Blood & Circulation Histology

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LARYNX
Stain – Hematoxylin eosin
Labelling and function of organelle –
1 Glottis- it is the ventral pore of oropharyngeal aperture which opens into
larynx. It is the valve controlling airflow in and out of respiratory passages. It
facilitate phonation and provides protection.
2 Stratified squamous epithelium- this epithelium contains three layers of
cells outermost layer containg flat cells, middle layer containing polygonal
cells and inner layer containing cuboidal cells. This epithelium lines the
surface of lumen of larynx and protects mucosa from abrasion.
3 Pseudostratifeid ciliated epithelium- larynx is lined by pseudostratifeid
ciliated epithelium which bears cilia on cells. Ciliated cells play role in
defense mechanism of respiratory system by coordinated beating of cilia to
trap and remove harmful particles and dust from larynx.
4 Lamina propria – lying beneath the epithelium is lamina propria which is
dense connective tissue in which elastic fibers are arranged. It contains mucus
secreting goblet cells and serous cells and provides support to epithelium of
mucosa.
5 Glands – mucosa of larynx and submucosa contains laryngeal ducts which
secretes mucous. These glands are simple alveolar glands.
6 Blood vessels –superior and inferior laryngeal arteries supply blood to
larynx and nourishes it.
7 Vocal folds – these are folds of mucosa known as vocal cords which
projects into lumen of larynx. These are smooth muscle tissue which open and
close during swallowing and control flow of air through the larynx and
vibrates to produce sound.
8 Muscles of the vocal folds – the vocal fold is composed of thyroartenoid
muscle. This muscle close glottis and regulates tension during speaking.
Vocalis muscle is middle portion of this muscle. It is a supporting ligament
and skeletal muscle. The extrinsic laryngeal muscles on cartilages of larynx
moves the larynx during swallowing.
9 Ventricle of the larynx –ventricle is an elongated portion present above
vocal folds. These are mucosal folds which are present above ventricle and
lacks intrinsic muscles. It is a fusiform fossa.
10 Lymphatic follicle –these are present in vocal cords protecting upper air
tracts. These are similar to lymphoid tissue containg inflammatory cells.
11 Muscles – larynx has adductors and abductors muscle. The extrinsic
laryngeal muscles are on cartilages of larynx which move larynx during
swallowing.
12 Cartilage - The cricoid, thyroid, epiglottis cartilage is present in larynx.
Thyroid cartilage is largest cartilage of larynx. Hyaline cartilage lines walls of
larynx in ring form and thyroid cartilage is largest cartilage in larynx. Matrix
of cartilage is known as chondrin and provides rigidity and elasticity to
cartilage.
Function of organ – larynx is a tubular hollow structure also known as voice
box playing important role in speech and phonation. It facilitates respiration.
It is present at the top of trachea. Larynx function is to produce sound and
prevent the entry of food and harmful foreign particles in lower respiratory
tract.
Clinical significance (relation) of organ/ organelle –the swelling of larynx in
inflammation known as acute laryngitis. Infection of laryngeal saccule causing
carcinoma and death. Weak voice in atrophy of tissues of larynx.
Age related changes in organ –muscles of larynx can atrophy with age.
Muscles and tissue becomes thinner and weaker. Flexibity and elasticity lost.
Mucigens in mucus cells and secretory cells in serous cells decreases.
TRACHEA
1 Multirowed ciliated epithelium –mucosa of trachea contains columnar
pseudostratifeid epithelium with cilia and goblet cells. Cilia of cells play role
in defense mechanism of respiratory system by coordinated beating of cilia to
trap and remove harmful particles and dust from trachea.
2 Lamina propria of mucous tunic –lying beneath the epithelium is lamina
propria which is dense connective tissue in which elastic fibers are arranged.
It contains mucus secreting goblet cells and serous cells and provides support
to epithelium of mucosa.
3 Submucosa – below mucosa is submucosa composed of glands which are
mixed sero-mucus glands. Submucosa contains elastic fibers, fat cells, and
tubular glands.
4 Tracheal glands –submucosa is composed of glands which are mixed sero-
mucus glands. These glands secretes watery fluid to humidify inspired air and
mucus to trap particles thus protecting trachea.
5 Fibrocartilagenous tunic –this composed of c shaped hyaline cartilage.
These cartilages are placed as stacks and prevent collapse of tracheal lumen.
Matrix of cartilage is glass like clear because fibers are absent in matrix of this
cartilage. Matrix color is blue.
6 Adventitious tunic – this tunic is composed of loose areolar connective
tissue that connects trachea to other structures. It allows movement of trachea.
Function of organ –trachea an important part of respiratory system is a
fibrocartilagenous tube whichhelps in breathing by transporting air in and out
of lungs. It carries oxygenated air to alveoli for gas exchange. It has protective
function as it moistens and warm air entering respiratory system and move
foreign particle upwards towards pharynx to remove it from the body.
Clinical significance (relation) of organ/ organelle –Trachea becomes narrow
due to enlarged lymph nodes, swollen vessels and cancer of trachea. Trachitis
or inflammation of trachea occurs in viral infections. Respiratory path blocks
due to swelling of trachea.
Age related changes in organ –the cartilage walls of trachea undergoes
calcification and becomes rigid with age. Tracheal area increases and
roundness gets distorted.
LUNG. MEDIUM SIZED BRONCHUS

