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linguisti s
C R O S S
ultures
Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers

R O B E R T  L D O

with a Foreword by Charles C Fries

Ann Arbor—The University of Michigan Press

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PREFACE

T h i s b o o k p r e s e n t s a f a i r l y n e w f i el d of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s a n d
t h e a n a l y s i s of c u l t u r e n a m e l y t h e c o m p a r i s o n of a n y t w o l a n 
guages and cultu res to disco ver and des crib e the pro blem s that
the speakers of one of the languages will have in learning the
o t h e r . T h e r e s u l t s of s u c h c o m p a r i s o n s h a v e p r o v e d of f u n d a 
m e n t a l v a l u e f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s t e s t s a n d
l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g e x p e r i m e n t s . F o r e i g n l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r s w ho
u n d e r s t a n d t h i s fi e l d w i l l a c q u i r e i n s i g h t s a n d t o o l s f o r e v a l u a t i n g
t h e l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e c o n t e n t of t e x t b o o k s a n d t e s t s s u p p l e 
m e n t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l s in u s e p r e p a r i n g n ew m a t e r i a l s a n d t e s t s
a n d d i a g n o s i n g s t u d e n t d i f f i c u l t ie s a c c u r a t e l y .
The plan of the book rests on the assumption that we can pre
dict and describe the patterns that will cause difficulty in learn
T h i s b o o k i s a f f e c t io n a t e l y d e d i c a t e d i n g a n d t h o s e t h a t w i l l n o t c a u s e d if f i c u lt y b y c o m p a r i n g s y s 
tematically the language and culture to be learned with the native
TO MOTHER l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e of t h e s t u d e n t . I n o u r v i e w t h e p r e p a r a t i o n
Monolingual Spanish speaker in the U.S.A. of up-to-date pedagogical and experimental materials must be
b a s e d o n t h i s k i n d of c o m p a r i s o n . I t h a s b e e n o u r e x p e r i e n c e
f u r t h e r t h a t a b l e f o r e i g n l a n gu a g e t e a c h e r s w i t h p r o p e r g u i d a n c e
c a n c a r r y o u t s u c h c o m p a r i s o n s w i th s a t i s f a c t o r y p r e c i s i o n a n d
I a s s u m e t h a t p s y c h o l o g i s t s w h o kn o w a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e w e l l c a n
do likewise.
T h e s t y l e of p r e s e n t a t i o n i s a d d r e s s e d p r i m a r i l y t o t h e t r a i n e d
t e a c h e r of f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s . I t i s h o p e d t h a t w i t h p r o p e r i n c e n 
t i v e a n d f a v o r a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s h e m a y a p p ly t h e m a t e r i a l t o
t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of b e t t e r t e x tb o o k s t e s t s a r t i c l e s a n d e x p e r i 
m e n t s a n d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e g e n e r a l i m p r o v e m e n t of t h e t e a c h i n g
a n d t e s t i n g of f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s . If h e i s n o t a t r a i n e d l i n g u i s t h e
will not be able to apply the knowledge gained from these discus
sio ns to any and all lan gu age s but he should be able to apply it to
his native language and the foreign languag e he tea ch es . The
s t y l e i s a d d r e s s e d a l s o to p s y c h o l o g i s t s a n d e d u c a t i o n a l p s y c h o l 
o g i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n r e s e a r c h o n f o r e i g n l a n g u a ge l e a r n i n g .
The trained linguist should not be misled by the effort of the
a u t h o r to a c h i e v e a n o n t e c h n i c a l s t y l e . T h e s t a t e m e n t s a n d s u g 
g e s t i o n s c o n t a i n e d in t h e s e c h a p t e r s c a n b e t r a n s l a t e d i n to r i g o r 
o u s f o r m u l a s t h a t w o u l d s a t i s f y h i m . S o m e of t h e l i n g u i s t i c o b 
serv atio ns pres ente d her e have not been previously rep orted in
print anywhere.

