Theory, Practice, and the Education of Professionals

Author(s): Lee S. Shulman

Source: The Elementary School Journal , May, 1998, Vol. 98, No. 5, Special Issue: John
Dewey: The Chicago Years (May, 1998), pp. 511-526
Published by: The University of Chicago Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1002328

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Theory, Practice, Abstract

and the Education of In "The Relation of Theory to Practice in Edu-

cation," John Dewey compares professional
Professionals education for teachers to the education of other
professionals, especially physicians. He distin-
guishes between 2 general approaches, the
apprenticeship and the laboratory, generally fa-
voring the latter. This article proposes 6 com-
Lee S. Shulman monplaces characteristic of all forms of profes-
sional education and critically examines
Stanford University
and Dewey's views of teacher education through
those commonplaces. Proposals are offered for
The Carnegie Foundation
conceptualizing the education of teachers in gen-
for the Advancement of Teaching
Menlo Park, CA
eral and the connections between theory and
practice in particular.

The National Society for the Scientific Study

of Education was only a year old when it
devoted large portions of both its second
Yearbook (1903) and its third (1904) to the
topic "The Relation of Theory to Practice in
the Education of Teachers." John Dewey's
contribution, "The Relation of Theory to
Practice in Education," led off the 1904 vol-
ume (Dewey, 1904, pp. 9-30). These two
volumes were identified in a preface as ad-
dressing "the normal school problem."
They aimed to address the research univer-
sity problem as well, at least with regard to
the connections between its research mis-
sions and its role in the education of teach-
ers.

The society had changed its nam

1902 from its previous identity as th
tional Herbart Society. The leadership
apparently concluded that an associ
with science was likely to be more pr
tious than with the work of a German
The Elementary School Journal losopher whose influence on Amer
Volume 98, Number 5
o 1998 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved. education had, in Harold Dunkel's
0013-5984/98/9805-0009$02.00 phrase, gone "up like a rocket and

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512 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

Dewey's
like a stone" (Dunkel, Argument
1970, p. 1). The Uni-
versity of Chicago Press was the society'
Dewey's Perspectives
publisher, and the University
Dewey opens his essay by of Chicago
stating "with-
was home to its headquarters. At the
out argument" his assumption that "ade- time
of the 1904 publication, its elected officers
quate professional instruction of teachers is
represented the cross section
not exclusively of the
theoretical, several
but involves a
worlds the society was intended to bridge.
certain amount of practical work as well.
The officers were drawn from the Univer-
The primary question as to the latter is the
sity of Chicago, Columbia, Cornell, Univer-
aim with which it shall be conducted"
sity of Indiana-Bloomington, and the State
(Dewey, 1904, p. 9). What an interesting re
Normal University in Normal, Illinois, and
versal! The author takes for granted th
included the state superintendent of schools
theoretical preparation is needed for futur
in Wisconsin. With representation from the
teachers. The central issue is whether prac
research universities, normal schools, and
tical work is needed, and if so, of what kind.
public schools, the theory-practice problemDewey then asserts that there are basi-
was quite real for the society. cally two positions regarding the goals of
Dewey was nearing the end of his de-
practical preparation. We can seek to de
cade at the University of Chicago when velop
he those practical skills needed to do th
wrote this essay. He had established the De-
job smoothly and capably on a daily basis.
partment of Education, which he chaired This he calls the apprenticeship approach. Al-
while also leading the Department of Phi-ternately, we can design practical experi-
losophy (including the field of psychology).
ences to inform and "make real and vital"
He established the Laboratory Schoolthe in two components of theoretical work-
1896. But his disagreements with the uni-
subject matter knowledge and knowledge
versity president William Rainey Harper
of educational principles and theory. This
had festered, and in 1904 he accepted an second
of- perspective he identifies as the lab-
fer from Columbia's president Nicholas oratory view. Clearly the two perspectives
Murray Butler, who had chaired the board are not exclusive and will interact. Never-
of the National Society for the Scientific theless, they are clearly different, and the
Study of Education until 1903, to join the view that is preferred will dictate overall
philosophy department at Columbia, a po- strategy considerably.
sition he would take up in 1905. Thus, whileThe apprenticeship looks backward; the
the present essay is one of Dewey's oldest laboratory looks forward. The apprentice
statements on the topic of theory and prac-learns from the demonstration of and ex-
tice, it may stand as a valedictory to his ercise
ex- of "best practice." The laboratory is a
traordinary decade at Chicago. setting for experimenting with new prac-
I have organized this article in the tri-
tices and essaying yet-untested proposals.
partite manner characteristic of this vol- The apprenticeship is tradition; the labora-
ume. I will first summarize Dewey's argu- tory is science. The concept of apprentice-
ment, with special attention to his ship rests on modeling after and imitating
perspectives on the professions and profes- the wisdom of experience and practice,
sional education as models for teacher edu-
seeking to consolidate the hard-won gains
cation. I shall then offer my own perspec- of past traditions of practice. Apprentice-
tive on education for the professions, ships are local, particular, situated. Labo-
emphasizing a conception of the enduringratories produce more general knowledge
challenges of all professional learning andthat is portable, cosmopolitan, and broadly
transferable.
practice. I shall conclude with a critical ex-
amination of Dewey's views and offer an After considering both sides of the dis-
outline of a contemporary variation. tinction, Dewey favors the scientific orien-