Stain – Azocarmine
1 Multirowed ciliated epithelium –mucosa of bronchus contains Multirowed
columnar pseudostratifeid epithelium with cilia and goblet cells. Cilia of cells
play role in defense mechanism of respiratory system by coordinated beating
of cilia to trap and remove harmful particles and dust from bronchus and
mucus from goblet cells traps foreign particles.
2 Lamina propria of mucous tunic – lying beneath the epithelium is lamina
to epithelium of mucosa. Lymphocytes, mast cells and blood vessels are also
present.
3 Muscularis mucosae of mucous tunic – Muscularis mucosae of mucous
tunic is a thin layer of smooth muscle supporting mucosa and providing the
ability to move and fold and underlie glands in position. It separates
submucosa from lamina propria.
4 Submucosa with glands –below mucosa is layer submucosa which is
composed of glands which are mixed sero-mucus glands containing mucus
secreting goblet cells and serous cells. Submucosa contains elastic fibers, fat
cells, and tubular glands.
5 Fibrocartilagenous tunic –this layer is composed of c shaped hyaline
cartilage. These cartilages are placed as stacks and prevent collapse of tracheal
lumen. Matrix of cartilage is glass like clear because fibers are absent in
matrix of this cartilage and is blue in color.
6 Adventitia – this tunic is composed of loose areolar connective tissue that
connects bronchus to other structures and is the outermost tunic of bronchus.
It allows movement of bronchus.
Function of organ –bronchi or bronchus is extension of wind pipe that passes
air to and from the lungs. These are part of conducting zone of respiratory
system. Cartilage in bronchus prevents the collapsing of bronchus during
inhalation and exhalation. Bronchus are divided from trachea as right and left
main bronchus which are further divided into secondary bronchi. The
bronchus carry air to functional units of lung alveoli where exchange of gases
takes place.
Clinical significance (relation) of organ/ organelle –bronchus wall thickens in
inflammation. Bronchitis causes due to viral and bacterial infections.
Aspiration problems mainly in right lung as right bronchus is wider than left.
Bronchial atresia or blind ended bronchus as tissue secretes mucus which
build ups and distended causing emphysema.
Age related changes in organ –aging causes muscles and tissues lose
elasticity. Cartilage in walls of bronchi undergoes calcification and become
rigid. Muscles become weak. Mucociliary function of bronchus decreases
with age.
LUNG. SMALL BRONCHUS
Stain – Azocarmine
1 Lamina propria of mucus tunic –lying beneath the epithelium is lamina
No glands are present in lamina propia of small bronchus.
2 Muscularis mucosae –Muscularis mucosae of mucous tunic is a thin layer
of smooth muscle supporting mucosa. It separates submucosa from lamina
propria. It contains blood vessels and nerves.
3 Double rowed ciliated epithelium – small bronchus is lined with simple
cuboidal epithelium with cilia and club cells or Clara cells. Cilia of cells play
role in defense mechanism of respiratory system by coordinated beating of
cilia to trap and remove harmful particles and dust from bronchus. Club cells
secretes surfactants and act as progenitor cells for ciliated and epithelial cells.
4 Blood vessels – these blood vessels supplies blood and nourishes bronchus.
Pulmonary arteries and veins are present which divide into smaller vessels and
forming capillaries network in alveolar septa where gas exchange takes place.
5 Alveoli –alveoli are functional units of lungs where gaseous exchange takes
place. These are sac like small structures which are lined by simple squamous
epithelial cells. There are three types of cells found in alveoli –
Type 1 pneumocytes cells which are very thin diffusion barriers for gases.
Type 2 pneumocytes which are involved in secretion of surfactants.
Surfactants reduces tension between alveolar walls and prevents them from
collapsing.
Alveolar macrophages which ingest bacteria and particles.
Function of organ– bronchi branch into small bronchus which terminate into
air sacs alveoli. Small bronchus lacks cartilage and glands.These are part of
conducting zone of respiratory system.The bronchus carry air to functional
units of lung alveoli where exchange of gases takes place.
inflammation. Bronchitis causes due to viral and bacterial infections. Asthma
in which lumen becomes narrow due to constriction in small bronchus due to
bronchospasm.
elasticity. Muscles become weak. Mucociliary function of bronchus decreases
with age.
ELASTIC ARTERY
Stain – Orcein
1. Tunica intima- inner layer also known as tunica interna. It is the thinnest
layer composed of single layer of endothelial cells and sub endothelial
connective tissue. This layer is lined by endothelium comprising simple
squamous epithelial cells. Below endothelium lies basement membrane a layer
of areolar connective tissue and layer of subendothelial connective tissue.
2. Tunica media –middle layer also known as muscularis tunic. This layer is
thickest which provides support and elasticity to vessels. It is composed of
sheets of elastin, collagen, less smooth muscle fibers and elastic fibers. The
muscle cells and elastic fibers circles the vessel. Mainly elastic fibers are
present in tunica media of elastic arteries.
3. Tunica adventitia –outermost layer. This layer is composed of elastic
connective tissue, type 1 collagen, autonomic nerves or Nervi vasorum and
nutrient vessels or vasa vasorum. This layer attaches elastic artery to adjacent
organs and protects vessels from rupturing.
4. Vessels of vessels –in tunica adventitia vasa vasorum are present which are
nutrient vessels supplying the wall of vessels. These supply nutrients and
nourishes arteries.
Function of organ –elastic arteries are large vessels which carries blood from
heart to systemic and pulmonary circulations. elastic arteries have the ability
to stretch which enables ejected blood during systole to store. Elastic
retracting forces of these arteries walls carry blood by peripheral means.
Elastic arteries also known as conducting arteries as they are very close to
heart and receive high pressure from heart.
Clinical significance (relation) of organ/ organelle –the cholesterol and lipids
form layer in inner layer of arteries which is endothelial intimal layer that got
injured. This is known as arteriosclerosis also caused due to blood pressure
forming clot which leads to heart attack and stroke. Arteriosclerosis is a
chronic disease.
Age related changes in organ –due to aging stiffness of arteries reduces. There
is increase in diameter and thickening of wall due to thickening of tunica
intima and media.
MUSCULAR ARTERY
Stain – Hematoxylin eosin* 200
MUSCULAR ARTERY
Stain – Hematoxylin eosin* 400
1. Tunica intima- inner layer also known as tunica interna. It is the thinnest
squamous epithelial cells. Below endothelium lies basement membrane a layer
of areolar connective tissue and layer of subendothelial connective tissue.
thin in muscular arteries which provides support and elasticity to vessels. It is
composed of smooth muscle cells arranged in spiral manner and contains
small number of connective tissue cells and fibers. Collagen fibers supports
muscle cells. The blood is pushed during contraction and volume of vessels
decrease due to spiral arrangement of smooth muscle cells.
3. Tunica adventitia –outermost layer. This layer is composed of elastic
connective tissue, type 1 collagen, autonomic nerves or Nervi vasorum and
nutrient vessels or vasa vasorum. This layer attaches elastic artery to adjacent
organs and protects vessels from rupturing.
4 Internal elastic lamina – it is a layer of elastic tissue forming the outermost
part of tunica intima. This layer separates tunica intima and tunica media.
Internal elastic lamina layer influence mechanical and mass transport
properties of vessel. It is thick and prominent in arteries.
5. External elastic lamina – it is a layer of elastic tissue present below
smooth muscle layer of tunica media. This layer separates tunica media and
tunica adventitia. External elastic lamina layer influence mechanical and mass
transport properties of vessel.
6. Elastic fibers in tunica media -elastic fibers are components of
extracellular matrix comprising of bundles of elastin proteins and produced by
endothelial cells, smooth muscle cell and fibroblasts. These fibers provide
elasticity to vessels and are present in tunica media.
Function of organ –Muscular arteries are continuous branches of larger
arteries or elastic arteries. Muscular arteries distribute blood to organs and
tissue and regulates pressure within tunica media.
Clinical significance (relation) of organ/ organelle –the cholesterol and lipids
form layer in inner layer of arteries which is endothelial intimal layer that got
injured. This is known as arteriosclerosis also caused due to blood pressure
forming clot which leads to heart attack and stroke. Arteriosclerosis is a
chronic disease.
Age related changes in organ –eutrophic and hypertrophic changes in
muscular artery due to age. Smooth muscle cells decrease and dimness reduce.
Vessels of microcirculatory blood stream

