Name: __________________________________________ Course, Year & Section: ________________________

CRIMINOLOGY – 2 Theories of Crime Causation

WEEK 1

CHAPTER 1

Lesson 1: Human Mind and Behavior in Relation with the Social Norms and Ethics.

CONCEPT

How do we understand the human mind? Let us first attempt to answer this question: What makes a man truly
human? According to some ideals of humanism, to be considered truly human is to have these four potentialities.

1. Physical potentiality: This is about having a concrete body (one’s bodily development) and having the ability
or skills to carry out physical activities.
2. Mental ability: This is a person’s capability to think critically, rationally, and logically.
3. Communication skills: This is about a person’s ability to read, write, and talk to others.
4. Social skills: This includes a person’s abilities to engage and interact with and to contribute to society (Moga,
S.J., cited in Rola, 2008).

Understanding the human mind is the main concept of the psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Freud. According to
Freud (1915), the human mind has three (3) levels of awareness. These are the conscious (10%), subconscious (50-60%),
and unconscious (30-40%). The combination of the three makes up what we call reality.

 The conscious level serves as the scanner that allows you to perceive an event, trigger a need to react, and then
depending on the importance of the event, store it either in the unconscious or the subconscious area of the human
mind where it remains available.
 The subconscious is the storage point for any recent memories needed for quick recall, such as the telephone
number or the name of a person you just met. It also holds current information that you use every day, such as
your current recurring thoughts, behavior patterns, habits, and feelings.
 The unconscious mind is where all of your memories and past experience reside. These are those memories that
have been repressed through trauma and those that have simply been consciously forgotten and are no longer
important to us. It is from these memories and experience that our beliefs, habits, and behavior are formed
(Journal Psyche, 1994).

NORMS

James Chris in his book Social Control (2007) defined norms as a rule for behavior and a guide to conduct. In
essence, norms are statements that regulate behavior. According to Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, norms is a principle
of right action binding upon the members of a group and serving to guide, control, or regulates proper and acceptable
behavior. In connection with this, Thorsten Sellin (1938) posited the concept of conduct norms which belongs under the
conscious level. Conduct norms refer to the norms that are defined by the groups to which the individual belongs. These
are the norms in a specific society to which everyone must conform to so that he or she will not be considered as a
deviant. For example, wearing a swimsuit is a norm in the beach but not inside a church.

On the other hand, Lisa Roundy (2013) in her study that social norm is the accepted behavior that an individual is
expected to conform to in a particular group, community, or culture. When you do not conform to the social norms that
are accepted by your culture or group, it is considered as an abnormal behavior.

An important theory on the emergency of social norms was developed by the early American sociologist William
Graham Summer in his book Folkways published in 1906, and these are:

 1. folkway, sometimes known as “conventions” or “customs”, which are standards of behavior that are socially
approved but not morally significant like whishing at night breaks the Filipino folkway;
 2) mores which are norms of morality that have to be followed, otherwise, people who share the same culture will
be offended, like attending a church wearing appropriate clothing and avoiding intimate acts with.
 3) Taboo which are prohibited or restricted by social custom like abortion in Philippine culture;
 4) law which is a formal body of rules enacted by the state and backed by the power of the state. Virtually all
taboos, like child abuse and rape are enacted into law. However, even some mores are also enacted into law, like
gossiping in some areas, not all mores are such as when you not helping the elders while crossing the street.

ETHICS

There is a popular maxim that says, “Values cannot be taught but it can be caught”. It literally means that no
matter how serious you are in instilling values to a person, if that person rejects directly or indirectly your teaching, it is
useless. Maximo Torrento (2016) in his study cited that value is something desirable, worth having, worth possessing,
worth keeping, and worth, doing. Value is identical with good. Pollock (2016) defines values as unverifiable “elements of
desirability, worth, and importance.” That is why when speaking of value, or values we cannot depart ourselves from
dwelling about ethics.