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 THEORY AND PRACTICE 513

tation of the laboratory

matured professions
over the and ostensibly
practical
distin-
and traditional perspectives
guish them from of thefor
preparation appren-
teaching:
ticeship. This view is consistent
1. The with the
demand for an increased amount
preferred orientation of of the research
scholastic attainments as a prereq- uni-
versity and its commitment to skepticism
uisite for entering upon professional
scientific experimentation,work. invention, dis-
covery, and progress. 2. HeDevelopment
uses of certainrest
the lines of of
work th
in the applied sciences and arts, as
essay to articulate the grounds for prefer-
centers of professional work.
ring the laboratory 3.approach and
Arrangement of the to
practical andde-
scribe in detail the ways in which
quasi-professional work upon that
the as- ap-
proach would unfoldsumption
in the that ...creation
the professional of
school does its best for its students
professional teacher education in research
universities and in the needed reform of when it gives them typical and inten-
sive, rather than extensive and de-
normal schools. The heart of his argumenttailed, practical work.... This ar-
is drawing an analogy between teacher edu- rangement necessarily involves
cation and other forms of education in the considerable postponement of skill in
professions (especially medicine). He views the routine and technique of the pro-
fession, until the student, after grad-
these more mature forms of professional
uation, enters upon the pursuit of his
education as offering support to his pref- calling. (Dewey, 1904, pp. 10-11)
erence for the laboratory perspective.
Dewey thus focuses our attention on
The Model of Education in the
three program elements he imputes to more
Professions
mature forms of professional education.
In 1904, as continues to be the case in ourThese include increased academic prereq-
own day, the model of education in the uisites for initial entry into both the profes-
more prestigious professions carried con-
sional school and professional practice, en-
siderable allure for teacher educators. So it
suring that the future professional is a
was that, when confronted with the chal- well-educated adult in his or her own right.
lenge of confronting the relation of theory
In addition, he supports a more significant
to practice in education, Dewey was role at- for the relevant applied sciences in the
tracted to education in other professionsprofessional
as curriculum itself, much as
the source of a model:
chemistry and physiology have become
central to medical education. Finally, and
I doubt whether we, as educators, keep
most relevant to my analysis, he calls for
in mind with sufficient constancy the fact
that the problem of training teachers is greater emphasis in the practical work of
one species of a more generic affair- the professional school on the "intellectual
that of training for the professions. Our methods" of the profession rather than on
problem is akin to that of training archi- "turning out at once masters of the craft"
tects, engineers, doctors, lawyers, etc.
Moreover, since (shameful and incredi- (Dewey, 1904, p. 11).
ble as it seems) the vocation of teaching In this essay on theory and practice,
is practically the last to recognize the Dewey chooses to focus on the last aspect,
need of specific professional preparation, the deferral of extensive practical work for
there is all the more reason for teachers
the sake of deeper, more scientifically ori-
to try to find what they may learn from
ented theoretical understanding. He offers
the more extensive and matured experi-
ence of other callings. (Dewey, 1904, several arguments in support of his view.
p.10) The professional school has a limited
amount of time to invest in its students, and
Dewey finds three "marked tendencies" it ought to use this time for those kinds of
that characterize education for the more learning that it can do best. Moreover, prac-

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514 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

needs to become ain

tical skills are best learned classroom
a truepsychologist,
appre
ticeship, when someoneto "psychologize"istheindeed
subject matter and on to th
job, authentically responsible
interpret the inner mentalfor the
life of the learner.clas
room and not simply observing
Such an orientation is likely to emerge orfromrol
playing. Indeed, Dewey avers,
the laboratory to place
model of practice, not from the
emphasis on securing proficiency
the apprenticeship model. in th
techniques of pedagogy The argument goesand disciplin
even further. Dewey
worries that an apprenticeship
that is, on schoolkeeping--puts the experience
atten
would buildand
tion in the wrong place bad pedagogical
tends habits.
to Con-
fix
sistent with the earlier analysis, Dewey
in the wrong direction.
Teachers face two wants central problems,
teachers to base their teaching on sci-
claims Dewey, eachentific
of principles
which ratherdemands
than empirical ones. th
absorbed and undivided attention of the He wants them to distrust their own wis-
novice. One challenge is the mastery
dom of
of practice, based on personal experi-
the subject matter from the standpoint ence and that of their teaching peers, and
of its
educational value, which to Dewey instead
is the to trust in the findings of scholars.
same thing as the mastery of educational
He worries that teachers are far too suscep-
tibleof
principles and their application. Mastery to passing fads and lofty rhetoric.
the subject matter for teaching, and "Such
of thepersons seem to know how to teach,
principles of education, properly under-
but are not students of teaching" (Dewey,
stood, is at once both the material of instruc-
1904, p. 15).
tion and the basis for discipline and control.Dewey's essay continues in this vein,
In contrast, novice teachers also face the with additional discussions of how both
challenge of mastering the techniques of class-educational
theory and subject matter
room management and discipline. Theshould be taught to prospective teachers.
mind of the student teacher cannot offer He makes the persuasive (certainly to this
writer) claim that, unless the teacher has
equal attention to both problems, he asserts.
When the two goals compete, the attentionlearned a subject deeply and flexibly, it will
to technical mastery is almost certain tobewin
near impossible to lead students to learn
out over the development of an under- it deeply themselves.
standing of the "inner attention" of the
To summarize, Dewey mounts a vigor-
learner, and a deeper grasp of the principlesous attack on the technically oriented de-
of education. sign of an apprenticeship model of teacher
Dewey believes that prematurely plung- education. He associates this approach with
ing the student teacher into the complexitiesthe typical and traditional normal school,
of responsibility for classroom control and intent on producing skilled classroom man-
management will preclude achievement of agers and disciplinarians who will uncriti-
the most important objective of teacher edu-cally continue traditional practices. He in-
cation. Teachers must be educated and so- stead advocates a period of at least 2 full
cialized to develop dispositions toward in-
post-secondary school years of deep subject
quiry, reflection (what we might now call matter preparation in the school subjects
"metacognition"), and an orientation to di-
followed by intensive study of educational
rect their attention at the underlying intel-
theory and its related disciplines (especially
lectual and motivational processes of the psychology). This theoretical work would
child. When using practical experiencebe to accompanied by extensive practical
master classroom discipline and control,
work, the goal of which would be to en-
they are likely to be focused on the externalhance and enrich the theoretical under-
behavior of the children rather than their standings. The goal of practical work in the
internal, less visible processes. The teacheracademy would be the immediate prepa-