1. Blood capillary – capillaries are small blood containing structures
connecting arterioles to venules. As they are smallest vessels they are capable
in penetrating body tissues and allows gaseous and nutrient exchange between
blood and tissues. The tunica intima layer is consisting of endothelial cells
which lies on basement membrane and a layer of pericytes cells surround this
epithelium. Pericytes cells through contraction regulates blood pressure in
capillaries. Muscular layer and adventitia layer is absent in capillaries.
2. Arteriole-Arterioles are small blood vessel branching out from an artery.
These are composed of three layers tunica intima, media and adventitia.
Arterioles are enveloped by vascular smooth muscle, one or two layers of
smooth muscle cells are present in tunica media. Smooth muscle cells
contracts the lumen of arteriole which increases vascular resistance and reduce
the flow of blood. Arterioles regulates flow of blood into capillary beds at the
level of metarterioles. Arterioles are thin with absence of subendothelial
connective tissue.
3. Venules –Venules are small muscular. They have large lumina. Venules
carry blood from capillaries to veins. These are composed of three tissue
layers lined by squamous endothelial cells, smooth muscle fibers layer in
tunica media and tunica adventitia fuses with surrounding organs. Elastic
fibers are absent in tunica media of venules.
4. Nucleus of endothelial cells – nucleus of cell plays role in response of
endothelium to mechanical forces by deforming during cellular adaptation.
Nucleus of endothelial cells is large. Nucleus act as a shock absorber.
Endothelium cells are squamous cells.
5. Nucleus of adventitial cells – adventitial cells are perivascular
undifferentiated cells. Adventitial cells functions as dynamic trafficking into
and out of vessel wall and participates in growth and repair of vessel wall.
6. Nucleus of smooth muscle cell – nucleus is single and central in smooth
muscle cells. These are spindle shaped and lack striations.
7. Cells of loose connective tissue-cells of connective tissue are fibroblasts
cells which produces fibers and ground substance, plasma cells, macrophages,
mast cells containing granules, leukocytes and adipocytes cells storing fat.
Fibroblast are most common cell present in connective tissue.
Function of organ –The arterioles, capillaries, venules and metarterioles are
the vessels included in microcirculatory blood vessels. Lymphatic capillaries
and collecting ducts are also included in microcirculation.
Direction of blood flow in microcirculation is from arterioles to capillaries
then post capillary venules to small muscular veins.
Microcirculatory blood vessels are lined by endothelium consisting of
flattened cells and surrounded by contractile cells called pericytes.
Endothelium regulates movement of water and dissolved materials in
interstitial plasma between blood and tissues and provide smooth surface for
the flow of blood.
Clinical significance (relation) of organ/ organelle – arteriosclerosis which is
hardening of arterioles of wall due to lipid deposition. The muscular
contraction of arterioles due to drugs that lower blood pressure decreases the
resistance to flow into peripheral vascular beds. Inflammation of
venules.Capillary leak syndrome in which there is lot of leakage of plasma
from blood vessels into surrounding body cavities and muscle resulting in
decreased blood pressure and organ failure or death.
Age related changes in organ –due to aging stiffness of arteries and arterioles
reduces. There is increase in diameter and thickening of wall due to
thickening of tunica intima and media. Due to age endothelium of capillaries
changes morphologically.
MUSCULAR VEIN
1. Tunica intima –inner layer also known as tunica interna. It is the thinnest
squamous epithelial cells.Endothelium in tunica intima is smooth and internal
elastic membrane is absent.
thick which provides support and elasticity to vessels. It is composed of
smooth muscle cells, connective tissue and elastic fibers.Tunica media is
thinner than tunica externa and smooth muscle cells and collagenous fibers are
present.Nervi vasorum and vasa vasorum is present. The external elastic
membrane is absent
3. Tunica adventitia -outermost layer. This layer is composed of elastic
connective tissue, collagenous and smooth fibers, autonomic nerves or Nervi
vasorum and nutrient vessels or vasa vasorum. This layer attaches vessels to
adjacent organs.Tunica externa is the thickest layer of veins. Collagenous and
smooth fibers are present. Nervi vasorum and vasa vasorum is present in this
layer.
Function of organ – veins are the important blood vessels of circulatory
system which brings blood to heart. Veins transports deoxygenated blood
from various tissues and organs to heart while some pulmonary veins brings
oxygenated blood from lungs to heart.
Clinical significance (relation) of organ/ organelle – venous insufficiency
manifested as spider or varicose veins. It causes deep vein thrombosis in
which blood clot forms in deep vein. Immobility, obesity and active cancer
can caused due to vein thrombosis. Portal hypertension in which pressure
increases in portal veins which develops collateral circulation such as
esophageal varices. Varicose veins are abnormal dilated blood vessels caused
due to weakening of veins.
Age related changes in organ –veins become stiffened with age. Walls of
veins becomes thicker. Flexibility of veins reduced.
ENDOCARDIUM
1. Endothelium of endocardium- endocardium is a luminal surface of heart
composed of simple squamous epithelium known as endothelium resting on
connective tissue layer its basement layer. The cells of endothelium modulates
normal homeostasis, controls the exchange of materials between blood stream
and heart muscles and are antithrombotic as they prevent cells to attach and
allow normal flow of blood through heart and blood vessels.
2. Subendothelial layer – below epithelium layer of endocardium lies
subendothelial layer which is a connective tissue layer comprising of collagen
fibrils and fibroblasts. This layer is more prominent in left atrium than other
chambers of heart.
3. Musculoelastic layer of endocardium – Musculoelastic layer is elastic
tissue layer comprising of elastic fibers, collagen fibers and smooth muscle
cells. This layer is more prominent in left atrium and left ventricular septum.
Smooth muscle cells in this layer applies pressure on veins running through
the layer and connective tissue.
4. External connective tissue layer of endocardium – deep toendocardium
is subendocardial tissue containing loose vascularized connective tissue. The
subendocardial tissue contains nerves, collagen and elastic fibers as well as
Purkinjee fibers. This layer connects endocardium to myocardium and
contains impulse conducting system.
5. Purkinjee fibers –Purkinjee fibers are conducting fibers present in
subendocardial layer of endocardium which contains electrically excitable
cells.Purkinjee fibers extend from Atrioventricular node divide into left and
right branches and travel the endocardium of ventricles anddeliver electric
signals to the myocardium. These fibers are larger than cardiomyocytes and
comprised of less myofibrils and large number of mitochondria. These fibers
areinvolved in electrical impulse and propagation of impulse to ventricular
muscle.
6. Contractile cardiac Histiocytes –cardiac histiocytes are large
mononuclear cell found in connective tissue of heart wall in inflammatory
condition. The nucleus of these cells is ovoid and a central chromatin mass
which appear as wavy bar. These cells regulate immune functions. They are
involved in defense and tissue repair and phagocytosis.
Function of organ –the innermost thin layer of tissue lining chambers of
heart is endocardium. It provides protection to valves and heart chambers.
Endocardium controls myocardial function and regulates contractility of
cardiomyocyte. The endocardial epithelium act as a blood heart barrier which
controls the ionic composition of extracellular fluid containing
cardiomyocyte. It also controls the development of heart in embryo as well as
in adult. Endocardium is continuous with endothelium of blood vessels.
Clinical significance (relation) of organ/ organelle – ischemia of myocardium
extend to endocardium in myocardium infarction which disrupts the inner
lining of the heart. Less extensive infarction in subendocardial region. In acute
subendocardial infarctions area of dead tissue occurs surrounded by damaged
myocytes. This damage area conduct slow impulses and irregular rhythms.
Endocarditis in which endocardium is affected by bacteria. It is associated
with inflammation and infection of endocardium.
Age related changes in organ – with age endocardium thickness increases.
Valves thicken and become stiffer. There is deposits of Lipofuscin which is
aging pigment in wall of heart. Heart muscle cells degenerate and some heart
cells enlarges.
Name= lung. Large bronchus
Stain=Hematoxylin-eosin
Labeling;
1.lumen of the bronchus=The main bronchi have relatively large lumens
that are lined by respiratory epithelium. This cellular lining has cilia
departing towards the mouth which removes dust and other small
particles. There is a smooth muscle layer below the epithelium arranged
as two ribbons of muscle that spiral in opposite directions.
2.Multirowed ciliated epithelium=Ciliated epithelium lines the
human respiratory tract from the posterior third of the nose to the
bronchioles. In humans, cilia are present in the paranasal sinuses, the
Eustachian tubes, the ependymal lining of the central nervous system, in
the male vasa efferentia, and the female oviducts, among other structures.
3.laminapropria of mucous tunic=The lamina propria is one of three
layers which make up the mucosa, or mucous membrane. The lamina
propria is a large layer of connective tissue which separates the innermost
layer of epithelial cells from a layer of smooth muscle tissue called
the muscularis mucosa.
4.muscularis mucosae of mucus tunic=The muscularis mucosa is a thin
layer of muscle whose contraction folds the mucosa to form ridges and
valleys. Below the muscularis mucosa is the submucosa containing
connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves. The nerve complex here is
the submucosal plexus.
5.submucosa with glands=The submucosal glands are a companion to
goblet cells which also produce mucus, and are found lining the same
tubes. In the upper respiratory system of mammals there are submucosal
glands in the airways, notably in the sinuses, the trachea and
the bronchial tubes.
6.hyaline cartilage plates=Hyaline cartilage is present in the bronchi,
surrounding the smooth muscle layer. In the main bronchi,
the cartilage forms C-shaped rings like those in the trachea, while in the
smaller bronchi, hyaline cartilage is present in irregularly arranged
crescent-shaped plates and islands.
7.adventitia=The adventitia is indicated by the periwinkle bracket. Lung
tissue has 3 components we will be identifying under the microscope:
alveoli, bronchioles and blood vessels. ... It then transitions to simple
ciliated columnar epithelium in the larger bronchioles.
Smaller bronchioles have ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium.
Functions= A bronchus is a passage or airway in the respiratory
system that conducts air into the lungs. The first bronchi to branch from
the trachea are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus, also
known as the primary bronchi. These are the widest and enter the lungs at
each hilum, where they branch into narrower secondary bronchi or lobar
bronchi, and these branch into narrower tertiary bronchi or segmental
bronchi. Further divisions of the segmental bronchi are known as 4th
order, 5th order, and 6th order segmental bronchi, or grouped together as
subsegmental bronchi.
The bronchi when too narrow to be supported by cartilage are
known as bronchioles. No gas exchange takes place in the bronchi.
 The bronchi function to carry air that is breathed in through to the
functional tissues of the lungs, called alveoli. Exchange of gases
between the air in the lungs and the blood in the capillaries occurs
across the walls of the alveolar ducts and alveoli. The alveolar
ducts and alveoli consist primarily of simple squamous epithelium,
which permits rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Clinical significance of organ=
Bronchial wall thickening, as can be seen on CT scan, generally (but not
always) implies inflammation of the bronchi.Normally, the ratio of the
bronchial wall thickness and the bronchial diameter is between 0.17 and 0.23.
Age related changes in organ=
 The cartilage in the walls of the trachea and bronchi undergoes a
progressive calcification causing them to become increasingly rigid
with aging. These changes cause a gradual decrease in maximum
breathing capacity. Additionally the walls of the alveoli deteriorate.
Fig.1. Lung. Medium-sized bronchus. Hematoxylin-eosin.
Reserch object
1 - Lumen of the bronchus,