Peter Singer (1985) in his article Ethics Philosophy defines ethics also called moral philosophy, as the discipline
concerned with what is morally good and bad, right and wrong. It is derived from the old French term éthique, from Latin
ethice, and from Greek ēthikē which all mean the science of morals. The term ethics is also applied to any system or
theory of moral values of principles. There are actions which might be unethical not conforming to the customs or norms
in a specific society but not illegal. For example, it is usually unethical to accidentally step on the foot of another person
without asking sorry, but it is not necessary illegal.

KNOWLEDGE EVALUATION #1

ACTIVITY 1.1:

1.1 Discuss the four (4) potentialities or skills of a true human being.

1.

2.

3.

4.

1.2 What skill do you think you possess the MOST? Support your answer.

1.2 What skill do you think you possess the LEAST? Support your answer.

ACTIVITY 1.2: TELL ME WHY

2.1 Do you believe that your responses or actions are influenced by the way your brain processed the perceived stimulus?
Why?
2.2 What will you do if while walking along a narrow road you saw a suspicious man rushing at you? Would you fight or
flee? Why?

ACTIVITY 1.3: NAME ME

Below are the different types of norms. Write letter F on the space provided if it is under folkways, M for mores,
T for taboo and L for laws.

___1. Celebrating fiesta

___2. Greeting and saying goodbye to the other

___3. Having sacred marriage ceremony

___4. Entering other’s house without permission

___5. Two people intimately kissing inside a church

___6. Wearing see-through clothes and above-the-knee skirt when going to church

___7. Resorting to abortion

___8. Having an incestuous relationship

___9. Killing a person

___10. The Comprehensive Dangerous Act of 2002

WEEK 2

Lesson 2: Concept of Human Behavior: Philosophical, Psychological, and Sociological Perspective

INTRODUCTION

Man is a social being. He needs to interact and socialize with others. In the process of socialization. He may
behave or misbehave depending on the given circumstance. According to Natalie Boyd (2015) in her article entitled
Human Behavior, human behavior is defined as the term used to describe a person’s action and conduct. Human
behavior is mainly influenced by both heredity and environment. It speaks of who we are as a person.

According to the French Anthropologist Marcel Mauss as cited in the book of (Alata et al., 2018) entitled
understanding the self, every self has two (2) faces: the personne and moi.

 Moi refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body, and his basic identity, his biological givenness.
 Personne is composed of the social concepts of what it means to be who he is.
 For example, Mrs. Reagana is a police officer; she is also a wife and a mother of two (2) kids. As a police officer
she needs to remain a stern but calm personality in order to be respected. As a mother, she may be sweet toward
her husband and caring and loving toward her children.
Mrs. Reagana’s self that shifts in order to blend and fit with the given situation is her personne but herself that is
static or constant is her moi.

Lesson 2.1: Concept of Human Behavior: Philosophical, Psychological, and Sociological

Perspective

Philosophical

Socrates believed that the best life and the life most suited to human nature involved reasoning. He also believed
that nobody willingly chooses to do wrong.

Plato, on the hand, believed that human behavior flows from three main sources: desire, emotion, and knowledge.

In the article published by Edward W. Younkins (2003) entitled “Aristotle, Human Flourishing, and the Limited
State”, it is stated that Aristotle heralds the role of reason in a proper human life. He examined the nature of man and his
functions and sees that man survive through purposeful conduct which results from the active exercise of man’s capacity
of rational thought.

The ability to reason separates man from all other living organisms and supplies him with his unique means of
survival of flourishing. It is through purposive, rational conduct that a person can achieve happiness. For Aristotle, a being
of conceptual consciousness must focus on reality and must discover the knowledge and actions required if he wants to
fully develop as a human person.

Psychological

According to a school of thought known as behaviorism, human behavior was all about the way a certain
stimulus produces an appropriate response. Example. Why would some men tend to get aroused sexually when they see a
seductive girl while others do not? In psychology, people are considered as living machines who receive information from
the world, process it in various ways, and then act on it.