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 THEORY AND PRACTICE 515

ration not of skilled with the observation that thebut

practitioners American
of re-
flective professionals disposed
medical school "began to examine
soundly as a supple-
ment to the
their teaching and their apprenticeship
students' system still in
learning
vogue during
critically. The well-trained the seventeenth andfor
professional, eigh
Dewey, will mistrustteenth centuries" from
learning [Flexner, 1910,
hisp.own1].)
I then explore
and colleagues' experience and the kindsinstead
will of philosophies
look to the scientificandinquiries
pedagogies thatof havethe
developed to re
acad-
emy for guidance. The
spond proper
to the flow
challenges of of
professional
learning
knowledge is primarily and how these
from theideas might look i
academy
to the field. we were to employ them to address th
problems of teacher education. I focus mos
A Contemporary Perspective on particularly on the respective functions o
Education in the Professions
theory, practice, and their connections; to
conceptions of "science" and its relevanc
I first introduce my own analysis of edu-
cation for professional work, for I agree
to the improvement of practice; to the rela
with Dewey that the lessons learned from roles of the academy and the field; to
tive
the
the other professions can be useful ones prevailing theory of how new knowl-
for
those of us who educate teachers. But I do edge and wisdom develop in a profession
not find the analysis of professional edu-
and to the resulting image of the ideal forms
cation in Dewey's 1904 essay adequate of to
education for the professions generally
the task. and for teaching in particular.

The Argument Features of a Profession

I begin with a discussion of both the phi- The idea of a "profession" describes a
losophy and reality of the concepts "profes- special set of circumstances for deep under-
sion" and "professional." Given some sense standing, complex practice, ethical conduct,
of these, I will then explore what makes the and higher-order learning, circumstances
education of professionals so challenging, that define the complexity of the enterprise
and how the turn-of-the-century reforms of and explain the difficulties of prescribing
professional education were fashioned. both policies and curriculum in this area.
These reforms were "in the air" during the What do we mean by a profession, and
early years of the American research uni- what is so hard about preparing people for
versity, whose founders hoped to exercise professions? Let us begin with a recent dis-
control over education in the professions. cussion of the "ideology" of "profession":
This quest would eventually be reflected in
the 1910 Bulletin No. 4 of The Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of Teach- As an ideology, professionalism had
both a technical and a moral aspect.
ing, known more generally as the "FlexnerTechnically, it promised competent per-
Report" on medical education (Flexner, formance of skilled work involving the
1910). These perspectives already influ-application of broad and complex knowl-
enced John Dewey in 1904 when he wrote edge, the acquisition of which required
formal academic study. Morally, it prom-
about the connections between theory and ised to be guided by an appreciation of
practice in education. (Indeed, since Deweythe important social ends it served. In de-
characterizes the pedagogical choices cre-manding high levels of self-governance,
ated by the "new professional education"professionals claimed not only that oth-
as the choice between "the apprenticeship"ers were not technically equipped to judge
them, but that they also could not be
and "the laboratory," it is noteworthy thattrusted to judge them. The idea was ex-
6 years later, Abraham Flexner begins his pressed in classic form by R. H. Tawney:
critique of American medical education"[Professionals] may, as in the case of the

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516 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

successful doctor, grow rich;

fessionals but
are those the
who are educated to
meaning of their profession, both for
serve others using bodies of knowledge and
themselves and for the public, is not that
they make money, but skill
thatnot readily
theyavailable
make to the man or
woman in the street.
health or safety or knowledge This means that prac-
or good
government or goodtitioners
law.... [Profes-
of professions must develop moral
sions uphold] as the criterion
understandingof success
to aim and guide their prac-
the end for which the profession, what-
tice. The ultimate rationale for their work is,
ever it may be, is carried on, and [sub-
in Tawney's
ordinate] the inclination, words, "that
appetites, they make health
and
ambition of individuals to the rules of or safety or knowledge or good government
an organization which has as its object or good law" (Brint, 1994, p. 7). They are
to promote performance of function." obliged to employ their technical skills and
These functions for Tawney and for
theoretical knowledge in a matrix of moral
many other advocates of the professions,
were activities that embodied and ex- understanding. The starting point for pro-
pressed the idea of larger social pur-fessional preparation is the premise that the
poses. (Brint, 1994, p. 7) aims of professionalism involve social pur-
poses and responsibilities that are both
This account bears family resemblance technically and morally grounded. The core
to many other characterizations of the ideal meaning of a profession is the organized
concept of a "profession." There are, in
practice of complex knowledge and skills in
principle and at the very least, six charac- the service of others. The professional edu-
teristics of a profession that set the termscator's
for challenge is to help future profes-
the challenge of educating professionals. I
sionals develop and shape a robust moral
believe that these are universal features that vision that will guide their practice and pro-
are traditionally associated with the idea of vide a prism of justice, responsibility, and
a profession and that define the unavoid- virtue through which to reflect on their ac-
able dilemmas of professional education. tions. Medicine's Hippocratic Oath, there-
All professions are characterized by the fore, is a central manifestation of the moral
following attributes: foundations of a profession.
In most professions, however, with the
* the obligations of service to others, as possible exception of the preparation of
in a "calling";
clergy, the moral dimension remains in the
* understanding of a scholarly or theo-
retical kind; background. The demands of learning the
* a domain of skilled performance or necessary research and theories, as well as
practice; becoming technically adept in the many
* the exercise of judgment under condi- skills and practices, tend to subordinate the
tions of unavoidable uncertainty;
* the need for learning from experience as
service dimensions. It is noteworthy that
theory and practice interact; and when business schools, law schools, or
* a professional community to monitor medical schools receive grants to initiate or
quality and aggregate knowledge. strengthen programs in professional ethics,
the event is so remarkable that it becomes
These attributes are as relevant to de- front-page news.
signing the pedagogies of the professions as
they are to understanding their organiza- Theory: The Functions of Research and
tion and functions. I shall now discuss each the Role of the Academy
of these attributes in turn.
A profession is always a form of highly
complex and skilled practice. But what
Service: The Moral and Ethical Ideal
makes it a profession is not the complexity
First, the goal of a profession is service:
of skills alone. A profession is a practice
the pursuit of important social ends. Pro- whose agents claim is rooted in bodies of

