Respiratory system & Urinary system

-the respiratory system is composed of two division/region:

1. Conducting region (extrapulmonary region)- provides passageway for the air into the respiratory region. It also cleanse
and humidify the air. Make up of the upper respiratory tract.
2. Respiratory region (intrapulmonary region)- this region is where the actual exchange of air takes place. Consist of the
lower respiratory tract.
Remember: that all structures outside the lungs are referred to us the extrapulmonary region that provides a conduit
system for the movement of air towards the lungs. When we say conduit, this are tubular system. In the conduit in the
extrapulmonary region, it facilitates the movement of air towards the lungs. Therefore, the lungs itself and the structures
near and within it makes up the intrapulmonary region.

General overview(illustration)

Nasal cavities
-the most superior part of the respiratory tract
-divided into 2 cavities:
1. left nasal cavity
2. right nasal cavity
-the 2 cavities are separated by the nasal septum. Nasal septum is also referred to as fossa or fossae. Nasal cavity is
sometimes called nasal fossa/fossae
-the most important function of the nasal cavity includes the warming and humidifying of air as we breathe and acting as a
barrier for the immune system to keep harmful microorganisms from entering the body.
-the nasal cavity has 2 components:
1. Vestibule- most anterior portion of nasal cavity. In general, vestibule is a small space or cavity at the beginning of the
every canal. Nasal vestibules is commonly known as the nostrils and is simply lined with an extension of skin epithelium in
contrast to the nasal cavity w/c is lined with respiratory epithelium.
2. Internal nasal cavity- refers o the interior part of the nose. Also referred to as intranasal cavity. It open exteriorly at the
nostrils. The entry point for the inspired air and the first of the series structures w/c forms the respiratory system. The
internal nasal cavity is lined by nasal mucosa w/c forms the physical barriers of the body’s immune system. This barriers in
the intranasal cavity provides mechanical protection from the invasion of infectious allergenic pathogens.
-nasal conchae is also called as turbinates. They are named this way because they function in a similar way as a turbine
being principally responsible for regulating the air flow during inhalation. That is by making the bone expand in the surface
area of the nasal cavity, allowing the air to come in better contact with the cavity walls. They also slow down the laminar
flow of air through breathing passages so the air spends a longer time in the cavity in order to be dehumidified.another
function of nasal conchae is the channeling of air entering the respiratory system how? To make sure that the air goes
through the mucous membrane and cilia so that it will be filtered and warmed up properly.
-olfactory epithelium
-is a membranous tissue locating inside the nasal cavity,particularly in the roots. It is lined w/ pseudostratified columnar
epithelium
-the prime role of olfactory epithelium is to past a long smell sensations to the brain by trapping odors that passed across
the cilia then sending the information about those odors to the olfactory bulb.
-the olfactory bulb is located in front of the brain. After the olfactory bulb receives information from the cells in the nasal
cavity it processes the information and passes it to the other parts of the brain.
-components of olfactory epithelium:
-olfactory epithelium is composed of olfactory cells,the supporting cells and the basal cells/stem cells
-the olfactory cells lies between the sustentacular cells.
-supporting cells- also called as sustentacular cells. Characterized to be tall, slender cells that are broad at the apexes and
narrow at their bases.
-stem cells- they occupy or replaces the area between the bases of the sustentacular cells and olfactory cells.
Remember that the replacement happens when cells are damaged.
-the nasal cells also contains the branched tubuloalveolar olfactory glands(glands of bowman) that secretes serous fluids
that moistens the epithelium surface and serves as solvent for odiferous substances (substances that gives off an odor)
--pharynx
-consists of 3 major sections: (in order from top to bottom)
1. Nasopharynx- is the top part of the throat
2. Oropharynx- located in the middle part behind the nasal cavity
3. Laryngopharynx- the bottom piece behind the larynx.
 -the oropharynx and laryngopharynx is lined by non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium while the nasopharynx is
lined by respiratory epithelium.