Your behavior usually starts with sensory perception: the way your five main senses (vision, hearing, smell,
touch, and taste), plus other lesser-known sensory abilities such as proprioception (your sense of where your limbs are and
how your body is moving), feed information into your brain (Woodford, 2018). For example, when you see your crush, it
is your sense of sight through your eyes that recognized the stimulus (your crush). Then neurons send signal to your
limbic brain causing your hypothalamus to release the necrohormone known as dopamine. As a result, you feel happy and
inspired to the outside. In short, all our behavior observed by others are the product of how our physiological system
inside our body works.

Sociological

Functionalism, one of the schools in sociology, explains that society is a system having parts which are connected
and related with each other. It is through this system that human behavior is being formed in the process of socialization.
The way a specific person behaves within the society he lives is also influenced by what culture has been established in
that area.

According to psychologist Gordon Allport (1954), social psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods “to
understand and explain how the thought, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or
implied presence of other human beings” (http://www.verywellmind.com/social-psychology).

A publication entitled “Shared Agency: A Planning Theory of Acting Together” by Michael E. Bratman from
Standford University, best describe the socio-philosophical concepts of how a person interacts with one another.
Bratman’s main claim is that the key ingredients in human shared activity are the intension to do something together,
combined with the interlocking and intended meshing of plans. Shared intentional activity is a complicated structure of
interconnected people who are planning. For example, the congressman and senators in the Houses of Congress maybe
against each other politically but when it comes to drafting a bill they agreed to work together on it. It is because they
have the shared intention and commitment to do if for the public who voted for them.

KNOWLEDGE EVALUATION #2

ACTIVITY 2.1: WHO AM I?

In this activity, you will explain the concept of human behavior in five (5) sentences only using your own words.
After which, you will describe your moi and your personne. Write your answers on the space provided below.
 1. Discuss the concept of human behavior using your own words (5 sentences only)

2. Describe your moi:

3. Describe your personne:

ACTIVITY 2.2: ADD ME UP

If you are going to add at least one (1) perspective of human behavior, what will it be and why? Write your
answer on the space provided.

ACTIVITY 2.3: CRYSTAL CLEAR and THE MUDDIEST POINT

Which of the discussed perspectives of human behavior do you agree with? Why? Write your answers on the
space provided.

WEEK 3

CHAPTER 2

EXAMINING THE THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF CRIME CAUSATION

Lesson 1: The Concept of Theory

INTRODUCTION

In order to explain the grounds of criminal behavior, theories are made. Many social scientists have observed facts
about criminal behavior and organized them into complex theoretical models. What is a theory then?
CONCEPT

According to Freda Adler (1983), a theory is a statement that explains the relationship between abstract concepts
in a meaningful way. For example, if scientists observe that criminally rates are usually high in neighborhoods with high
unemployment rates, they might theorize that environmental conditions influence criminal behavior (Siegel, 2007)

Social theory – defined as the systematic set of interrelated statements or principles that explain aspects of social
life. Theory serves as a model or framework for understanding human behavior and the forces that form it. It is based on
verified social facts or readily observed phenomena that can be constantly calculated and measured (Siegel, 2007).

Theory – a supposition or a system of ideals intended to explain something, especially one based on general
principles independent of the thing to be explained. It is derived from the Greek word “theōria” which means
“contemplation or speculation” (Oxford’s Dictionary).

Theory – a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain
phenomena. It is synonymous with the terms thesis, hypothesis, supposition, and proposition (Merriam-Webster’s
Dictionary).

Moreover, according to APA Dictionary of Psychology (VandenBos, 2007), as cited in (L’Abate, 2011), a theory
is a principle or a body of interrelated principles that purports to explain or predict a number of interrelated phenomena. In
philosophy of science, a theory is a set of logically related explanatory hypotheses that are consistent with a body of
empirical facts and may suggest more empirical relationships.

Moore (1991 as cite in http:faculty.jou.ufl.edu/theory) stated that a theory is a related set of concepts and
principle about a phenomenon. It explains how some aspect of human behavior or performance is organized.

The components of theory are concepts (ideally well-defined) and principles.