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 THEORY AND PRACTICE 517

knowledge that are ally

created,
operate withintested, elabo-
discrete disciplines, in
rated, refuted, transformed, and reconsti-
contrast to practical problems, which typi-
cally cross disciplinary
tuted in colleges, universities, boundaries. Theo-
laboratories,
and libraries. To callries
something
are extraordinarily a profession
powerful, which is
is to claim that it has a knowledge
why they are the treasure of thebase
academyin
the academy broadly construed.
and should Profes-
be valued by the professions;
sions legitimate their
theywork by reference
are also frequently so remote from the to
research and theories. Therefore,
particular professions
conditions of professional prac-
change their practices not
tice that the novice only because
professional-in-training
rules of practice, circumstances, or policies
rarely appreciates their contributions.
change but because the process
Any reader who has been of knowl-
educated for
edge growth, criticism,
one of theand development
professions-say, in the two with in
the academy leads which
to the I am most familiar, medical educa- of
achievement
tionnew
new understandings, or teacher preparation-will immedi-
perspectives, or
new ways of interpreting the
ately recognize world.
the theory-practice prob-
The notion that formal professional
lem. My University of Chicago teacher
knowledge is rootedJoseph
in Schwab
an academic
devoted most of theknowl-
last 20
edge base creates the conditions
years of his career to the for
problemsthe es-
of prac-
sential pedagogical problem
tical knowledge andof professional
its relations to theory.
education. This problem is try
One need only the relation
to connect the Krebs cy-be-
tween theory and practice. Theof recurrent
cle with the intricacies a particular clini-
cal diagnosis, or the
challenge of all professional loop of Henleis
learning withne-
gotiating the inescapable tension
some specific aspect between
of kidney failure, to ap-
theory and practice. preciate
That theis, in As
problem. nearly every
a teacher educator,
form of professional I have education,
tried to help students students
see how one
traverses
perceive the practicum the gap between Piaget's
experiences devel-
as truly
valuable, while barely
opmentaltolerating
theory and what to teachthe aca-
on Mon-
demic experiences. Itday is perfectly
morning clear
or between Vygotsky's to
zones
both the students ofand proximallaypersons how a
development and the pedagog-
clinical internship, ical
a student-teaching
potential of groupwork. We who have ex-
perience, or a student
tried pulpit are
to educate future relevant
professionals under- to
preparing the new stand
physician,
the challenge thatteacher,
is created when or
one's starting
minister. It is the more point for an education
theoretical prepara-in a
tion in cell biology, developmental
learned psy-
profession is immersion in vast
chology, or the interpretation ofWeAugus-
bodies of academic knowledge. prepare
tine's writings that professionals
often appear in universities
ofbecause we
dubious
value.
make the strong claim that these are learned
The role of theory is problematic for at professions and that academic knowledge is
least two reasons. Theory achieves its absolutely essential to their performance.
power through simplification and narrow- Now, this may be, in spite of Dewey's
ing of a field of study. In that sense, theories
assumptions and argument, a false claim. It
deal with the world in general, for the most may well be that academic knowledge is es-
part treating variations as error and ran-sential only as an entitlement to practice and
domness as noise. Similarly, the research is not functionally necessary for practice.
that informs theory is often conducted un- My point is that the claim of rootedness in
der controlled or otherwise artificial condi-
a theoretical, empirical, and/or normative
tions, whose connections to the everyday
knowledge base is central to all of the pro-
world of practice are tenuous. A second
fessions. The view (shared by both Dewey
characteristic of theories is that they gener-and Flexner) that a liberal education of

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518 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

some sort is a prerequisite for

application that goes on in the
the fieldstudy
not only
medicine, law, teaching, andelement
is a nearly universal other profe
of professional
learning, problem
sions sets an interesting but typically oncefor
the profession-
profes
sional education: How does one define the als reach the field of practice, they look back
foundational basic sciences for understand-
on the theoretical preparation and begin to
devalue it. We thus see the universal
ing and practicing a profession? What are
features of professional education-
the liberal arts and sciences per se whose
strong emphasis on service but witho
grasp would identify an individual as "edu-
cated" or "learned" and therefore entitled much classroom work, substantial theore
to pursue a learned profession? cal preparation with uncertain connectio
to everyday practice, and formal practicu
Practice: The Skills and Strategies of experiences through varieties of supervis
the Profession
field experience, whether directly under
Although a significant portion of the supervision of the university-based educ
tors or in some loose connection to the acad-
knowledge base of a profession is grown by
emy. As observed above, the tensions be-
scholars in the academy, it is not professional
knowledge unless and until it is enacted in tween the theoretical and practical elements
the crucible of the "field." Professions are of the education are nearly always palpable.
ultimately about practice. The field of prac- One of the sources of those tensions is
tice is the place where professions do their the conflict between standards and concep-
work, and claims for knowledge must pass tions of practice affirmed in the academy
the ultimate test of value in practice. While and those typically manifested in the field.
the theoretical is the foundation for the en- Theoretical preparation, in spite of the leg-
titlement to practice, professional practice endary conservatism of higher education,
itself is the end to which all the knowledge tends to be more radical and reform ori-
is directed. This is why in all professionalented than is the general tenor of practice
preparation we find some conception of aitself. Indeed, academicians often see them-
supervised clinical experience. Student
selves as the critical conscience of profes-
teaching, medical residencies, architects'
sional practice, taking on themselves the re-
apprenticeships, student nursing, all are ex-
sponsibility for criticizing current practice
amples of carefully designed pedagogies to and developing a vision for the future. It is
afford eased entry into practice accompa-not at all unusual for university-based pro-
nied by intensive supervision, to ensure thefessional educators to hold quite different
acquisition of needed skills and the dem- conceptions of good practice than do field-
onstration of appropriate behavior, man- based professionals. And it is, again, almost
ner, and values. In medicine, the periods ofuniversally the case in professional prepa-
internship, residency, and fellowship typi- ration that the students arrive at their clini-
cally extend for many years after comple- cal experiences only to hear the nursing su-
tion of formal professional preparation in pervisor, or the veteran teacher in the fifth
the medical school. By contrast, student grade where they are student teaching, or
teaching internships rarely last more than the chief of clinical services in the hospital
6-9 months. In further contrast, one of the admonish them to forget all the nonsense
features of preparation in the law is that le-
they were taught at the university because
gal educators have somehow managed to
now they will learn the way it is really done.
avoid the responsibility to introduce a se-Thus, counterintuitively, the ostensibly con-
rious clinical component into legal educa- servative academy is the source of radical
tion, expecting the employing law firm to ideas. The field is where you encounter the
assume that burden. elastic cord that pulls matters back to the
The apprenticeship, the practice, and the
conservation of extant habits of practice.