2 - Multirowed ciliated epithelium,
3 - Lamina propria of mucous tunic,
4-Muscularis mucosae of mucous tunic,
5 - Acini in submucosa,
6 - Islets of hyaline cartilage.
7 -Adventitia.
1 - Lumen of the bronchus,

L.lumen of the bronchus The main
bronchi have relatively large lumens
that are lined by respiratory
epithelium. This cellular lining luas
cilia departing towards the mouth
which temves dust and other small
particles. There is a smooth muscle
layer below the epithelium arranged
as two ribbons of muscle that spiral
in opposite directions
2 Multirowed ciliated epithilium-

The conducting passageways of the respiratory system (nasal cavity, trachea,
bronchi and bronchioles) are lined by pseudostratified
columnar epithelial tissue, which is ciliated and which includes mucus-
secreting goblet cells. This epithelium is exceedingly thin to facilitate
diffusion of oxygen and CO2
3 Lamina propria of mucous tunic-

The lamina propria is one of three layers which make up the mucosa,
or mucous membrane.
The lamina propria is a large layer of connective tissue which separates the
innermost layer of epithelial cells from a layer of smooth muscle tissue called
4-Muscularis mucosae of mucous

tunic,
The muscularis mucosa is a thin
layer of muscle whose contraction
folds the mucosa to form ridges and
valleys. Below the muscularis
mucosa is the submucosa containing
connective tissue, blood vessels, and
nerves. The nerve complex here is the
submucosal plexus.
5.acini in submucosa The mucus

factory is at the bottom, in the
submucosa, it is composed of many
little sacs (acini) where the mucus
originates. ... The acini empty into
little tubes (tubules) that lead to a
reservoir (collecting duct) that has a
portal through the skin (mucosa) that
can open and close allowing the
mucus into the main tube.
6 - Islets of hyaline cartilage.
hyaline cartilage is homogeneous

and glassy, rich in in type collagen,
proteoglycans such as aggrecan, and
structural glycoproteins such as
chondronectin. Aggrecan is the most
abundant proteoglycan in hyaline
cartilage; hundreds of these
aggrecans are bound noncovalently
by link proteins to long polymers of
hyaluronic acid. Chondronectin is a
structural multi-adhesive
glycoprotein. It binds specifically to
glycosaminoglycans, collagen type II
fibers, as well as integrins, and
mediates the adherence of
chondrocytes to the ECM.
7 Adventitia-
any membranous structure covering an organ but not properly belonging to it
(in full, membrana adventitia, adventitious membrane); specifically, the
outermost of the three coats of a blood-vessel (in
full, tunica adventitia, adventitious tunic), consisting of connective tissue.
Functions -
Allows you to talk and to smell.
Brings air to body temperature and moisturizes it to the humidity level your
body needs.
Delivers oxygen to the cells in your body.
Removes waste gases, including carbon dioxide, from the body when you
exhale.
Fig. 2. Lung. Terminal bronchiole. Acinus. Hematoxylin-eosin.
1 Terminal brochiole
2 respiratory bronchiole
3 alveolar duct
4 alveolar seccule
Terminal bronchiole - Terminal bronchioles are lined with simple cuboidal

epithelium containing club cells. Terminal bronchioles contain a limited
number of ciliated cells and no goblet cells.
These have a layer smooth muscle surrounding their lumens.
Stimulation of the vagus nerve (parasympathetic) causes the smooth muscle to
contract, and reduce the diameter of the terminal bronchioles.
Small sacs are found extending from the walls of the terminal bronchii called
respiratory bronchioles (R), that are lined by a ciliated cuboidal epithelium,
and some non-ciliated cells called clara cells.
2- Respiratory bronchiole,
Respiratory bronchioles are lined by two types of epithelial cells: ciliated
columnar cells and club cells (also known as Clara cells). Histologically, club
cells are cuboidal epithelial cells that lack cilia but contain microvilli (difficult
to appreciate microvilli on histopathology).
and some non-ciliated cells called clara cells.
3-alveolar duct,
Alveolar ducts are conducting regions are lined by knob-like projections of
cuboidal epithelium that cover small amounts of smooth muscle. These
projections of cuboidal epithelium are often located on either side of the
entrance into alveolar sacs, which branch from the “walls” of the alveolar
ducts
4-alveolar saccule
Alveolar ducts and saccules represent the vestibules of the alveoli. A ring of
smooth muscles and collagenous and elastic fibers reinforce the entrance to
the alveoli.
The simple cuboid epithelium contains mostly club cells, or Clara cells, and
not kinocilia.
The alveolar ducts then lead to the alveolar sacs, which are the outpouchings
that each contain many alveoli.
The alveoli are about 200 micrometers in diameter and have very thin walls
that consist of three components that can be seen in the center of this low
power image: the surface epithelium, supporting tissue, and blood vessels.
The epithelium creates the continuous lining for each alveolus and is made up
of type I and type II pneumocytes.
About 95% of the alveolar surface area is composed of type I pneumocytes,
which are labels in blue in this high power image of alveoli.
These cells can be identified by their large flat appearance and elongated
nuclei.
Their cytoplasm is very thin, which can be less than 80 nm in thickness, and
the cells form tight junctions between themselves and neighboring
Functions -
Allows you to talk and to smell.
Brings air to body temperature and moisturizes it to the humidity level your
body needs.
Delivers oxygen to the cells in your body.
Removes waste gases, including carbon dioxide, from the body when you
exhale.
Name of specimen - Human lung.

Stain - Hematoxylin–eosin. x 56.
Research objects -
1 – medium – sized bronchus: a – mucous tunic of the bronchus; б –
submucosa with bronchial glands and blood vessels; в – fibrocartilage; г –
adventitia; 2 – small bronchus; 3 – terminal bronchiole; 4 – respiratory
bronchiole; 5 – alveolar duct; 6 – alveolar sac; 7 – alveole; 8 – blood vessels
1 – medium – sized bronchus:
The bronchi are the airways that lead from the trachea into the lungs and then
branch off into progressively smaller structures until they reach the alveoli,
the tiny sacs that allow for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
lungs.
a – mucous tunic of the bronchus;mucosa, or mucous membrane layer, is the
innermost tunic of the wall. The mucosa consists of epithelium, an underlying
loose connective tissue layer called lamina propria, and a thin layer of smooth
muscle called the muscularis mucosa.
б – submucosa with bronchial glands and blood vessels - the submucosa is
the layer of dense, irregular connective tissue or loose connective tissue that
supports the mucosa, as well as joins the mucosa to the bulk of underlying
smooth muscle (fibers that run circularly within a layer of longitudinal
muscle)
; в – fibrocartilage - Fibrocartilage is the tough, very strong tissue found
predominantly in the intervertebral disks and at the insertions of ligaments and
tendons; it is similar to other fibrous tissues but contains cartilage ground
substance and chondrocytes.
The adventitia, is the outer layer of fibrous connective tissue surrounding an
organ. The outer layer of connective tissue that surrounds
an artery, or vein – the tunica externa, is also called the
tunica adventitia.
г – adventitia;
2 – small bronchus - The bronchi branch into smaller and smaller
passageways until they terminate in tiny air sacs called alveoli. The cartilage
and mucous membrane of the primary bronchi are similar to that in the
trachea.
3 – terminal bronchiolebronchiole - This is the last part of the conducting
portion of the respiratory system, and has the smallest diameter of all (less
than 1mm). There is no cartilage, or glands, some smooth muscle is still
present, ther e are no goblet cells. The epithelium is either columnar or
cuboidal.
4 – respiratory bronchiole - respiratory bronchioles have single alveoli off
their walls.Respiratory bronchioles are the smallest bronchioles (< 0.5 mm in
diameter); they connect the terminal bronchioles to the alveolar ducts.
5 – alveolar duct - Alveolar ducts are conducting regions are lined by knob-
like projections of cuboidal epithelium that cover small amounts of smooth
muscle.
6 – alveolar sac - Alveolar ducts and saccules represent the vestibules of the
alveoli. A ring of smooth muscles and collagenous and elastic fibers reinforce
the entrance to the alveoli.
7 – alveole - Alveoli are tiny air sacs in your lungs that take up the oxygen
you breathe in and keep your body going. Although they're microscopic,
alveoli are the workhorses of your respiratory system. You have about 480
million alveoli, located at the end of bronchial tubes.
8 – blood vessels - The pulmonary arteries and the pulmonary veins are the
vessels of the pulmonary circulation; which means they are responsible for
carrying the oxygenated blood to the heart from the lungs and carrying the
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.
Function of lungs-:-
Inhalation and Exhalation Are Pulmonary Ventilation—That's Breathing.
External Respiration Exchanges Gases Between the Lungs and the
Bloodstream.
Internal Respiration Exchanges Gases Between the Bloodstream and Body
Tissue
Name of specimen:- Cardiomyocytes of the cardiac conduction system

