned states and factories
3. Cuba’s relations with the USA worsened, those with USSR improved: In January, 1961, the USA broke off
diplomatic relations with Cuba and the Russians increased their economic aid.
4. John F. Kennedy approved a plan by a group of Batista supporters to invade Cuba from American bases in
Guatemala (Central America). The American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was deeply involved. Bay of
Pigs in April, 1961, but the operation was so badly planned and carried out that Castro’s and his two jet
planes had no difficulty crushing it. Later the same year, Castro announced that he was now a Marxist and
Cuba was a socialist country.
5. Khrushchev decided to set up nuclear missile launchers in Cuba aimed at the USA, whose nearest point was
less than a hundred miles from Cuba
6. Central and Eastern USA such as New York, Washington, Chicago and Boston would be under threat. This
was a risky decision, and there was great consternation in the USA when in October, 1962, photographs
taken from spy planes showed a missile base under construction.

Q. Why did Khrushchev take such a risky decision?

1. The Russian had lost lead in ICBMs, so this was a way of trying to seize the initiative back again from the USA
2. It would place the Americans under the same sort of thread the Russian themselves had to put up with the
American missiles based in Turkey
3. It was a gesture of solidarity with his ally Castro, who was under constant threat from the USA. the Russian
missile would dissuade such an operation; if not, they could be used against invading American troops
4. It would test the resolve of the new, young, American President Kennedy
 5. Perhaps Khrushchev intended to use missiles for bargaining with the best over the removal of American
missile from Europe, or withdrawal from Berlin by the west
6. Kennedy's military advisors urged him to launch air strikes against the basis. but he acted more cautiously
SQ- What was America’s reaction to the Cuban Missile Crisis?
a) Altered American troops
b) Began a blockade of Cuba to prevent out the 25 Russian ships which were bringing missiles to Cuba
c) Demanded the dismantling of the missile sites and the removal of those missiles already in Cuba
d) The situation was tense and the world seem to be on the verge of a nuclear war
e) The Secretary General of the UN, U Thant appealed to both sides for a restraint
f) Khrushchev promise to remove the missiles and dismantle the sites
g) Kennedy promise of the USA would not invade Cuba again and undertook to disarm the Jupiter missiles in
Turkey
NOTE: (PG 513) At any sign of a possible improvement in East-West relations, for example when Khrushchev
talked about “peaceful-coexistence”, the armament manufacturers were far from happy. Some historians have
suggested that the American U-2 spy plane that was shot down over Russia in 1960 was sent deliberately in
order to ruin the summit conference which was about to begin in Paris.
The amount of cash involved was staggering: in 1950 the total budget was around $40 billion, of which $12 billion
was military spending.
A senate report found that over 2000 former top officers were employed by defense contractors who were
all making fortunes.

SQ – What were the consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis?

a) Both sides could claimed to have gained something, but most sides realised how easily a nuclear war could
have started and how terrible the result would’ve been
b) It seemed to bring them both to their senses and produced a marked relaxation of tensions
c) A telephone link (‘the hotline’) was introduced between Moscow and Washington to allow swift
consultations
d) In July, 1963, the USSR, the USA and Britain signed a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, agreeing to carry out further
nuclear tests only underground to avoid polluting the atmosphere any further.
e) Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

THE WARS IN VIETNAM [1946-54 & 1961-75]

NOTE: (1) Indo-China which consisted of three areas – Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia was a part of the French
Empire; the scene of almost non-stop conflict from the end of the Second World War.
(2) (i) FIRST PHASE OF CONFLICT: The people of those areas fought for and won their independence from the
French
(ii) THE SECOND PHASE: began with the civil war in South Vietnam. The USA intervened to prevent the spread of
Communism, had to admit failure.

[1946-54]
1. Vietnamese were fighting for independence from France.
2. Indo-China was occupied by the Japanese during the War- resistance to both Japanese and French was
organized by the league for Vietnamese Independence (Viet Minh) led by Communist Ho Chi Minh.
3. At the end of the war, Ho Chi Minh declared the whole of Vietnam independent; when it became clear that
the French had no intention of allowing full independence, the Viet Minh attacked them.
4. A. The Viet Minh were successful partly because they were masters of guerilla tactics and had massive
support from the Vietnamese people.
B. (Why did the French lose?) The French, still suffering from the aftereffects of WWII, failed to send enough
troops.
5. The USA also became involved; seeing the struggles as part of the Cold War and fight against communism.
NORTH VIETNAM: COMMUNIST, SOUTH VIETNAM: DEMOCRATIC
 6. By the Geneva Agreement, Laos and Cambodia were to be independent; Vietnam divided into two states at
the 17th Parallel
7. Ho Chi Minh’s Government was recognized in North Vietnam. South Vietnam to have a separate government
but the election was held for the whole country that would then become united.
8. Ho Chi Minh was disappointed at the partition but was confident that communists would win the elections –
elections were never held. A Civil war developed in South Vietnam, which eventually involved the North and
the USA.