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 THEORY AND PRACTICE 519

This kind of tension is endemic in all forms about accident, and the only way to get from
of professional education. there to here is via the exercise of judgment.

Judgment under Uncertainty Learning from Experience

In spite of the importance of both theory Up to this point, my analysis has treated
and practice, professions are not simply primarily the movement of knowledge
conduits for taking knowledge from the from the academy to the field, whether di-
academy and applying it to the field. The rectly or as mediated via professional judg-
process of judgment intervenes between ment. However, the most formidable chal-
knowledge and application. Human judg- lenge for anyone in a profession is not
ment creates bridges between the universal applying new theoretical knowledge but
learning from experience. While an aca-
terms of theory and the gritty particularities
of situated practice. And human judgment demic knowledge base may be necessary
always incorporates both technical and for professional work, it is far from suffi-
moral elements, negotiating between the cient. Therefore, members of professions
general and the specific, as well as betweenhave to develop the capacity to learn from
the ideal and the feasible. the experience and contemplation of their
To the extent that the academy ad- own practice. This is not only true for in-
dresses problems of practice at all,dividual it professionals; it is equally true for
the entire professional community of prac-
necessarily presents them as prototypes, sim-
plified and schematized theoretical repre- tice. Lessons of practice learned from ex-
sentations of the much messier and variable perience must have a way of getting back
particulars of everyday life. When student to the broad community of practitioners so
all can profit from one another's experi-
professionals move out to the fields of prac-
ences. Lessons of practice must also find
tice, they find inevitably that nothing in the
real world precisely fits the prototypes. The
their ways back to the academy to inform,
responsibility of the developing profes-
as well as to problematize, knowledge de-
sional is not simply to apply what he or she
velopment in the academy itself.
has learned to practice but to transform, Dewey (1910/1951) subsequently ob-
adapt, merge and synthesize, criticize, and served in his classic essay on the influence
invent in order to move from the theoretical of Darwinism on philosophy that chance,
and research-based knowledge of the acad-error, and accidents present both the sci-
emy to the kind of practical clinical knowl- ences and the fields of practice with their
edge needed to engage in professional
most fascinating puzzles. The great chal-
work. lenge for professional learning is that expe-
As I observed earlier, one of the reasonsrience occurs where design and intention
that judgment is such an essential compo-collide with chance. Without the violation
nent of clinical work is because theoretical of expectations, it is impossible to learn
knowledge is generally knowledge of what from experience. Learning from experience,
is true universally. It is true in general and
therefore, requires both the systematic, pro-
for the most part. It is knowledge of regu- totype-centered, theoretical knowledge
larities and of patterns. It is an invaluablecharacteristic of the academy and the more
simplification of a world whose many var- fluid, reactive, prudential reasoning char-
iations would be far too burdensome to acteristic of practice. The professional must
store in memory with all its detail and in- how to cope with those unpredictable
learn
dfviduality. Yet the world of practice is matters
be- and how to reflect on her own ac-
set by just those particularities, born of the Professionals incorporate the conse-
tions.
workings of chance. To put it in Aristotelianquences of those actions into their own
terms, theories are about essence, practice is
growing knowledge base, which ultimately

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520 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

lation, however. No of
includes unique combinations professional
theoretic can
function
and moral principles, well in isolation. Professionals
practical maxims, re- an
a growing collection
quireofmembership
narratives in a community. of exp
rience.

In comparing John Dewey and George Professions as Learning and

Herbert Mead with Jane Addams, all of Monitoring Communities
whom were good friends in Chicago in the Finally, professions are inherently pub-
first 5 years of this century, Ellen Lagemann lic and communal. We speak of someone
(1988) observed that, for Dewey and Mead, not only being a professional, but being a
the tools of their trade were the scientific
member of a profession. Professional knowl-
hypothesis and the investigation; for Ad- edge is somehow held by a community of
dams, it was the anecdote and the biogra- professionals who not only know collec-
phy. In professional practice, hypothesis tively more than any individual member of
rapidly gives way to narrative. Jane the Ad- community but also maintain certain
dams's Hull House was the setting in whichpublic responsibilities and accountabilities
the academic perspectives of Dewey with
and respect to individual practice. Thus
Mead were brought into collaborative con- professionals operate within their particu-
lar communities under privileges granted
tact with the truly professional practice em-
bodied by Addams and the settlement by the broader society. Such autonomy and
house movement. The ideals of service privilege is granted when the profession is
viewed
clearly dominated the thinking of thoseas holding specialized knowledge
who were inventing the professions whose
of so- warrant only its own members can
evaluate
cial work and community development, butand when its members are trusted