 A concept is a symbolic representation of an actual thing i.e. tree, chair, table, computer, distance, etc. Construct
is the word for concepts with no physical referent i.e. democracy, learning, freedom, etc. One type of construct
that is used in many scientific theories is called a variable.
 On the other hand, a principle expresses the relationship between two or more concepts or constructs.

Lesson 2: Why is Theory Important?

How important it is? Coming up with theories is at the heart of any scientific process. In simplest term,
observations of a phenomenon lead to an educated guess about what is causing it or how it works. Experiments or other
form of research then test this guess or hypothesis. If these guesses are confirmed, a theory emerges. If it’s a powerful
one, it will both explain, telling you why something is happening in such a way, and predict, telling you that could happen
next. Explaining how something works is important, and not only for the sake of knowledge itself because explanations
can lead to solutions (https://iancommunity.org). For example, police officers cannot prevent the crime from happening in
that area if they didn’t know how and why such crime is occurring in that area in the first place.

CONCEPTS

Moore (1991 as cited in http://faculty.jou.ufl.edu/theory.html) enumerated the importance of theory:

1. Theory provides concepts to name what we observe and to explain relationship between concepts. It allows us
to explain what we see and to figure out how to bring about change, and it is a tool that enables us to identify
a problem and to plan a means for altering the situation;
2. Theory is used to justify reimbursement to get funding and support - the need to explain what is being done
and demonstrate that it works;
3. Theory is used to enhance the growth of the professional area and to identify a body of knowledge from both
within and outside the area of distance learning. That body of knowledge grows with theory and research.
Theory guide research; and
4. Theory helps us understand what we don’t know and, therefore, is the only guide to research. It increases its
ability to solve other problems in different times and different place.

Moreover, theories are used by researchers as causal mechanisms to give historical explanation of cases (George,
2004)

KNOWLEDGE EVALUATION #3

ACTIVITY 1.1: Defining Theory

Complete the sentence below.

1. For me, theory means

ACTIVITY 1.2: Five-Minute Paper

Write briefly the importance of theory in not more than five (5) sentences. Write your answer on the space
provided.

ACTIVITY 1.3: Rate it

On a scale of 1-10, ten (10) being the highest and one (1) being the lowest, rate how important for you is theory?
Support your answer. Write it on the space provided.

WEEK 4

Lesson 3: Development of Theory

Scientists formulate, test, accept, reject, modify, and use theories as guide to understanding and predicting events.
Theories are fruits of scientific research, a process that is designed to extend our understandings and to determine if they
are correct or useful.

As cited in (http://faculty.jou.ufl.edu/theory.html), there are three stages of theory development.

1. Speculative – attempts to explain what is happening.

2. Descriptive – gathers descriptive data to describe what is really happening.
3. Constructive – revise old theories and develops new ones based on continuing research.

In order to understand how theory is developed, it is better to cite the three (3) kinds of reasoning (Thompson,
2006);

1) Inductive Reasoning is also criticized because no amount of empirical data will necessarily enable theory-
building. Grounded Theory (inside by the inductive reasoning) asserts that theory is “discovered” as the result
of systematically analyzing data or data mining techniques.
(Example):
Every snake that has ever been tested has liver.
Therefore, every snake has liver.
2) Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning is criticized for the lack of clarity in terms of how to select a
theory to be tested via formulating hypotheses. It validates theory, it does not develop theory. It is mainly
applicable for qualitative research (Jaccard, 2014).
(Example):
Every reptile has liver.
 All snakes are reptile. Therefore, every snake has liver. Ref: https://research-methology.net/research-
methology/research-approach/abductive-reasoning-abductive-approach/
3) Abductive Reasoning also known as Retroductive Reasoning developed legitimate theory, whether that
retroductive process results from the development of new theory from existing theory or the development of
new theory from the whole cloth of relevant knowledge (Thompson, 2006).