I):- diagram of the arrangement of the elements of the cardiac conduction
system
II):- cardiomyocytes of sinus and atrioventricular nodes
a:- P cells
b :- transitional cells
III):- cardiomyocyte from the bundle of his
IV):- cardiomyocytes of bundle of his (purkinje fibres)
1:- nuclei 2:- myofibril 3:- mitochondria 4:- sarcoplasm 5:- lumps of
glucogen 6:- intermediate filaments 7:- myofilament complex.
Structural features:-
I):- diagram of the arrangement of the elements of the cardiac conduction
system
✓ These muscle cells send signals to the rest of the heart muscle causing a
contraction. This group of muscle cells is called the cardiac conduction
system.
II):- Cardiomyocytes of sinus and atrioventricular nodes
a:- P- cells:- in the centre of SA node, there are characteristic 'P' cells (or
'typical nodal' cells), which are believed to be the leading pacemaker cells
The cells are not only small as reviewed above but also 'empty
b :- transitional cells:- Transitional cells (T-cells) are much smaller and
have fewer microfibrils than cardiac muscle cells; their structure is
intermediate between normal cardiac muscle cells and Purkinje fibers.
✓ The T-cells transmit impulses from the pacemaker to atrial muscle
cells.
III):- Cardiomyocytes from bundle of his:-
Arising from the AV node, the atrioventricular bundle, or bundle of His,
proceeds through the interventricular septum before dividing into two
atrioventricular bundle branches, commonly called the left and right
bundle branches. The left bundle branch has two fascicles.
IV):- Cardiomyocytes of the bundle of his( Purkinje fibers):-
1:- nuclei:- Purkinje cells send inhibitory projections to the deep
cerebellar nuclei, and constitute the sole output of all motor coordination
in the cerebellar cortex.
2:- myofibril:- Myofibrils are bundles of protein filaments that contain
the contractile elements of the cardiomyocyte, that is, the machinery or
motor that drives contraction and relaxation.
3:- mitochondria:- It's your heart muscle cells – with about 5,000
mitochondria per cell – that contain far more mitochondria than any
other organ in body! That's because the constantly-beating heart works
harder than any other organ in your body
4:- sarcoplasm:- Sarcoplasm is the cytoplasm of a muscle fibre. It is a
water solution containing ATP and phosphagens, as well as the enzymes
and intermediate and product molecules involved in many metabolic
reactions. The most abundant metal in the sarcoplasm is potassium.
5:- Lumps of glucogen:- Another intriguing characteristic of glycogen
metabolism in ischemic heart disease is the accumulation of glycogen in
hibernating heart
6:- intermediate filaments:- Desmin is a subunit of intermediate filaments
in cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle and smooth muscle tissue. In cardiac
muscle, desmin is present in Z-discs and intercalated discs. Desmin has
been shown to interact with desmoplakin and αB-crystallin
7:- myofilament complex:- Myofibrils are composed of smaller structures
called myofilaments. There are two main types of filaments: thick
filaments and thin filaments; each has different compositions and
locations.
Functions:-
Cardiac conduction system:
✓ The electrical conduction system that controls the heart rate.
✓This system generates electrical impulses and conducts them
throughout the muscle of the heart, stimulating the heart to contract and
pump blood.
✓An electrical stimulus is generated by the sinus node (also called the
sinoatrial node, or SA node).
✓This is a small mass of specialized tissue located in the right upper
chamber (atria) of the heart.
✓The sinus node generates an electrical stimulus regularly, 60 to 100
times per minute under normal conditions.
Airways and respiratory parts of the lung, sample, B. Air-blood barrier
Description:- The blood–air barrier provides close contact between alveoli
and capillaries and is thus also known as the alveolar–capillary barrier or the
alveolar–capillary membrane. Because gaseous exchange occurs here, this
barrier is essential to preventing the formation of gas bubbles within the blood
vessels.
1. Surfactant:- The major component (90%) of the antiatelectasis factor
consists of phospholipids (dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, a lecithin), and the
remainder (10%) is composed of surfactant proteins. The phospholipids lower
the surface tension of the fluid film on the alveolar surface.
2. Type-1 pneumocytes:- Type I pneumocytes cover 95% of the internal
surface of each alveolus. These cells are thin and squamous, ideal for gas
exchange. They share a basement membrane with pulmonary capillary
endothelium, forming the air-blood barrier where gas exchange occurs. These
pneumocytes joined one another and other alveolar cells by tight junctions,
forming an impermeable barrier to limit the infiltration of fluid into the
alveoli.
3. Basal membrane :- Basal cells are cuboidal with a large nucleus, few
organelles, and scattered microvilli. Basal cells are the first cells to be
affected by exposure to cigarette smoke. Their disorganisation is seen to be
responsible for the major airway changes that are characteristic of COPD.
Basal cells are the stem cells, or progenitors of all the cells in the respiratory
epithelium. The ciliated cells and secretory cells that form the epithelial
barrier, and function in mucociliary
clearance, are terminally differentiated meaning that they cannot self-renew.
These cells are vulnerable to damage and the basal cells can replace damaged
cells by differentiation.
4. Type-2 pneumocytes :- Alveolar cell 2 type has an abundance of RER,
Golgi-apparaus, mitochondria, composite bodies. Type II pneumocytes are
much less prevalent in each alveolus, found in between type I pneumocytes.
These cells are large and cuboidal with apical microvilli. Within their
cytoplasm are characteristic lamellar bodies containing a surfactant, a
substance secreted that decreases the surface tension of alveoli.
5. Macrophages :- Alveolar macrophages are mononuclear phagocytes that
are residents in alveoli. They derive from blood monocytes. The cell
membrane of these cells can utilize a network of microtubules to change shape
during chemotaxis or phagocytosis.
6. Endotheliocytes :- Endothelium is a single layer of squamous endothelial
cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels.[1]
The endothelium forms an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the
lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. Endothelial cells form the barrier
between vessels and tissue and control the flow of substances and fluid into
and out of a tissue.
Fig 309. Lung. Large bronchus. Azocarmine, x 100.