Q. What were the reasons for the outbreak of the Civil War? Why did USA get involved in the Vietnam
War? (SECOND PHASE 1961-75)

1. The Vietnamese Government under President Ngo Dinh Diem refused to make preparations for the elections
- America backing his regime, did not press him for the fear of a communist victory
SQ- What was the Domino Theory?
2. The US President Eisenhower as worried as Truman about the spread of communism - obsessed with the
Domino Theory; if there is a line of dominos standing on end closed to each other and is pushed over, it will
knock over the next one in the line and so on. Eisenhower thought this could be applied to countries. If one
country in a region falls to communism, it would quickly knock over all its neighbours
3. Although Diem began energetically, his government soon lost popularity, gained a reputation for corruption,
was unpopular with nationalists who thought he was too much under American influence
4. Various opposition groups which included many former members of the Vietminh formed the NATIONAL
LIBERATION FRONT (NLF). Demanded a democratic national coalition Government
5. Guerrilla campaign was started , attacking government officials and buildings; communists were only one
section of the NLF - Diem introduced harsh security measures, was overthrown and murdered in an army
coup
6. It became clear that Diem could not cope with the military situation, the USA decided to increase its military
presence. In South Vietnam and it accepted Diem’s claim that the communists were behind all trouble
7. Having failed to defeat communism in North Korea and Cuba, Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson prepared to go
further than economic aid. Americans said their intervention was to protect the independence of the
Vietnamese people, but the real reason was to keep the country securely in the non-communist bloc

PHASES OF THE WAR

KENNEDY (1961-63) –
Kennedy tried to keep American involvement down to Anti Guerrilla Campaign. He sent 16,000 ‘advisors’ helicopters
and other equipments, introduced the ‘safe village’ policy in which local peasants were moved in masses into
fortified villages leaving the Vietcong isolated outside

JOHNSON –
THE TONKIN GULF INCIDENT:
a. The first incident occurred between North Vietnam and United States – August, 2nd, 1964
b. One U.S. destroyer, US Maddox, was attacked by North Vietnamese in the Gulf Of Tonkin
c. According to the US source, the Second Gulf of Tonkin incident occurred – it is said that the second incident
never took place.
d. Gulf of Tonkin resolution was passed by the American Congress
e. It vested the president with enormous powers to increase American involvement and military operations in
the Vietnam War. Johnson assumed that the Vietcong were controlled by Ho Chi Minh and decided to bomb
North Vietnam – tonnage of bombs were dropped on North Vietnamese cities. Vietcong managed to unleash
an offensive and capture 80 per cent of all towns and villages. Johnson suspended the bombing on North
Vietnam.
NIXON –
a. Nixon’s new idea was known as ‘VIETNAMIZATION’ – The Americans would re-arm and train the South
Vietnamese to look after the defense of South Vietnam, would allow a gradual withdrawal of American
troops
b. Again began with the heavy bombings on North Vietnam was all to no avail. The Vietcong controlled the
entire western half of the country. Pressure at both home and world opinion to withdraw.

Q. What were the factors that caused a feeling of revolution against the war?
1. The terrible bombing of North Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia
2. The use of chemicals to destroy jungle foliage and of inflammable Napalm Jelly which burnt people alive
3. The deaths of thousands of innocent civilians
4. The most notorious incident, when American soldiers rounded up inhabitants of the Hamlet of My Lai,
including old people carrying young children, were all shot and buried in mass graves.
5. Ceasefire was arranged and all American troops would be withdrawn from Vietnam and both North and
South Vietnam would respect the frontier along the 17th parallel.
6. CONCLUSION – Vietnam was at last united, free from foreign intervention – under a communist
government. American policy of preventing the spread of communism in South-east Asia had ended a
complete failure.