A. Inductive Theory

Developing an inductive, or grounded, theory generally follows these steps

(http://sociology.about.com/od/Research/a/Inductive-Theory-Construction.html):

1. Research design: Define your research questions and the main concepts and variables involved.
2. Data collection: Collect data for your study using any of the various methods (field research, interviews, surveys,
etc.).
3. Data ordering: Arrange your data chronologically to facilitate easier data analysis and examination of processes.
4. Data analysis: Analyze using methods of your choice to look for patterns, connections, and significant findings.
5. Theory construction: Develop a theory about what you discovered using the patterns and findings from your
data analysis.
6. Literature comparison: Compare your emerging theory with the existing literature. Are there conflicting
frameworks, similar frameworks, etc.?

B. Deductive Theory

John Dudovskiy in his book “The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies” (2016), presented
the stages of deductive approach in theory development:

1. Deducing hypothesis from theory.

2. Formulating hypothesis in operational terms and proposing relationships between two specific variables.
3. Testing hypothesis with the application of relevant method(s). These are quantitative methods such as
regression and correlation analysis, or other analysis such a mean, mode, and median, and others.
4. Examining the outcome of the test and confirming or rejecting the theory. When analyzing the outcome of
tests, it is important to compare research findings with the literature review findings.
5. Modifying theory in instances when hypothesis is not confirmed.

C. Abductive Theory or Retroduction

Abduction is a form of reasoning involved in both the generation and evaluation of explanatory hypotheses
theories (Haig, 2005). The stages in this type of approach are:

1. Phenomena detection. According to Bogen and Woodward (1988; Woodward, 1989, 2000) as cited in the
book of Brian Haig entitled “An Abductive Theory of Scientific Method”, it is claims about phenomena, not
data, that theories typically seek to predict and explain and that, in turn, it is the proper role of data to provide
the observational evidence for phenomena, not for theories. Phenomena are relatively stable, recurrent,
general feature of the world that, as researchers, seek to explain.
2. Theory generation. According to Remenyi (2018), it is also called as theory building by means of analyzing,
synthesizing existing empirical findings on a topic into a coherent pattern using the gathered data (Remenyi,
2018).
3. Theory development. It is stimulated and facilitated through a selective interest in what does not work in an
existing theory, in the sense of encouraging interpretations that will allow a productive and non-
commonsensical understanding of an ambiguous social reality (Alvesson, 2011).
4. Theory appraisal. It involves accepting a theory when it is judged to provide a better explanation of the
evidence that its rivals do. It also adheres to the use of interference to the best explanation in order to
adjudicate between well-develop, competing theories (Thagard, 1988 as cited by Haig 2005).

Lesson 4: Formula of Crime Causation

Crime is a generic term which may be referred to as felony when it is punishable by the Revised Penal Code, offense
when punishable by the Special Law and misdemeanor when it violated and ordinance. Crime based on the biblical point
of view can be considered a sin. Logically speaking, all crimes are sin but not all sins are crimes, that is, if there is no law
punishing such act.

Dr. David Abrahamsen’s Theory of the Etiology of Criminal Acts

According to Abrahamsen (1958), “Crime is a product of the individual’s tendencies and the situation of the
moment interacting with his mental resistance. Letting ‘C’ stand for crime, ‘T’ for tendencies, ‘S’ for situation, and ‘R’
for resistance, we derive the following formula:”

C (Crime/The Act )= T(Criminal Tendency)+S(Total Situation)

R (Resistance to Temptation)
KNOWLEDGE EVALUATION #4

ACTIVITY 1.1:

What approach in theory development do you think is the easiest and what is not? Is it the Inductive, Deductive or
Abductive? Write you answer on the space provided.

ACTIVITY 1.2: Using the diagram below, discuss briefly the classifications of crime. Write your answers on the space
provided.

Felony Offense

CRIME

Misdemeanor

ACTIVITY 1.3: State briefly the formula of crime causation. Write your answers on the space provided.

ACVTIVITY 1.4: ANALYSIS

What among the three elements of etiology of criminal act is the most significant for a crime NOT to happen? Write the
answers on the space provided.