1- Lumen of the bronchus, 2 - Multirowed ciliated epithelium, 3 - Lamina
propria of mucous tunic. 4-Muscularis mucosae of mucous tunic, 5 - Acini in
submucosa, 6-Hyaline cartilage plates,7 - Blood vessels in adventitia.
1.lumen of the bronchus=The main bronchi have relatively large lumens
that are lined by respiratory epithelium. This cellular lining has cilia
departing towards the mouth which removes dust and other small
particles. There is a smooth muscle layer below the epithelium arranged
as two ribbons of muscle that spiral in opposite directions.
2.Multirowed ciliated epithelium=Ciliated epithelium lines the
human respiratory tract from the posterior third of the nose to the
bronchioles. In humans, cilia are present in the paranasal sinuses, the
Eustachian tubes, the ependymal lining of the central nervous system, in
the male vasa efferentia, and the female oviducts, among other structures.
3.laminapropria of mucous tunic=The lamina propria is one of three
layers which make up the mucosa, or mucous membrane. The lamina
propria is a large layer of connective tissue which separates the innermost
layer of epithelial cells from a layer of smooth muscle tissue called
4.muscularis mucosae of mucus tunic=The muscularis mucosa is a thin
valleys. Below the muscularis mucosa is the submucosa containing
connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves. The nerve complex here is
the submucosal plexus.
6.hyaline cartilage plates=Hyaline cartilage is present in the bronchi,
surrounding the smooth muscle layer. In the main bronchi,
the cartilage forms C-shaped rings like those in the trachea, while in the
smaller bronchi, hyaline cartilage is present in irregularly arranged
crescent-shaped plates and islands.
5.acini in submucosa The mucus factory is at the bottom, in the
submucosa, it is composed of many little sacs (acini) where the mucus
originates. ... The acini empty into little tubes (tubules) that lead to a
reservoir (collecting duct) that has a portal through the skin (mucosa) that
can open and close allowing the mucus into the main tube.
7 - Blood vessels in adventitia—The outermost layer of the blood vessels
is the tunica adventitia, also known as the tunica externa. This layer is
primarily composed of type I collagen and elastic connective tissue (in
arteries). This external layer is responsible for anchoring the vessels to
adjacent organs.
Functions= A bronchus is a passage or airway in the respiratory
system that conducts air into the lungs. The first bronchi to branch from
the trachea are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus, also
known as the primary bronchi. These are the widest and enter the lungs at
each hilum, where they branch into narrower secondary bronchi or lobar
bronchi, and these branch into narrower tertiary bronchi or segmental
bronchi. Further divisions of the segmental bronchi are known as 4th
order, 5th order, and 6th order segmental bronchi, or grouped together as
subsegmental bronchi.
The bronchi when too narrow to be supported by cartilage are known
as bronchioles. No gas exchange takes place in the bronchi.
LUNG. MEDIUM SIZED BRONCHUS
Stain – Azocarmine ×400
1:- Muscularis mucosa :- The muscularis mucosa is the outermost layer of
the mucosa. It is composed of elastic fibers and 3–10 smooth muscle cells,
generally arranged in an outer longitudinal and inner circular layer. Smooth
muscle cells may radiate from the muscularis mucosa into the lamina propria
and extend in the villi.
2:- Submucosa:- The submucosa of the bronchial mucosa consists of loose
connective tissue, in which capillaries, lymphatic vessels, and nerves can be
found. It contains the peribronchial glands and the central parts of the
bronchial system cartilage.
3:- Acini:- cells in rounded sacs, called acini, attached to freely branching
systems of ducts. The walls of the acini surround a small central cavity known
as an alveolus.
4:- Isletsofhyalincartilage:-
Hyalinecartilageispresentinthebronchi,surroundingthesmoothmusclelayer.
✓Inthemainbronchi,thecartilageformsC-
shapedringslikethoseinthetrachea,whileinthesmallerbronchi,hyalinecartilageis
presentinirregularlyarrangedcrescent-shapedplatesandislands.
✓Theseplatesgivestructuralsupporttothebronchiandkeeptheairwayopen
5:- Adventitia – this tunic is composed of loose areolar connective tissue that
connects bronchus to other structures and is the outermost tunic of bronchus.
It allows movement of bronchus.
takes place.
LUNG. SMALL BRONCHUS

Stain – Hematoxylin-eosin ×100
1:- Lumen of bronchus:-
✓Thelongerlumen(bronchiallumen)isdesignedtoreachthemainstembronchusw
hiletheshorterlumen(tracheal)endsinthedistaltrachea.
✓Thereareseveraltypesofdoublelumentubes.
✓The main bronchi have relatively large lumens that are lined by respiratory
epithelium.
✓This cellular lining has cilia departing towards the mouth which removes
dust and other small particles.
✓ There is a smooth muscle layer below the epithelium arranged as two
ribbons of muscle that spiral in opposite directions.
2:- Double rowed ciliated epithelium – small bronchus is lined with simple
cuboidal epithelium with cilia and club cells or Clara cells. Cilia of cells play
role in defense mechanism of respiratory system by coordinated beating of
cilia to trap and remove harmful particles and dust from bronchus. Club cells
secretes surfactants and act as progenitor cells for ciliated and epithelial cells.
3:- Laminapropriaofmucustunic–
lyingbeneaththeepitheliumislaminapropriawhichisdenseconnectivetissueinwhi
chelasticfibersarearranged.Noglandsarepresentinlaminapropiaofsmallbronchus
4:- Muscularismucosae–
Muscularismucosaeofmucoustunicisathinlayerofsmoothmusclesupportingmuc
osa.Itseparatessubmucosafromlaminapropria.Itcontainsbloodvesselsandnerves.
5:- Blood vessels – these blood vessels supplies blood and nourishes
bronchus. Pulmonary arteries and veins are present which divide into smaller
vessels and forming capillaries network in alveolar septa where gas exchange
takes place.
Function of organ– bronchi branch into small bronchus which terminate into
air sacs alveoli. Small bronchus lacks cartilage and glands.These are part of
conducting zone of respiratory system.The bronchus carry air to functional
units of lung alveoli where exchange of gases takes place.
inflammation. Bronchitis causes due to viral and bacterial infections. Asthma
in which lumen becomes narrow due to constriction in small bronchus due to
bronchospasm.
elasticity. Muscles become weak. Mucociliary function of bronchus decreases
with age.
Fig 321. Lung. Macrophagocytes in the lumen of alveole.

Azocarmine. x 630.
1-Alveoles- Alveoli are tiny air sacs in your lungs that take up the oxygen you
breathe in and keep your body going. Although they're microscopic, alveoli
are the workhorses of your respiratory system. You have about 480 million
alveoli, located at the end of bronchial tubes.
2-Alveolar macrophages- The engulfed carbon particles become visible as a
dark, black-brown accumulation in the cytoplasm of the alveolar
macrophages. However, according to some studies, alveolar macrophages are
more easily identifiable in pulmonary tissue sections than macrophages in
other tissues of the body.
Function- Alveoli are lined by a fluid layer known as a surfactant which maintains
the shape and surface tension of the air sac. By maintaining surface tension, there is
more surface area through which oxygen and CO2 molecules can pass.
Alveolar macrophages are mononuclear phagocytes found in the alveoli of the

lungs. They ingest small inhaled particles resulting in the degradation,
clearance and presentation of the antigen to adaptive immune cells.
Fig 203. Vessels of microcirculatory bloodstream. Hematoxylin-eosin. x

400.
1-Capillaries- capillaries are small blood containing structures connecting
arterioles to venules. As they are smallest vessels they are capable in
penetrating body tissues and allows gaseous and nutrient exchange between
blood and tissues. The tunica intima layer is consisting of endothelial cells
which lies on basement membrane and a layer of pericytes cells surround this
epithelium. Pericytes cells through contraction regulates blood pressure in
capillaries. Muscular layer and adventitia layer is absent in capillaries.
2- Arteriole- Arterioles are small blood vessel branching out from an artery.
connective tissue.
the flow of blood.
Fig 204. Vessels of microcirculatory bloodstream. Venule. Arteriole.

Hematoxylin-eosin. x 400.
1-Arteriole- Arterioles are small blood vessel branching out from an artery.
connective tissue.
2- Venule- Venules are small muscular. They have large lumina. Venules
carry blood from capillaries to veins. These are composed of three tissue
layers lined by squamous endothelial cells, smooth muscle fibers layer in
tunica media and tunica adventitia fuses with surrounding organs. Elastic
fibers are absent in tunica media of venules.
the flow of blood.
Name of specimen:- Lung . Medium sized bronchus.