Q. ISC Question – The American Policy of preventing the spread of Communism in South-East Asia ended in
complete failure. In the context of the Vietnam War, explain?
a) The Gulf of Tonkin Incident
b) Reasons for the failure of the US
c) Effects of the War
d) Any four reasons for the Détente of 1970s

1. THE GULF OF TONKIN INCIDENT –

a. In August, 1964, a US destroyer Maddox, was allegedly attacked by the North Vietnamese in Gulf of
Tonkin
b. The attack had occurred at night, in dense fog and despite meager evidence, the event was widely
publicized in the American press
c. The Tonkin Gulf Resolution was by the American Congress
d. It vested the President with enormous power to increase American involvement and military
operation in the Vietnam War.
2. REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF THE US –
a. The victory and the National Liberation Front had widespread support among ordinary people.
b. The Americans made the mistake of supporting an obviously deficient regime in South Vietnam.
c. Ignored the general grievances of the people.
d. The Vietcong were experts at Guerilla Warfare
e. The Americans did not know how to deal with an unconventional ‘invisible’ army
f. The Vietcong received valuable help from North Vietnam (troops), China and Russia (arms)
g. The North Vietnamese were dedicated to eventual victory and unification of Vietnam
h. They should amazing resistance and determination in dealing with American bombings
3. THE EFFECTS OF THE WAR –
a. Vietnam was united
b. Problems reconstruction were enormous
c. The new government’s policies involved concentration camps for the opponents
d. No freedom of speech
e. It was big blow to American prestige on American society
 f. It was seen as a terrible mistake
g. Shook confidence in the US political system
h. Future American government would have to learn their lessons from their failure
i. Not repeat the mistake of committing the country so deeply to any similar situation in the future
j. The war was a major victory for the communist world
k. The US withdrew from Vietnam

Q. How did the Cold war end?

1. “HOT LINE” telephone link and the agreement to carry out only underground nuclear tests.
2. An agreement signed in 1967 banned the use of nuclear weapons in the outer space (NTBT – Nuclear Test
Ban Treaty)
3. The two countries signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty known as S.A.L.T. 1, decided how many
ABMs, ICBMs, SLBMs each side could have. The agreement did not reduce the amount of armaments but it
did slow the arms race down.
4. HELENSKI AGREEMENT – USA, Canada, USSR and most European states accepted the European Frontiers
which had been drawn up after the Second World War (recognizing the division of Germany). The
communist countries allowed their people human rights including freedom of speech and freedom to leave
the country.
5. Détente gathered momentum to the determination of the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. He had
summit meetings with Reagan and proposed a 15 year time-table, thereby ridding the earth of nuclear
weapons.

Q. Fall of communism in Poland,

a. Who was re-elected?
b. On whose order was he imprisoned?

1. There was a general strike and massive government and anti-Soviet demonstration in Posen (Poznan)
2. The banners demanded ‘bread and freedom’ – workers protested against poor living standards, wage
reductions and high taxes.
3. Russian tanks surrounded Warsaw, Polish Capital, took no action – In the end Russians decided to
compromise
4. GONULKA imprisoned on Stalin’s orders, was allowed to be reappointed as the First Secretary of Communist
Party – it was accepted that Polish communism could develop on its own.
5. Poland traded with countries around the Communist Bloc – Gonulka resigned

Q. How did communism collapse in Eastern Europe?

1) POLAND
• General Jaruzelski in 1981 was prepared to take a tough line; when solidarity (the new trade union
movement).
• Demanded a referendum to demonstrate the strength of its support, General Jaruzelski declared Martial
Law.
• Banned solidarity and arrested thousands of activists, the army obeyed his orders because everybody was
still afraid of the Russian military intervention.
• General Jaruzelski felt that it was safe to lift the Martial Law and Solidarity members were gradually
released, but the underlying problem was still there – all attempts to improve the economy failed: General
Jaruzelski tried to economize by cutting government subsidies, strike broke out, sent the food prices up.
• Realized that he needed opposition support to deal with economic crisis - Talk opened in February 1989
between the Communist Government and solidarity and other opposition groups. Changes in the
constitution as been agreed:-
a) Solidarity was allowed to become a political party.
b) There were to be two houses of the Parliament, a lower house and a Senate.
c) In the lower house, 2/3rd of the seats had to be Communist.
d) The Senate was to be freely elected.
e) The two houses voting together would elect a President, who would then choose a Prime Minister.
f) The new Prime Minister Mazowiecki chose a mixed government of Communist and Solidarity supporters.
• Jaruzelski was elected president, chose a Solidarity supporter, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, as the Prime Minister –
the first non-communist leader; Mazowiecki chose a mixed government of communist and Solidarity
supporters.
• After the collapse of Communism in other European states, Poland removed guaranteed communist seats,
Lech Walesa, the Solidarity leader, was elected President