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viii L I N G U I S T IC S A CR O S S C U L T U R E S
This book was begun as part of a larger volume on language
and cul ture testing yet to be com pleted . As the writi ng p ro -
g r e s s e d i t b e c a m e a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e d i s c u s s i o n s of t e c h n i q u e s f o r
comparison of languages and cultures had significance for teach- CON TENTS

ti on gr ea lneda sr ee s tehairs c hm aatse rwi ae ll l aass af os re pt ea sr taitneg .p u Ibtl ic

w aa tsi ot nh ebree ff oorree tdheocsied e d
parts dealing exclusively with testing could be finished. Chapter
A g r e a t d e a l of w h a t i s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r h e r e a p p e a r e d i n The Necessity for a Systematic Comparison of
s e p a r a t e a r t i c l e s i n  Language Learning The Modern Language L a n g u a g e s a n d C u l t u r e s 
Journal a n d  Hispania.  C o m m e n t s b y r e a d e r s a n d a d d i t i o n a l e x - 2 .  H ow t o C o m p a r e T w o S o u nd S y s t e m s 9
peri enc e gained by the author have per mitte d a m or e comp lete
understanding of the comparison of languages and cultures. 3 .  How to Co mp are Two Gr am ma tica l Stru ctur es . . . . 51

4 .  How to C o m p are Two Vocab ulary Syste m s  75

Robert Lado
5 .  How to Com pare Two Writing Sys tem s 93
Ann Arb or Michigan
6. How to Co mp are Two Cu ltur es 110

T a b l e of P h o n e t i c a n d P h o n e m i c S y m b o l s 123

Ge ner al Bibliograp hical Information 1 24

S e l e c t e d B i b l i o g r a p h y  25

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Chapter 1
THE NECESS ITY FOR A SYSTEMA TIC COMPARISON

OF LANGUAGES AND CU LTUR ES

1 . In t r o d u c t i o n : Funda mental Assu mption .

1 .1 T h e f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t i o n g u id i n g t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of
teaching materials at the English Language Institute of the Uni-
v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n i s g i v e n b y F r i e s : The mo st effective m at e-
r i a l s a r e t h o s e t h a t a r e b a s e d u po n a s c i e n t i f i c d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e
l a n g u a g e t o b e l e a r n e d , c a r e f u l l y c o m p a r e d w i th a p a r a l l e l d e -
scription of the native language of the learner. 1
C o m p a r i s o n s o f E n g l i s h an d s e v e r a l o t h e r la n g u a g e s w e r e
a l s o m a d e i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e E n g l i s h t e x t b o o k s of t h e
A . C . L . S . , 2  a n d v a r i o u s a r t i c l e s d e a l i n g w i t h p a r t i a l c o m p a r i s o n s
of la n g u a g e s a p p e a r i n t h e j o u r n a l   anguage earning  a s a c o n -
tribution to foreign language learning re se ar ch .3
1 .2 T h e s a m e a s s u m p t i o n , t h a t i n t h e c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n
native and foreign language lies the key to ease or difficulty in
f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g , w a s a p p l i e d t o t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of l a n -
guage achievement tests by Lado.4
1 .3 A p r a c t i c a l c o n f i r m a t i o n of t h e v a l i d i t y of o u r a s s u m p t i o n
has come from the work of linguists who study the effect of close
c o n t a c t b e t w e e n la n g u a g e s in b i l i n g u a l s i t u a t i o n s . T h e y r e p o r t
that many linguistic distortions heard among bilinguals correspond
to de scr iba ble differences in the langua ges involved. Exte nsive
stud ies have been ca rr ie d out by Haugen and Weinreic h in this
area.5

1 .4 R e s e a r c h in t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f l a n g u a g e a n d i n l a n g u a g e

' C h a r l e s C . F r i e s ,  Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language (A n n A r b or :

Univ. Mich. Press, 1945), p. 9.
2Spoken English Textbooks ed. Martin Joos, American Council of Learned Societies.
P r o g r a m i n E n g l i s h a s a F o r e i g n L a n g u a g e ( W a s h i n g to n , D . C , 1 9 5 4 ) .
^Language Learning.  A Jou r n al of A p p l i e d Li n gu i sti c s (A n n A r b o r : R e se a r c h C l u b i n
Lan gu age L e ar n i n g). S e e In d e x to V ol s . 1 th r ou gh 5 in 5, N o. 3-4 (1955 ).
4Robert Lado, Measurement in English as a Foreign Language, with Special R eference
to Spanish-Speaking Adults (Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1951). See
a l s o a r t i c l e s b y L a d o i n  Language Learning an d  The Modern Language Journal.
5
1 9 5 3E) .i nU
a rr iH
e la uWg ee inn, The
r e i c hNorw
,  Languages
egian Language (N e w Y or k( P
in Contactin  America : h iPu
l a db el il cpati
h iaon
: sUof
n i vth
. eP eLi
n nn. guPirs etiscs ,
C i r c l e of N e w Y or k , 1953).

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