Stain:- Azocarmine × 400
Research objects:-
1:- Multirowed ciliated epithelium
2:- Lamina propria of mucous tunic
3:- Muscularis mucosae of mucous tunic
4:- Acini in Submucosa
1:- Multirowed ciliated epithelium:- mucosa of bronchus contains
Multirowed columnar pseudostratifeid epithelium with cilia and goblet cells.
. Cilia of cells play role in defense mechanism of respiratory system by
coordinated beating of cilia to trap and remove harmful particles and dust
from bronchus and mucus from goblet cells traps foreign particles.
The conducting passageways of the respiratory system (nasal cavity, trachea,
bronchi and bronchioles) are lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelial
tissue, which is ciliated and which includes mucus-secreting goblet cells. This
epithelium is exceedingly thin to facilitate diffusion of oxygen and CO2
✓ (Lung alveoli, in contrast, are lined by very thin simple squamous
epithelium.) Pseudostratified respiratory epithelium consists primarily of
columnar ciliated cells
2:- Lamina propria of mucous tunic:- It contains mucus secreting goblet
cells and serous cells and provides support to epithelium of mucosa.
Lymphocytes, mast cells and blood vessels are also present.
The lamina propria is circumscribed by a thin layer of smooth muscle that also
separates the former from the submucosal layer (containing seromucous
glands).
✓ The presence of the muscular layer causes significant mucosal folding
along the lumen of the intrapulmonary bronchi.
3:- Muscularis mucosae of mucous tunic:- The muscularis mucosa is a thin
valleys.
Muscularis mucosae of mucous tunic is a thin layer of smooth muscle
supporting mucosa and providing the ability to move and fold and underlie
glands in position. It separates submucosa from lamina propria.
4:- Acini in Submucosa:- The acini empty into little tubes (tubules) that lead
to a reservoir (collecting duct) that has a portal through the skin (mucosa) that
can open and close allowing the mucus into the main tube.
A pulmonary acinus is usually defined as the region of lung supplied by a
first-order respiratory bronchiole and includes the respiratory bronchioles,
alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs distal to a single terminal bronchiole
The mucus factory is at the bottom, in the submucosa, it is composed of many
little sacs (acini) where the mucus originates.
Each sac (acinus) has one end that can open and close (dilate) to allow the
mucus out.
Functions:- The bronchi function to carry air that is breathed in through to the
functional tissues of the lungs, called alveoli.
Exchange of gases between the air in the lungs and the blood in the capillaries
occurs across the walls of the alveolar ducts and alveoli.
The alveolar ducts and alveoli consist primarily of simple squamous
epithelium, which permits rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide
Allows you to talk and to smell. Brings air to body temperature and
moisturizes it to the humidity level your body needs.
Delivers oxygen to the cells in your body.Removes waste gases, including
carbon dioxide, from the body when you exhale.
Name of Specimen:- Lung . Acinus.

Stain :- Azocarmine × 200
Research objects:-
1-Respiratorybronchiole
2-alveolarduct
3 alveolarsaccule
4:- interalveolar septa
Respiratory bronchiole :- Respiratory bronchioles are lined by two types of
epithelial cells: ciliated columnar cells and club cells (also known as Clara
cells).
✓Histologically, club cells are cuboidal epithelial cells that lack cilia but
contain microvilli (difficult to appreciate microvilli on histopathology).
✓Small sacs are found extending from the walls of the terminal bronchii
called respiratory bronchioles (R), that are lined by a ciliated cuboidal
epithelium, and some non-ciliated cells called clara cells.
✓ Respiratory bronchioles are the final division of the bronchioles within the
lung.
✓ They are a continuation of the terminal bronchioles and are approximately
0.5mm in size
✓They are comprised of simple cuboidal epithelium and contain a thin layer
of smooth muscle and elastic fibers
alveolar duct :- The respiratory bronchioles subdivide into several alveolar
ducts. Numerous alveoli and alveolar sacs surround the alveolar ducts.
✓ Each alveolar duct is connected with a variable number of irregularly
spherical spaces, which also possess alveoli, the atria.
✓With each atrium a variable number (2–5) of alveolar sacs are connected
which bear on all parts of their circumference alveoli or air sacs. (Miller.)
alveolar saccule :- Tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles (tiny branches
of air tubes in the lungs).
✓The alveoli are where the lungs and the blood exchange oxygen and carbon
dioxide during the process of breathing in and breathing out.
Interalveolar septa:- The alveolar wall, called the interalveolar septum, is
common to two adjacent alveoli.
✓ It contains a dense network of capillaries, the smallest of the blood vessels,
and a skeleton of connective tissue fibres.
Functions:- The bronchi and bronchioles are parts of the 'Conduction Zone' of
the respiratory system - allowing the passage of air from the external
environment into the lungs where gaseous exchange can take place
The tracheobronchial tree is the passage way from the mouth to the interior of
the lung.
 Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli deep in the lungs.
 Breathing air in (inhalation) requires muscular effort.
 Air is warmed, humidified, and cleaned by the nose and lung
Fig 307. Trachea. Hematoxylin-eosin. x 200. 1- Multirowed ciliated

epithelium. 2- Lamina propria of mucous tunic. 3-Smooth muscle cells, 4-
Submucosa, 5-Compound mucoserous glands, 6- Fibrocartilaginous tunic.
Multirowed ciliated epithelium –mucosa of trachea contains columnar
pseudostratifeid epithelium with cilia and goblet cells. Cilia of cells play role
in defense mechanism of respiratory system by coordinated beating of cilia to
trap and remove harmful particles and dust from trachea.
Lamina propria of mucous tunic –lying beneath the epithelium is lamina
to epithelium of mucosa.
Submucosa – below mucosa is submucosa composed of glands which are
mixed sero-mucus glands. Submucosa contains elastic fibers, fat cells, and
tubular glands.
Fibrocartilagenous tunic –this composed of c shaped hyaline cartilage.
These cartilages are placed as stacks and prevent collapse of tracheal lumen.
Matrix of cartilage is glass like clear because fibers are absent in matrix of this
cartilage. Matrix color is blue.
smooth muscles cells - In the trachea, the smooth muscle is contained solely
within the trachealis membrane that extends along the dorsal side of the
trachea where the trachea abuts the esophagus. The trachealis membrane,
which contains a thin layer of muscle tissue adjacent to the mucosal
membrane that lines the entire trachea, connects the ends of the horseshoe-
shaped rings of cartilage that form the length of the trachea.
Compound mucoserous gland - The (seromucous) glands secrete a
combination of water and mucus to the luminal surface of the trachea through
narrow ducts. The mucus adds to that secreted by the goblet cells.
Function of organ –trachea an important part of respiratory system is a
fibrocartilagenous tube whichhelps in breathing by transporting air in and out
of lungs. It carries oxygenated air to alveoli for gas exchange. It has protective
function as it moistens and warm air entering respiratory system and move
foreign particle upwards towards pharynx to remove it from the body.
Clinical significance (relation) of organ/ organelle –Trachea becomes narrow
due to enlarged lymph nodes, swollen vessels and cancer of trachea. Trachitis
or inflammation of trachea occurs in viral infections. Respiratory path blocks
due to swelling of trachea.
Age related changes in organ –the cartilage walls of trachea undergoes
calcification and becomes rigid with age. Tracheal area increases and
roundness gets distorted.
Fig 311. Lung. Medium-sized bronchus. Hematoxylin-eosin. x 400.

Multirowed ciliated epithelium, 2- Lamina propria of mucous tunic, 3-
Muscularis mucosae of mucous 4-Submucosa with glands, 5 -
Fibrocartilaginous tunic
1 Multirowed ciliated epithelium –mucosa of bronchus contains Multirowed
columnar pseudostratifeid epithelium with cilia and goblet cells. Cilia of cells
play role in defense mechanism of respiratory system by coordinated beating
of cilia to trap and remove harmful particles and dust from bronchus and
mucus from goblet cells traps foreign particles.
2 Lamina propria of mucous tunic – lying beneath the epithelium is lamina
to epithelium of mucosa. Lymphocytes, mast cells and blood vessels are also
present.
3 Muscularis mucosae of mucous tunic – Muscularis mucosae of mucous
tunic is a thin layer of smooth muscle supporting mucosa and providing the
ability to move and fold and underlie glands in position. It separates
submucosa from lamina propria.
4 Submucosa with glands –below mucosa is layer submucosa which is
composed of glands which are mixed sero-mucus glands containing mucus
secreting goblet cells and serous cells. Submucosa contains elastic fibers, fat
cells, and tubular glands.
5 Fibrocartilagenous tunic –this layer is composed of c shaped hyaline
cartilage. These cartilages are placed as stacks and prevent collapse of tracheal
lumen. Matrix of cartilage is glass like clear because fibers are absent in
matrix of this cartilage and is blue in color.
takes place.
inflammation. Bronchitis causes due to viral and bacterial infections.
Aspiration problems mainly in right lung as right bronchus is wider than left.
Bronchial atresia or blind ended bronchus as tissue secretes mucus which
build ups and distended causing emphysema.
elasticity. Cartilage in walls of bronchi undergoes calcification and become
rigid. Muscles become weak. Mucociliary function of bronchus decreases
with age.
Fig 211. Myocardium. Iron
hematoxylin. x 400. 1-Intercalated disks 2 - Contractile cardiac hystiocytes, 3-
Loose irregular connective tissue with vessels.
1-Intercalated disks -Intercalated discs(also called intercalated discs or
glossy stripes) are microscopic identifying features of cardiac muscle. Cardiac
muscle consists of individual heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) connected
by intercalated discs to work as a single functional organ or syncytium.
2 - Contractile cardiac hystiocytes- Cardiac muscle cells are joined end to
end at special junctions called intercalated discs (id). These appear as dark
lines that are perpendicular to the axis of the cell (they run across the cell)
The essential contractile units of cardiac muscle are sarcomeres. They are
made up of thick and thin filaments that are essential for mechanical force
generation and propagation. MHC subunits and myosin light-chain (MLC)
subunits make up myosin, the thick filament's main component.
The contractile cells that allow the heart to work as a pump are called cardiac
myocytes. They are thus in charge of making sure that enough oxygenated
blood and metabolites enter the tissues to fulfill the body's requirements,
whether at rest or during exercise.
3-Loose irregular connective tissue with vessels- Loose connective tissue is
the most common type of connective tissue in vertebrates. ... Cells called
fibroblasts are widely dispersed in this tissue; they are irregular branching
cells that secrete strong fibrous proteins and proteoglycans as an extracellular
matrix.
Functions:-Providing a scaffolding for the heart chambers
Assisting in contraction and relaxation of the cardiac walls so that blood can
pass between the chambers.
Conducting electro-stimulation through its own tissues and into the
epicardium (The Conducting system of the heart).
Age related changes:- Structural changes with aging involve the
myocardium, the cardiac conduction system, and the endocardium. There is a
progressive degeneration of the cardiac structures with aging, including a loss
of elasticity, fibrotic changes in the valves of the heart, and infiltration with
amyloid.The age-associated structural characteristics that have the greatest
impact involve the contractility of the heart's left ventricular wall. The
pumping capacity of the heart is reduced with age due to a variety of changes
affecting the structure and function of the heart muscle.
Myocardial Sub-cellular Changes- The nucleus, containing DNA, becomes
larger and may show invagination of its membrane.The mitochondria show
alterations in size, shape, cristal pattern, and matrix density, which reduce
their functional surface.The cytoplasm is marked by fatty infiltration or
degeneration, vacuole formation, and a progressive accumulation of pigments
such as lipofuscin. The combined age related changes in the sub-cellular
compartments of the cells result in decreased cellular activities such as altered
homeostasis, protein synthesis, and degradation rates.
Fig 212. Myocardium. Azocarmine. x 400. 1-Contractile cardiac histiocytes,