the desire to ground those practices

toin the
take ethical responsibility for such eval-
uation.
academic disciplines of social philosophy,
sociology, and a professional school ofAlthough
so- individual professionals carry
cial service administration were already a
the responsibility for practice, the assump-
serious challenge. tion is that they are members of a com-
In Bruner's (1986) terms, in thesemunity
situa- that defines and regulates the
tions the paradigmatic way of knowing,
standards for that practice and that as a
characteristic of science, shares space with
community, knows more than any individ-
the narrative modes, more characteristic of
ual practitioner. The public can turn to the
the wisdom of practice. When we seek a
professional community when questions of
pedagogy that can reside between the of practice are at stake. From the
the quality
perspective
universal principles of theory and the nar- of professional pedagogy,
ratives of lived practice, we invent ap- the community of practice plays
however,
proaches-such as the varieties of case role. The academic discipline
a critical
methods-capable of capturing experience
serves the academy as a learning commu-
for subsequent analysis and review.
nity We
whose invisible colleges ensure that
render individual experiential learning knowledge
into gained is vetted for its warrant
"community property" when we transform through peer review and then distributed
those lessons from personal experience amonginto
members of the community through
a literature of shared narratives. Such con- journals and other forms of scholarly com-
nections between theoretical principles and munication. The community of practice for
practical narratives, between the universal a profession plays a similar role with regard
and the accidental, forge professional to learning from experience, accumulating
knowledge. Such knowledge cannot be de-and critiquing the lessons gained and sub-
veloped and sustained adequately by indi- sequently codified, and in general helping
viduals experiencing and reflecting in iso- practitioners overcome the limitations of in-

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 THEORY AND PRACTICE 521

tions. Different
dividual practice and stakeholders in the social
individual experi
and political worlds
ence. Without a community of practice, exercise control over
in
these domains,
dividual professionals would and be
any preferences
trapped givenin
a solipsistic universe inover
to theory which only
practice, or the
to conceptual
own experiences were potentially
mastery over technical proficiency,educa
for ex-
ample,
tive. By creating and will have seriousthe
fostering consequences
work for o
the future of institutions,
communities of practice, individual the allocation of
exp
rience becomes communal,
scarce resources,distributed ex-
and the conferral of val-
pertise can be shared, and standards o
ued prestige.
practice can evolve. In the context of this tension, Dewey ar-
I have argued in this section
gued that theory and that a mastery
intellectual com-
prehensive view ofmust the takeconcept of in
a certain precedence "profe
the prep-
sion" must take account of six universal fea- aration of professionals. Not only must the-
tures of professions: service, theory, ory be taught directly, vigorously, and ex-
practice, judgment, learning from experi- tensively. It must serve as the rationale for
ence, and community. I have further argued the teaching of practice. Therefore, those re-
that each of these attributes sets a challengesponsible for theory and its development
for the pedagogies of the professions (e.g., should also control the conditions of prac-
How does one instill personal values of ser- tice. Dewey was writing in the first decade
vice and altruism? How is an understand- of the twentieth century, a time when the
ing of theory best acquired? What kinds struggle
of over control of education in the
experiences and supervision are most likely professions was becoming particularly hot.
to sharpen the capacity for reasoned prac- The traditional normal schools represented
tical judgment in the face of uncertainty?). a segment of the world of postsecondary
Moreover, I have also suggested that some education-free-standing schools of profes-
of these attributes compete for attentionsional
and preparation similar to proprietary
emphasis within the curriculum of themedical pro- schools, law schools, schools of
fessions. Thus, theory competes with prac- nursing, and so on-that was in serious
tice, and an emphasis on values often conflict
is at with the universities over just such
odds with the acquisition of technical issues.pro-
ficiency. Dewey's essay is an early attempt Dewey's writings reflect his times and
to formulate some of these issues and to of- anticipate the subsequent writings of the fa-
fer a resolution, with particular reference tomous critic and reformer of medical edu-
the education of teachers. I shall now turn cation, Abraham Flexner. When in 1908
to a brief concluding section that reflects onHenry Pritchett, the first president of the
Dewey's views, in the light of his own era
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement
and from the perspective of our own. of Teaching, commissioned the retired
schoolmaster Abraham Flexner to conduct
Theory, Practice, and Professional a study of American medical education, the
Education
Foundation was hardly dispassionate about
Dewey's Era the likely consequences of the report. The
The central feature of all professional
Foundation was quite new, having been es-
education is indeed the tense relationship
tablished in 1905, but its board represented
between theory and practice. It is an essen-
the establishment in American higher edu-
tial tension, as unavoidable as the tensions
cation. Pritchett himself had been president
found within families whose members have of the Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
become highly dependent on one another. ogy. Other board members included Wood-
It is a painful tension because theory and row Wilson of Princeton, Charles W. Eliot
practice are not only competing concep-of Harvard, William Rainey Harper of Chi-

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522 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