2) GERMANY RE-UNITED
• In East Germany Erick Honecker, Communist Leader, refused all reforms and intended to stand firm,
along the Czechoslovakia and Romania to keep Communism in peace.
• Gorbachev, desperate to get financial help for Russia from West Germany, paid a visit to chancellor Kohl
and promise to help bring an end to the divided Europe, in return for German economic aid – promising
aid for East Germany.
• Thousands of East Germans began to escape to the West via Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary.
• The Protestant Church in East Germany became the focus of the opposition party to bring an end to the
repressive and atheistic communist regime.
• Honecker wanted to order the army to open fire on the demonstrations, but other communist leaders
were not prepared to cause widespread bloodshed:-
a) Dropped Honecker and his successors, Egon Krenz made concessions.
b) The Berlin Wall was opened and free elections promised.
• Great powers began to drop hints that they would not stand in the way of the Re-united Germany,
everybody in Eastern Germany seemed to warn an immediate action.
• Russia and USA agreed that the re-unification could take place: Gorbachev promised that all Russian
troops would be withdrawn from East Germany by France and British.
• Less happy about German re-unification went along with the flow.
• Germany was formally re-united in 1990.
• Helmet Kohl became the first chancellor of the united Germany since the Second World War.

3) CZECHOSLOVAKIA
• Czechoslovakia most successful economies in the Eastern Europe. She traded extensively with the West
and her industry and commerce remained buoyant.
• But during the early 1980s the economy ran into trouble, because there had been very little attempt to
modernize industry.
• Husak who had been in power since 1968 and his successor Milas Jakes, did not have a reputation as a
reformer.
• Things changed, Velvet Revolution came about, there was a huge demonstration Prague.
• Charter 77, now led by the famous playwright Vaclav Havel, organized further opposition, after
Alexander Dubeck had spoken at a public rally for the first time since 1968, a national strike was
declared - This was enough to topple the communist regime: Jakes resigned and Havel was elected
president ( 29 December, 1989).
 Result

• End of 41 years of communist rule and conversion to a Parliamentary Republic.

VELVET REVOLUTION
• It was a non – violent transfer period of upheaval popular demonstration against one party government
of the CPC (Communist Party of Czechoslovakia).
• The term Velvet Revolution coined by Rita Klemova.
• Velvet Revolution is also known as the Gentle Revolution.

MIKHAIL GORBACHEV
• He came to power in 1985. He was determined to transform and re-vitalize the country.
• He intended to achieve this by modernizing and stream lining the Communist Party with new policies of
Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (economic and social reform).
• The new thinking began an impact and foreign affairs, with initiative an Détente, relations with China,
withdrawal from Afghanistan and ultimately the ending of the Cold War.
• Gorbachev outlined in a speech to the party conference- the system was to be centralized, leaving no
room for local individual initiative.
• Gorbachev did not want to end communism. He wanted to replace the existing system, which was
humane and democratic. His policies failed to provide results quickly enough and led to the collapse of
communism and the break- up of USSR.

Q) Discuss the main features of Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies of Glasnost and Perestroika.

1. Several well known dissidents were released, and the Salcharov are allowed to return to Moscow from
internal exile.
2. Pravda was allowed to print an article criticizing Brezhnev for overreacting against dissidents, and a new law
was introduced to prevent dissidents from being sent to mental institutes.
3. The first session of the new Congress of people’s deputies were televised.
4. Purged leaders were rehabilitated.
5. Long banned anti- Stalin films and novels were shown and published.

Criticism
1. When a nuclear reactor at Chendeyl exploded releasing a massive radio-active cloud, the disaster was
discussed with un-precedent frankness.
2. Gorbachev wanted to use the media to publicize the inefficiency and corruption which the government
was so conscious to stamp out.
3. Educate public opinion.
4. Support for his policies.
5. Purged leaders were rehabilitated.