forming functional fibres, 2 Loose irregular fibrous connective tissue with
vessels, 3-Vessels, 4- Anastomoses between the functional fibres
1. Contractile cardiac hystiocytes- Cardiac muscle cells are joined end to
end at special junctions called intercalated discs (id). These appear as dark
lines that are perpendicular to the axis of the cell (they run across the cell)
The essential contractile units of cardiac muscle are sarcomeres. They are
made up of thick and thin filaments that are essential for mechanical force
generation and propagation. MHC subunits and myosin light-chain (MLC)
subunits make up myosin, the thick filament's main component.
The contractile cells that allow the heart to work as a pump are called cardiac
myocytes. They are thus in charge of making sure that enough oxygenated
blood and metabolites enter the tissues to fulfill the body's requirements,
whether at rest or during exercise.
2. Loose irregular fibrous connective tissue with vessels:- The myocardium
is the largest of the three layers, and contains cardiac muscle fibres, and loose
endomysial connective tissue that contains lots of capillaries. Red blood cells
are seen in single file in capillaries between the fibers.
3. Vessels:- The atria receive blood from the large veins and deliver it to
adjacent ventricles, a process that requires relatively low pressure. The
myocardium of the ventricles is substantially thicker because of the higher
pressure required to pump the blood through the pulmonary and systemic
circulations
4. Anastomoses between the functional fibres:- The fibers are made up of
distinct quadrangular cells, joined end to end so as to form a syncytium. Each
cell contains a clear oval nucleus, situated near its center. The extremities of
the cells have a tendency to branch or divide, the subdivisions uniting with
offsets from other cells, and thus producing an anastomosis of the fibers. The
connective tissue between the bundles of fibers is much less than in ordinary
striped muscle, and no sarcolemma has been proved to exist.
Functions:-Providing a scaffolding for the heart chambers
Assisting in contraction and relaxation of the cardiac walls so that blood can
pass between the chambers.
Conducting electro-stimulation through its own tissues and into the
epicardium (The Conducting system of the heart).
Age related changes:- Structural changes with aging involve the
myocardium, the cardiac conduction system, and the endocardium. There is a
progressive degeneration of the cardiac structures with aging, including a loss
of elasticity, fibrotic changes in the valves of the heart, and infiltration with
amyloid.The age-associated structural characteristics that have the greatest
impact involve the contractility of the heart's left ventricular wall. The
pumping capacity of the heart is reduced with age due to a variety of changes
affecting the structure and function of the heart muscle.
Myocardial Sub-cellular Changes- The nucleus, containing DNA, becomes
larger and may show invagination of its membrane.The mitochondria show
alterations in size, shape, cristal pattern, and matrix density, which reduce
their functional surface.The cytoplasm is marked by fatty infiltration or
degeneration, vacuole formation, and a progressive accumulation of pigments
such as lipofuscin. The combined age related changes in the sub-cellular
compartments of the cells result in decreased cellular activities such as altered
homeostasis, protein synthesis, and degradation rates.
Fig 210. Purkinje fibres. Hematoxylin-eosin. x 630.

1-Conducting cardiac histiocytes of the Purkinje fibres- Cardiac
conducting cells that make up the bundle of His originate at the AV node, pass
through the fibrous skeleton of the heart, course along both sides of the
interventricular septum , and terminate as Purkinje fibers in the myocardium
of the ventricles. The cells that form the Purkinje fibers are larger than
ventricular muscle cells. Their myofibrils are located at the periphery of the
cell. The nuclei are round and are larger than the nuclei of the cardiac muscle
cells in the myocardium.
Because of the considerable size of the cells, the nuclei are often not included
in the section. Intercalated disks are present in Purkinje fibers, but they are
variable in appearance and number depending on their location.
Because of the stored glycogen, Purkinje fiber cells are more resistant to
hypoxia than are ventricular muscle cells.
Functions and mechanism- Purkinje fibers work with the sinoatrial node
(SA node) and the atrioventricular node (AV node) to control the heart rate.
During the ventricular contraction portion of the cardiac cycle, the Purkinje
fibers carry the contraction impulse from the left and right bundle branches to
the myocardium of the ventricles. This causes the muscle tissue of the
ventricles to contract and force blood out of the heart — either to the
pulmonary circulation (from the right ventricle) or to the systemic circulation
(from the left ventricle).
The impulse through the Purkinje fibers is associated with the QRS complex.
Purkinje fibers also have the ability of automaticity - they generate action
potentials, but at a slower rate than sinoatrial node and other atrial ectopic
pacemakers. Thus they serve as the last resort when other pacemakers fail.

Blood & Circulation Histology

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LUNG. MEDIUM SIZED BRONCHUS

Vessels of microcirculatory blood stream

1 - Lumen of the bronchus,

1 - Lumen of the bronchus,

2 Multirowed ciliated epithilium-

3 Lamina propria of mucous tunic-

4-Muscularis mucosae of mucous

5.acini in submucosa The mucus

6 - Islets of hyaline cartilage.

hyaline cartilage is homogeneous

Fig. 2. Lung. Terminal bronchiole. Acinus. Hematoxylin-eosin.

Terminal bronchiole - Terminal bronchioles are lined with simple cuboidal

Name of specimen - Human lung.

Name of specimen:- Cardiomyocytes of the cardiac conduction system

Fig 309. Lung. Large bronchus. Azocarmine, x 100.

LUNG. SMALL BRONCHUS

Fig 321. Lung. Macrophagocytes in the lumen of alveole.

Alveolar macrophages are mononuclear phagocytes found in the alveoli of the

Fig 203. Vessels of microcirculatory bloodstream. Hematoxylin-eosin. x

Fig 204. Vessels of microcirculatory bloodstream. Venule. Arteriole.

Name of specimen:- Lung . Medium sized bronchus.

Name of Specimen:- Lung . Acinus.

Fig 307. Trachea. Hematoxylin-eosin. x 200. 1- Multirowed ciliated

Fig 311. Lung. Medium-sized bronchus. Hematoxylin-eosin. x 400.

Fig 212. Myocardium. Azocarmine. x 400. 1-Contractile cardiac histiocytes,

Fig 210. Purkinje fibres. Hematoxylin-eosin. x 630.

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