Structural and functional organization of the

respiratory system. Stages of respiration.

Regulation of respiration

Plan of the lecture:

1. Respiration and its value.
2. Stages of respiration.
3. Respiratory system.
4. Biomechanics of respiratory movements.
5. Lung volume and capacity.
6. Transport of gases by blood.
7. Exchange of gases in lungs and tissues.
8. Regulation of respiration
a) respiratory center, its localization
b) tone of the respiratory center
c) reflex self-control of respiration, mechanisms of
change of respiratory phases
 Respiratory system in
Respiration is a cludes
:
totality of processes of
1. Airways.
the transport (delivery) 2. Lungs.
of oxygen to organs 3. Respiratory
and tissues, its muscles.
4. Respiratory
utilization by cells in nerves.
oxidative processes, 5. Respiratory center
as well as the excretion (CNS).
of carbon dioxide.
Morpholpgical-functional unit of
the lungs is - acinus.
 Stages of respiration
1. External respiration – pulmonary ventilation: it
means inflow and out flow of air between atmosphere
and lungs alveoli.
2. The gas exchange in the lung - gas exchange
between alveolar air and blood.
3. Transport of blood gases – transfer of oxygen by
blood from lungs to the tissue and carbon dioxide from
tissues to the lungs
4. Gas exchange in tissues - diffusion of oxygen
from blood capillaries into the tissue and carbon
dioxide from the tissues to the blood.
5. Tissue respiration - oxidative-reductive processes
in cells.
 Main inspiratory muscles:
1. Diaphragm.
2. External intercostal.
3. Inter- cartilaginous.
Accessory:
1. Scalene.
2. Sternocleidomastoid
3. Trapezius.
4. Ectopectoral and smaller pectoral.
 As a result of contraction of main
inspiratory muscles, the volume of
the thoracic cavity is increased in
the frontal, sagittal and vertical
directions.

Inspiration – active process.

 Expiration during quit breathing is
realized passively, inspiratory muscles
relax, the volume of the thorax cavity is
decreased.
During active expiration expiratory
muscles are involved:
1. Abdominal (internal and external
oblique,
straight and transverse abdominal
muscles).
 Lungs are covered by pleura, between the visceral and parietal pleura
there is a gap, in which the pressure is negative.
During quit inspiration: –6 mmHg.
During deep inspiration: –20 mmHg.
During quit expiration: –3 mmHg.
During deep expiration: comes near to 0 mmHg.
 The significance of the negative
intrapleural pressure:
- lungs are in a stretched state;
- venous return is facilitated;
- the movement of lymph in the
thoracic cavity is facilitated;
- movement of food bolus through
the esophagus is provided.
Negative pressure in the pleural
gap depends on lung’s elastic
recoil.
Lung’s elastic recoil – it’s a force
by which lungs tends to
decrease own volume.
 Lung elastic recoil is caused
1. The surface tension of the liquid film
(surfactant), covering the surface of the
alveoli.
2. The presence of the elastic and collagen fibers
in the walls of alveoli.
3. Tones of bronchial muscles.

In case, if air enters into pleural gap is developed

pneumothorax. Pneumothrax – condition of having
air in the thoracic cavity and the outside of the
lungs, lungs are collapsed.
 Pulmonary volume and capacities
Tidal volume (TV): 0.4 – 0.5 L.
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): 1.0 – 1.5 L.
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): 1.5 – 2. 5 L.
VCL – 3.5 –5.0 L (VC depends on sex, age, height)
Residual volume (RV): 1.0 L.
Inspiratory capacity: TV + IRV.
Functional residual capacity(FRC) = ERV+ RV
Total LungCapacaty (TLC) = VC + RV ;
Value of TLC: 4.5 – 6.0 L
 2 stage-Gas exchange in lungs and
tissues
Atmospheric air - a mixture of gases: О2, СО2, N2.
Alveolar air is a gas mixture which fills the alveoli, it is
the internal gas environment of an organism.
Expired air - a mixture of atmospheric and alveolar air.

Composition of gases in air

Type of air О2 СО2 N2
Atmospheric 20,93% 0.03% 79.04%
Expired 16-16.5% 3.5-4% 79.5%
Alveolar 14-14,5% 5,5-6% 80,5%
Pulmonary gas exchange is carried out by diffusion as
a result of the difference in the partial pressure of
these gases in the alveolar air and in the blood .
Partial pressure of gases (mm Hg)
Gase Alveolar Venous Arterial Interstitial fluid
s air blood blood

О2 100- 40 ~100 20-40

110
СО2 40 46 40 60
 Dead space
1. Anatomic dead space
Volume of breathed air that never reaches gas
exchange areas but simply fill respiratory
passages is called dead space.
2. Physiologic dead space.
Physiologic dead space includes anatomic
dead space + alveolar dead space (alveoli in
which gas exchange does not occur).
 Transport of gases by blood