Within a decade
cago, David Starr Jordan of of the Flexner Report's
Stanford, and
the same Nicholas Murray Butler
publication in 1910, nearly halfof Colum
of America's
bia who had chairedextant medical
theschools had closed (includ-
National Societ
ing, alas, all of
for the Scientific Study but one of those dedicated toboar
Education
and lured Dewey to the education
his of women and all but two of The
institution.
were institutions that saw the creation and
those educating African Americans). The
preservation of research and of theoretical
"Flexner Curriculum" had taken shape and
knowledge as their special preserve. Science would continue to dominate American
was emerging as the dominant force in the medical education until the present day: a
universe of knowledge, and science was undergraduate degree in the sciences, fol
lowed by 4 years of "undergraduate medi
housed in institutions like theirs. If the pro-
fessions were to be appropriately grounded cal education" consisting of 2 more years o
in the most solid firmament of knowledge basic science and then 2 years of clinic
medical rotations, followed by 1 or mor
and its discovery, then the education of pro-
years of supervised internship and resi
fessionals ought necessarily to be the prov-
ince of the universities (see Lagemann,
dency. Premedical education and under
1983). graduate medical education were alway
When he began the design and im- under the aegis of a university. Most of th
plementation of his study of the medical
particularly prestigious approved intern
schools of the United States and Canada, ships and residencies were also undertake
Flexner encountered a distributed system of at university-based or university-affiliate
medical education dominated by appren- "teaching hospitals." Consistent with
ticeships, relatively unenlightened in its Dewey's views of professional education
practice or its professional education by the though not necessarily influenced directl
powers of science, and often unconnected by them, medical education was heavy on
to the traditional institutions of postsecon- an initial immersion in theory and in sci-
dary education, colleges and universities. ence, with practical work deferred until af
Small, independent medical schools flour- ter the science had been learned. Becomin
ished. These included not only local pro- a skilled practitioner was a goal of the clerk-
prietary schools but also independent insti- ships and internships, not a priority of th
tutions designed to prepare women and earlier years of study.
African Americans for medical careers. Although Dewey writes of this ap
Flexner strongly believed that the emerging proach in 1904 as if it were already canon
research universities, where science was ical for professional education, the organ
flourishing, needed to be given greater con-zation, structure, and institutional location
trol over medical education, both by in-for professional education would remai
creasing the academic prerequisites to prac-contested terrain for many years. Ironically,
tice and by requiring that medical judgmentthe "revolutionary" Flexner curriculum
be justified by science rather than by prac-would ultimately be perceived as a conser
tical precedent. For Flexner, Johns Hopkinsvative barrier to later proposed reforms i
was the prototype of the university-based, medical education, which often cited Joh
research university home for a medicalDewey as their inspiration for more prob
school. Its curriculum, resting solidly onlem-based, field-centered, and practice-in
courses in the basic natural sciences, ex- tensive approaches to the education of phy
emplified these principles. This was a con- sicians.
ception of professional preparation that This leads to another important obser-
harmonized beautifully with the views ex- vation. Dewey understood that, although
pressed by Dewey in his essay in teacher theory had a certain priority for the educa-
education.
tion of teachers, it would be deadly if the

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 THEORY AND PRACTICE 523

theory were taught ofabsent

truth. To this day, it remains far from
immersion in
being generally
contexts and conditions of practice. understood.... Dewey He
seeks to persuade men to teach a mode
therefore advocated aof special kind
learning and knowing of
which theypro-
fessional education, in which
themselves a curriculum
do not know and which they
of theory-in-practicecannot
dedicated to ways
grasp by their habitual the of un-
learning. (Schwab, 1959, pp.was
derstanding of theory-for-practice 168-170)at its
heart. Theory was paramount, he asserted,
Practice serves as a major
yet it could not be understood in a vehicle for
purely
academic setting. This
testinginsight
the validity andwas
efficacy impor-
of theory,
tant, not only for both
Dewey's
for learning a conception
profession and for de- of
education for the veloping
professions, but
theories more generally. ulti-
Practice
is a significant
mately for his pragmatic source of the evidence
conception of on the-
ory and its relationswhich
to new theory development
practice can be
in general.
Thus, Joseph Schwab observes
based. Learning in his
from practical experiences
1959 essay, "The 'Impossible' is the major contributor toRole of
creating and test-the
Teacher in Progressive Education"
ing theories of practice, which are the(coinci-
defin-
dentally written for ing another
constructs of professional
Chicago knowledge
pub-
lication, School Review, in a volume com- and learning.
memorating the centennial of Dewey's There is an impressive, if somewhat
birth): ironic, confluence between these Deweyan
ideas and major developments in the theo-
For Dewey, any theory of practice, ries of learning and cognition that have
including his, finds its full meaning only emerged in the field of cognitive science.
as it is put into practice and gains its ver- Cognitive scientists have become increas-
ification only as it is tested there. A the-
ingly interested in the very idea that Dewey
ory includes a body of logical forms, con-
dismissed in his 1904 analysis, the idea of
ceptions designed to embrace and relate
to one another all the facts in a problem- apprenticeship. They have shown a renewed
atic situation which are seen as relevant interest and respect for the apparent edu-
to its resolution. These logical forms takecational potency of traditional apprentice-
part of their meaning from the facts they ships. In these apprenticeships, "un-
are designed to hold, and another part schooled" children and adults can
from what they do to the facts by way of
making them signify actions to be taken. apparently learn complex forms of
Hence, the theory cannot be understood ing, understanding, and practice t
until the facts are experienced in the formvery difficult for formal educationa
given them by the organizing concep-tutions to teach. What kinds of learn
tions of the theory; and experienced
apprenticeships foster? How are the
means that they must be seen and felt
and that the actions they signify must be ferent from those typically pursued
undertaken. mal education, both in schools and col-
Further, the theory is verified only by leges?
such an undertaking, for a theory is good Reflecting Dewey's basic ideas, if not his
to the extent that it does take account of
all the pregnant facts and leads to actions
language, the notion of a "cognitive ap-
which resolve the problem to the satis- prenticeship" has taken hold. This view of
faction of those who are caught up in learning asserts that in academic settings
it.... Now, it must be remembered that theoretical knowledge is separated from
this view of knowledge plays two roles. practical applications and complex pro-
In part it is the conception of education
cesses are taught far from the situations in
which Dewey hopes to convey. At the
same time, it represents to him the way which they can be used. An effective ap-
it must be conveyed. Remember too, that prenticeship, whether for a midwife or a
it is a wholly novel view of meaning and gambler, teaches the practical, judgmental,

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524 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