Economic Affairs (Register)

1. Small scale private enterprises allowed and so were workers cooperative up to a maximum of 50
workers.
2. Another important change was that the responsibility for quality controlled throughout industry as a
whole was to be taken over by the government.
3. Law on state enterprises - This removed the central planners total control over raw materials,
production, quotas and trade.
 Economic Affairs (Book: Pg 207)

1. Did not produce standard of living; economic systems were inefficient, over centralized and
subject to too many restrictions
2. All the states were expected to do their trading within the Communist Bloc
3. The communist record on health, education, housing and a range of other social services had
been atrocious
4. Increasing contact with the West in the 1980s showed people how backward the East was in
comparison with the West,; suggested that their living standards were failing even further.
5. It showed also that it must be their own leaders and the communist system that were the cause
of all the problem

Political Changes

• Supreme Soviet was to be replaced by a Congress of Peoples’ deputies, which was to elect a new and
much smaller Supreme Soviet.
• Reserved seats for the Communist Party abolished.
• Elected President of the communist party abolished.
• Many former dissidents were elected in the first elections.
• Gorbachev elected President of the Soviet Union with 2 councils to advice and help him.

Q) Why did European leaders develop the idea of greater cooperation and unity in Western Europe after World
War Two?

Ans. From Europe to recover from World War 2, pool resources and work together for mutual benefits.

1. Best way for Europe to recover from ravages of World War 2.

2. Pool resources and work together for mutual benefits.
3. Individual states too small; economies too weak; could be dominated by superpowers- America and Russia.
4. United Europe could combat threat of communism from Russia.
5. Established peace and stability in Europe. Franco- German rivalry would come to an end; would help
Germany to gain recognition and be accepted as a responsible nation.
6. Mutual cooperation and good will could minimize risk of European War.

SQ – GORBACHEV AND THE END OF COMMUNIST RULE

1. Mikhail Gorbachev, who came to power in 1985, was the most gifted and dynamic leader Russia had seen for
many years; was determined to transform and revitalize the country
2. He intended to achieve this by modernising and streamlining the communist party with new policies of
Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring- of the party, the economy and the government)
3. The new thinking soon made an impact on foreign affairs, with initiatives on detente, relations with China, a
withdrawal from Afghanistan and ultimately the ending of the cold war in late 1990
4. Gorbachev outline what was wrong at home in a speech to the party conference in 1988 cola the system was
to centralise, leaving no room for local individual initiative - completely on state ownership and control, and
weighted strongly towards defence and heavy industry, leaving consumer goods for ordinary people in short
supply
5. Gorbachev did not want to end communism; he wanted to replace the existing system, which was still
basically Stalinist with the socialist system which was more human and democratic
6. His policies fail to provide results quickly enough, and lead to the collapse of communism, the breakup of the
USSR, and the end of his own political career.
SQ – THE COUP OF AUGUST, 1991
1. The crisis depend, Gorbachev and Yeltsin right to work together; Gorbachev was now losing control: many of
the republic for demanding independence, when Soviet troops were used against nationalist, in Lithuania
and Latvia, people organised massive demonstrations
2. Gorbachev’s vice president, Gennady Yanayev, launched a coup to remove Gorbachev- Crimea was arrested.
When he refused he was kept under house arrest. The coup was poorly organized and the leaders failed to
have Yeltsin arrested.
3. On 21st August, the coup leaders admitted defeat, and they were eventually arrested. Yeltsin had triumphed
and Gorbachev was able to return to Moscow; things could never be the same.
4. The communist party was disgraced and discredited; Gorbachev soon resigned.
5. Yeltsin was seen as a hero and Gorbachev was increasingly sidelined. When Ukraine, the second largest
Soviet Republic, voted to become independent (1991) it was clear that the old USSR was finished.
6. Yeltsin- negotiating for the new union of republics. The new union was known as the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS). The member states were fully independent, the agreed to work together on
economic matters and defence.
7. Gorbachev resigned on 25th December 1991.
NOTE: - Georgia declared independence in 1991.

SQ – ASSESSMENT OF GORBACHEV
1. Gorbachev was one of the outstanding leaders of the 20th century- his achievement in foreign affairs were
enormous.
HOW DID HE PERSONALLY HELP END THE COLD WAR?
2. His policies of Glasnost and Perestroika restored freedom to the people of USSR.
3. His policy of reducing military expenditure, Détente and withdrawal from Afghanistan and Eastern Europe
made a vital contribution to the ending of the Cold war.