BREATHING & EXCHANGE OF GASES

The process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2

produced by the cells is called breathing, commonly known as
respiration.
O2 is utilized by the organisms to break down simple molecules like
glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, etc. to derive energy to perform
various activities.

RESPIRATORY ORGANS
Mechanisms of breathing in organisms vary according to their
habitats and level of organization.
Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc.
respire through ‘simple diffusion’ over their ‘entire body surface’.
Earthworms use their moist cuticle.
Insects have a ‘network of tubes’/‘tracheal tubes’ to transport
atmospheric air throughout their body.
Aquatic arthropods & molluscs use special vascularized structures
called ‘gills’ for branchial respiration.
Terrestrial organisms like humans use vascularized bags called ‘lungs’
for pulmonary respiration.
Amphibians like frogs can respire through lungs (pulmonary
respiration) as well as through their moist skin for cutaneous
respiration.
 HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiratory system arranged :
1. Nostrils
2. Nasal chamber
3. Pharynx
4. Larynx
5. Trachea
6. Bronchi
7. Bronchioles
8. Alveoli
Pharynx is the common passage of food and air.
Epiglottis is a thin cartilaginous flap which covers the glottis during
swallowing to prevent the entry of food into the larynx.
Larynx is a cartilaginous box which helps in sound production. Also
called the ‘sound box’.
Trachea is a straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity.
Trachea dividing at the level of 5th thoracic vertebra into a right
and left primary branches is called bronchi.
The bronchi undergoing repeated divisions to finally form terminal
branches is called bronchioles.
Primary bronchi  secondary and tertiary bronchi  terminal
bronchi
Alveoli are the thin, irregular-walled and vascularised bag-like
structures arising from terminal bronchioles.
The tracheae, primary, secondary & tertiary bronchi and initial
bronchioles are supported by incomplete “cartilaginous rings”.
Lungs comprises of the branching network of :
 Bronchi
 Bronchioles
 Alveoli
Pleura is the double-membraned cover of the lungs filled with
pleural fluid in between.
It reduces friction on the lung surface.
The outer pleural membrane is in close contact with the thoracic
lining, whereas for the inner pleural membrane it’s lung surface.

Respiratory system has two parts :

 Conducting part – part starting from the external nostrils up to
the terminal bronchi.
Transports the atmospheric air to the alveoli,
clears it from foreign particles, humidifies
and brings the air to body temperature.

 Respiratory/Exchange part – part formed of alveoli and their

ducts.
It is the site of actual diffusion of
O2 & CO2 between blood and
atmospheric air.
The lungs are situated in an anatomically air-tight chamber called
thoracic chamber.
It is formed dorsally by the vertebral column, ventrally by sternum,
laterally by the ribs and lower side by the diaphragm.
 MECHANISM OF BREATHING
The movement of air into and out of the lungs is carried out by
creating a pressure gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere.
The diaphragm and intercostal muscles help in the generation of
such gradient.
The intercostal muscles are a set of specialized set of internal &
external muscles found between the ribs.
Breathing has two stages :
 Inspiration – atmospheric air is drawn in
 Expiration – alveolar air is released out
01. Inspiration :
- Contraction of diaphragm
- Increased volume of thoracic chamber in the antero-posterior
axis
- Contraction of external intercostal muscles
- Lifting up of ribs and sternum
- Increased volume of thoracic chamber in the dorso-ventral axis.
- Increase in pulmonary volume
- Decreased intra-pulmonary pressure than the atmospheric
pressure
- Air is drawn in
02. Expiration :
- Relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles
- Returns the sternum and ribs to its normal position
- Reduced pulmonary and thoracic volume
- Increased intra-pulmonary pressure than the atmospheric
pressure
- Expulsion of air
A healthy human breathes 12-16 times per minute.
 EXCHANGE OF GASES
Alveoli is the primary site of gaseous exchange. Blood and tissues
have exchange of gases too. The exchange occurs by simple diffusion
according to pressure/concentration gradient.
Rate of diffusion is affected by :
 Solubility of gases
 Thickness of membrane
Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases is
called partial pressure. It’s pO2 for oxygen & pCO2 for carbon dioxide.
Solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than that of O2. Hence, higher
amount of CO2 is diffused through membrane per unit difference in
partial pressure.
The diffusion membrane is made up of :
 Thin squamous epithelium (alveoli)
 Basement substance
 Endothelium (alveolar capillaries)

(read the respiratory volumes and capacities from the book. Pg-271)

TRANSPORT OF GASES
Blood is the medium of transport for the exchanged gases.
HAEMOGLOBIN is a red coloured iron-containing pigment present
in the RBCs. It can bind with CO2 or O2 in a reversible manner.
Each molecule can carry a maximum of four molecules of O2.
High concentration of carbonic anhydrase (enzyme) is found in RBCs
and minute of it in plasma. Facilitates in the both-sided reaction of
formation and dissociation of carbamino-haemoglobin.
O2 : RBC – 97% as oxyhaemoglobin
Plasma – 3% in dissolved state
CO2 : RBC – 20-25% as carbamino-haemoglobin
70% as bicarbonate
Plasma – 7% in dissolved state

For O2 : Binding of O2 is primarily related to partial pressure of O2. O2

gets bound in the lung surface and dissociated at the tissues. Every
100 mL of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 mL of O2 to the
tissues under normal physiological conditions.
Conditions favourable for the formation of oxyhaemoglobin (alveoli):
- High pO2 - Low pCO2 - Less H+ conc. - Lower temp.
Conditions favourable for the dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin
(tissue):
- Low pO2 - High pCO2 - High H+ conc. - High temp.
A sigmoid curve is obtained when % saturation of haemoglobin with
O2 is plotted against the pO2, called the oxygen dissociation curve.

For CO2 : Binding of CO2 is majorly related to pCO2. CO2 gets bound at
the tissues and dissociated in the lung surface. Every 100 mL of
deoxygenated blood can approximately delivery 4 mL of CO2 to the
alveoli.
At the tissue site, pCO2 is high due to metabolism. CO2 diffuses into
blood, forming HCO3- & H+.
At the alveolar site, pCO2 is low and the reaction proceeds in the
opposite way. Forming CO2 & H2O.

REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
The neural system regulates the respiratory processes.
Respiratory rhythm centre is a specialized centre present in the
medulla region of the brain, primarily responsible for respiratory
regulation. (also called medullary inspiratory centre) [reduces
duration of inspiration]
Pneumotaxic centre present in the lower pons region of the brain
moderates the function of the ‘rhythm centre’ by increasing the
inspiratory rate or duration. (also called apneustic centre)
A chemosensitive area is located adjacent to rhythm centre is highly
sensitive to H+ and CO2 ions. Increase in these substances activates
this area.
The receptors associated with the aortic arch & carotid artery and
the chemosensitive area sends necessary signals to pneumotaxic
centre for making necessary adjustments in the respiratory process,
for the regulation of H+ and CO2 concentration levels.
(refer to disorders from the book, pg-275)
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