and situated intellectual work that charac-

pursue their inquiries, a science of educa-
terizes traditional crafts and occupations
tion would do for teaching what the bio-
with the reflective and elaborative mecha- logical sciences were doing for medicine.
nisms that characterize higher-order think- Second, in spite of his admiration for
ing. It achieves these daunting goals by Jane
em- Addams, Dewey may have tacitly
bedding the learning in the social context shared
of with many of his generation a sense
practice, permitting the apprentice to movethat the women in the classroom needed to
from observation to limited participation be to
directed by the men in the principal's of-
full responsibility slowly and with seriousfice and the male scientists in the university.
modeling and supervision. Thus, ironically,Although probably an "anticipatory femi-
the most significant corroboration of in many ways, the prevailing views of
nist"
Dewey's conception of education has taken gender roles would have the technical func-.
place through respectful contemplationtions of a of classroom teaching carried out pri-
form of learning that he denigrated. Hemarilyhad by normal-school educated women
preferred the laboratory to the apprentice-while the scientific activity remained in the
ship. hands of university men. Granted, Dewey
Nevertheless, Dewey had espoused an argued that the theoretical preparation of
intermediate position: he argued that only teachers was intended to render them more
theoretical learning situated in practice critical, skeptical, and watchful of those
would be rich and meaningful, even though groundless fads and fashions that sweep
he continued to privilege the theory side of over the schools. He wanted teachers to un-
the distinction. He was far less clear on the
derstand the principles of educational sci-
indispensable role of practice as a source ence
for and to apply them critically to their
new theory and on the importance of learn- work with curriculum and with their
ing from experience as the key elementyoungsters.
in But they were to apply scien
practitioners' capacities to increase the wis-
they were not to do science (see Lagema
dom of their practice. That is, Dewey 1988).
ap-
pears to believe that the most importantWe now would place much greater em
source for new practical knowledge wouldphasis on the importance of the commu
remain research and theory conductedties in of practice creating new networks,
stitutions, and capacities to learn fro
the academy. He anticipated that in teach-
individual and collective experience. I
ing, as in medicine, the flow of new ideas
would be from university laboratories (or
teaching, we are observing the growth o
laboratory schools) and their professional
groups like the National Writing Proje
schools to the communities of practice. the National Board for Professional Teach-
Why would Dewey, the great champion ing Standards, and a variety of collabora-
of experience as a source for student learn-
tives that encourage teachers to conduct in-
ing, be so blind to the experiences of school
quiries in their classrooms and share their
teachers as the sources for teacher learning
findings and insights with one another. Pro-
fessional development schools have been
and, indeed, for learning on the part of aca-
demic scholars of education? I suspect that
designed as sites for collaborative inquiry
there are several explanations. First, into teaching and learning, as well as new
Dewey's entire philosophy rested on a be-versions of the old "practice schools" of the
lief that the methods of science could be normal school era. Much more academic re-
search is conducted in classrooms with
brought to bear fruitfully on the workings
teachers as active partners and even a
of society. Science flourished, was nurtured,
and grew in the halls of the academy. Withthors. Teacher-written cases of practi
special laboratory schools in which educa-
have become legitimate components of ed
tional and psychological scientists could
cational research. Taken together, the

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 THEORY AND PRACTICE 525

practice-centered sources standing. Earlyof

clinical experiences are are
wisdom now b
coming at least as important commonplace. as the invest
gations of psychological There is increased
science emphasisinon the im-
guidin
the work of educators. portance of those pedagogies that foster the
combining of theory and practice in local,
Finally, Dewey was apparently far more
impressed by the apparent success of the situated judgments. The continued and
"more matured" professional schools than growing interest in case methods in busi-
was warranted. He was appropriately im- ness, law, education, and medicine reflects
pressed with their heavy emphasis on the that emphasis. A case resides in the territory
between
prerequisites of the liberal arts and on their theory and practice, between idea
commitment to theory and research as the and experience, between the normative
ideal and achievable real. Cases capture
scientific basis for their practice. He failed
to see the extent to which much of that em- pieces of experience that initially existed
phasis had little to do with the improve- solely within the life of a single individual,
ment of professional practice and far more they transform that solitary experience
and
into text. Members of a larger group, all of
with buttressing the control of the presti-
gious and powerful world of professional whom are trying to make sense of the prac-
education by the newly emerging research tice that the text documents and preserves,
can
universities. While he was certainly justi- share cases as texts. As pedagogical de-
vices, cases confront novice professionals
fied in valuing a more rigorous, skeptical,
and investigation-based foundation for thewith highly situated problems that draw to-
gether
professions, he gave inadequate attention to theory and practice in the moral sea
of
the need to nurture such activities and per- decisions to be made, actions to be taken.
Options
spectives within the communities of profes- are rarely clean; judgments must be
sionals themselves. rendered.
Cases are ways of parsing experience so
A New Era for Professional Education practitioners can examine and learn from it.
Case methods thus become strategies for
We may now be seeing an emergent
helping professionals to "chunk" their ex-
new view of education in the professions,perience into units that can become the fo-
and of teacher education. These emergent cus for reflective practice. Cases therefore
ideas connect to each of the commonplacescan become the basis for individual profes-
of professional learning: moral vision, theo-
sional learning as well as a forum within
retical understanding, practical skills, the
which communities of professionals, both
centrality of judgment, learning fromlocalex- and extended, as members of visible
perience, and the development of respon- and invisible colleges, can store, exchange,
sible professional communities. and organize their experiences. They may
We see renewed interest in the moral well become, for teacher education, the lin-
and character aspects of the professions.guaAl-
franca of teacher learning communities.
though the moral foundations for profes- In his 1904 essay, John Dewey explored
sionalism had been acknowledged for agen- set of problems that continue to beset pro-
erations, the achievement of moral ends fessional education to this day. Science has
was rarely seen as a focus of the profes-flourished beyond the wildest dreams of
sional curriculum. Skepticism regarding theanyone living a century ago. But the prob-
Flexner curriculum has led to experimentslems of education remain as challenging as
with new models of professional education,ever. Dewey recognized that the solutions
which take the acquisition of practical skillsto these problems might lie in novel ways
and immersion in practical situations asto think about the connections between the-
necessary conditions for theoretical under-ory and practice. Many of his insights were

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526 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

Dewey, J. Yet
remarkably prescient. (1951). Thewe
influence of Darwin on phi-
continue to
losophy, and other essays in contemporary
struggle with the problems he formulated
thought. New York: P. Smith. (Original work
published 1910)
Dunkel, H. (1970). Herbart and Herbartianism.
References Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Brint, S. (1994). In an age of experts: The changing the Advancement of Teaching (Bulletin No.
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Bruner, J. S. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. lic good. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Univer-
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Dewey, J. (1904). The relation of theory to prac-Lagemann, E. C. (1988). The plural worlds of
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