-the walls of the pharynx comprises the same layers possessed by other segments of the digestive tract the difference is
that the layers in the pharynx are in linked and as typical as in other segments of the digestive tract.
-Epiglottis
-it is made of both stratified squamous and pseudostratified columnar epithelium
-larynx
-also called as voice box
-it connects the pharynx to the trachea and also serves in an important role called phonation (it is the process wherein the
vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration
-have 9 cartilages that are hold together by muscles and ligaments
-the largest cartilage is the thyroid cartilage w/c forms the adam’s apple
-the thyroid, arytenoid and cricoid are composed of hyaline cartilages while the epiglottic,corniculate and cuneiform are
consist of elastic cartilage.
-Trachea
-also called as windpipe
-serves as the main passageway through w/c the air passes from the upper respiratory tract to the lungs
-trachea begins at the bottom of the larynx and ends at the carina (the point where the trachea branches into the left and
right main bronchi
-the walls of trachea has 4 histological layers:
1. Mucosa-have an abundant goblet cells, numerous elastic fibers and MALT(mucosa associated lymphatic tissue)
2. Submucosa- loose connective tissue(LCT)
3. Cartilage and muscle layer- most characteristic features of trachea because it is composed 16-20 hyaline cartilages that
keeps the lumen of an trachea permanently open and the main reason why we can breathe continuously
4. Adventita/serosa
-trachealis muscle- can decrease the lumenar diameter of the trachea by contracting. For ex.,during coughing and relaxes
during swallowing
-bronchial tree
-is also called as respiratory tree
-carina- helps in inducing violent coughing in a foreign bod such as food is present.
-the rings of cartilage is similar to those of the trachea that supports the structure of bronchi and prevent their collapse.
-the main bronchi are morphologically identical with the trachea except in few aspects the bronchi have a smaller caliber it
has thinner respiratory epithelium, it has a fewer mucosal glands. The bronchi continue to branch into bronchial
tree.
-is the collective term used for this multiple branched bronchi.
-primary role is to provide a passageway for the air to move in and out of each lung
-bronchioles
-last branches that lacks alveoli
-cuboidal cells are also called as club cells or clara cells(old name)
-Alveolar duct
-gives rise to alveoli and alveolar sac
-alveoli
-the connective tissue in the intralveolar septum serves as the supporting framework of the structure. It contains collagen
and reticular fibers and several types of cells includes mast cells, plasma cells, lymphocytes and interstitial fibroblast(it
differs from a normal fibroblast-predominating cells of the tissue, here in the septa, the interstitial fibroblast contains more
actin filaments and more contractile)
-two types of alveolar cells:
1. Type I alveolar cells- also called as pneumocyte type I ( they are stretched very thinly that covers 95% of the alveolar
surface)
2. Type II alveolar cells- also called as pneumocyte type II. More numerous and larger than type I alveolar cells
Urinary system

--primarily responsible for maintaining the body’s internal environment(homeostasis)

-renin- an enzyme secreted by the kidney that is part of the physiological system that regulates blood pressure
-erythropoietin- stimulates RBC production in the bone marrow

-Kidneys
-kidneys are bean-shaped brown organ that are envelopes by a thin but tough fibrous capsule that are located in the
posterior abdominal wall, one on each side of the body.
-each kidney has has two surfaces: the anterior and posterior surfaces. It has two margins: the medial and the lateral
margins. It also have two poles: the superior and inferior poles.
-the lateral margin of each kidney is convex while the medial margin is concave. At the medial margin we can see there the
vertical fissure that is called the hilus. The hilus is also the gateway to the renal sinus. The renal sinus is a deep fat field
space w/in the kidney that contains the renal blood vessels, nerves, renal pelvis and renal calyxes.
-components/regions of kidney:
1. Cortex- occupies the outer portion of the kidney. It is reddish and granular that is why it stains darker than medulla.
2. Medulla- comprises the inner portion of the kidney It is striated due to the presence of more or less 8-15 chronicles of
structures. This structures are called Renal pyramids
-renal vasculature
-the arteries that supply the left and right kidneys are the left and right kidneys.
-the interlobar arteries penetrate the medulla