Gases are transported by blood

as:
1. Physical dissolution.
2. Chemical compound.
 Transport of oxygen by blood
At the state of physical dissolution is ~1% of О2 .
Main part of О2 is transported as compound with
erythrocyte’s Hb – oxyhemoglobin (HbО2)
Maximum amount of oxygen that can bind 100 ml
of blood in case of full saturation of hemoglobin
by О2 is called oxygen capacity of the blood.
Value: 18-20 ml О2 /100 ml or180-200 ml О2 /L.
1 g Hb can connect 1.34-1.36 ml of О2,
140 g Hb x 1.34 = 187.6 ml О2 in the 1 litr of
blood.
Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve
 Transport of carbon dioxide by blood
In the dissolved state of 2.5-3%.
In a carbhemoglobin (HbCО ) ~ 4-5%.
2
In the form of salts of carbonic acid 48-51%.

Ions НСО3 - in the plasma to form NaHСО3.

Ions НСО3 - in erythrocytes - KНСО3

Important role in the mechanisms of transport

of CО2 belongs erythrocyte carbonic
anhydrase, which hydrolyze carbonic acid into
CО2 and H2O. CО2 passes into the alveolar air.
 Regulation of Respiration
Regulation of respiration is realized by
reflex and humoral mechanisms.
The localization of the respiratory
center was studied in 1812 Legalua,
Flurens , Mislavsky in 1885.
They used methods of transsection and
irritation and proved that the
respiratory center is in the medulla
oblongata
.
Respiratory Center (RC)- a collection
of nerve structures (a constellation of
nerve centers) located in the various
departments of the CNS.
Main working Center is a bulbar center.
1. Medulla oblongata (automatical center) -
inspiratory and expiratory neurons, which
are located in the dorsal and ventral
nuclei.
Functions of dorsal respiratory group’s
neurones: generate inspiratory action potentials
in steadily increasing ramplike fashion, and
responsible for the basic rhytm of respiration.
Functions of ventral respiratory group’s
neurones: generate inspiratory and expiratory
action potentials.
2. Pons. Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers.
Pneumotaxic Center participates in the
switching phases of the respiratory cycle
(switch-off inspiratory ramp signal ). Thus limits
period of inspiration.
During «turn off the pneumotaxic center»
breathing slows.
Apneustic Center - it regulates
metabolism and tone in the bulbar center.
3. Hypothalamic area also takes part in the
regulation of respiration.
4. Cerebral cortex - adaptation respiration
to changing environmental conditions.
5. Spinal cord – motor-neurons (center s) of
respiratory muscles.
 The tone of the respiratory center is maintaned
by reflex and humoral ways
RC receives afferent impulses from the
mechanoreceptors lungs and airways of the
respiratory muscles.
Humoral regulators of RC are
chemoreceptors
• central (bulbar);
• peripheral.
Central (bulbar) chemoreceptors are sensitive to:
  1. The concentration of H-ions.
  2. CO2 tension in the extracellular fluid of the
brain.

Peripheral chemoreceptors are located in the

blood vessels walls and are sensitive to:
1. Increased of CO2 tension (hypercapnia).
2. Increased concentration of H + ions (acidosis)
3. Decreased of CO2 tension (hypocapnia).
4. Decreased of O2 tension (hypoxemia).
Role of CO2 in the regulation of respiration was
showed in Frederick’s experiment in 1890
Impulses from chemoreceptors thru sinus nerve
going to the dorsal nucleus of medulla exciting
inspiratory neurons.
 Role of the vagi
 The rhythm (rate),and deth of
respiration are controlled by reflexes
from the lugs through the vagi.
 When both the vagi are cut,
respiration becomes slow and deep.
At bilateral transection of the vagus nerve
breathing becomes rare
 Reflex selfregulation of respiration

 Hering and Breuer have cut all the

tissues a dog in the neck area,
saving the spinal cord and n.Vagus,
then made double-sided
pneumothorax, they have observed
chest made deep inspiration, during
inflation of the lungs - expiration.
 The increase in lung volume is caused
three reflex effect:

 The inspiratory-inhibitory reflex.

 The expiratory-facilitating reflex.
 The paradoxical effect of Heda.
 Reflex regulation of respiration
 From the lung stretch receptors (RRL) in afferent
fibers of the vagus nerve impulses going to the
dorsal nuclei. AP frequency in the afferent fibers
of the vagus nerve increases during inspiration
and decreases during expiration
 Irritation receptors are located in subendotelium
and endotelium of layers of walls airways
(volume, chemical substances).
 J-alveolar receptors are in intersticial lung
tissue near the capillares (BAS).
 The mechanism of rhythmic
alternation of inhalation and
exhalation associated with
interchange excitation inspiratory
and expiratory neurons on the
principle of negative feedback.
Regulation of respiration provides:

1. Maintaining arterial blood gases

and brain extracellular fluid.
2. Adaptation of respiration to
changed conditions of the
environment and life activity
of the organism.