EVERETT B. WOODRUFF HERBERT B. LAMMERS THOMAS F. LAMMERSSteam Plant Operation Everett B. Woodruff Herbert B. Lammers Thomas F. Lammers Ninth Edition New York Chicago San Franci Mexico City Milan Singapore Sydney TorontoMcGraw-Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. To contact a representative, please e-mail us at bulksales@megraw-hill.com. Steam Plant Operation, Ninth Edition Copyright © 2012, 2005, 1998, 1992, 1984, 1977, 1967, 1950, 1935 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Alll rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 4567890 DOC/DOC 176543 ISBN 978-0-07-166796-8 MHID 0-07-166796-2 This book is printed on acid-free paper. ‘Sponsoring Editor Acquisitions Coordinator Proofreader Michael Penn Bridget L. Thoreson Laura Bowman Editing Supervisor Project Manager Art Director, Cover Stephen M. Smith Tania Andrabi, Jeff Weeks Cenveo Publisher Services Production Supervisor ‘Composition Pamela A. Pelton Copy Editors Cenveo Publisher Services ‘Sheena Uprety and Ridhi Mathur, ‘Cenveo Publisher Services Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Ine. (°MeGraw-Hil) from sources believed to be reliable, However, nether McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any {information published herein, and neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, of slamages arising out of use ofthis information. This work is published with the understanding that MeGrav-Hill and its ‘authors ae supplying information but are not atiempting to render engineering or other professional services such services {re require, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought.Preface 1 Steam and Its Importance. 1a 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1.10 Questions and Problems 2. Boilers 24 2.2 25 26 27 28 29 Introduction The Use of Steam. The Steam-Plant Cycle The Power Plant Utility Boilers for Electric Power 15.1 Coal-Fired Boilers 15.2 Oil-and Gas-Fired Boilers 153. Steam Considerations 154 Boiler Feedwater Industrial and Small Power Plants 1.6.1 Fluidized Bed Boilers U6. Coble Cy ae Cogeneration Systems Solar Power * Wind Power Power Plant Costs Summary The Boiler Fundamentals of Steam Generation 221 Boiling 22.2. Circulation 223. Steam-Water Separation Fire-Tube Boilers Water-Tube Boilers 24.1 High-Temperature Water (HTW) Boilers 24.2 Comparison of Fire- and Water-Tube Boilers Steam-Water Separation Principles of Heat Transfer Superheaters Superheat Steam Temperature Control 2.8.1 Attemperation 2.82. Flue Gas Bypass 2.83. Flue Gas Recirculation Heat-Recovery Equipment SSBRRRRS eeContents 2.10 211 212 213 2414 215 2.16 247 2.18 2.19 2.20 Questions and Problems 3 Design and Construction of Boilers... 31 3.2 33 34 35 3.6 37 3.8 39 Furnace Design Considerations Furnace Construction Industrial and Utility Boilers Considerations for Coal Firing 2.13.1 Spreader Stokers 2.13.2 Pulverized-Coal Firing . 2.133 Stoker versus Pulverized-Coal Firing Pressurized versus Balanced-Draft Boiler Designs Fluidized Bed Boilers bebobea 215.1 TheProcess .... 2.15.2 Comparison with Pulverized-Coal and Stoker Firing 2.15.3 Advantages of Fluidized Bed Combustion 2.154 Descriptions of Fluidized Bed Boilers ...... 2.15.5 Emissions Control with Fluidized Bed Boilers 2.15.6 Bed Material .......... . 215.7 Heat Transfer ......... Boiler Applications for Biomass Fuels Modern Coal-Fired Plants—Summary Process Steam and Its Application \....... Combined Cycle and Cogeneration Syetems Nuclear Steam Generation . Materials Used in Boiler Construction Stresses in Tubes and Drums Drum Construction Welded Construction Structural Support Components Manholes, Handholes, and tings Boiler Assembly - Heating Surface and Capacity Boiler Capacity Calculation Questions and Problems 4 Combustion of Fuels .........060665 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 The Combustion Proce The Theory of Combustion The Air Sepply Coal Fuel Oil Gas... 4.6.1 Gas Hydrates By-Product Fuels 76 2 100 101 101 102 102 103 104 104 105 106 17 19 9 120 121 122 122 128 137 139 139) 142 146 148, 152 153 154 156 158 164 167 167 171 182 188 201 206 2084.8 Control of the Combustion Process Questions and Problems 5. Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxi 5.1 Boiler Settings veces 5.2. Hand Firing 53° Stokers ... 53.1 Underfeed Stokers 53.2. Overfeed Stokers 54 Pulverized Coal 5.4.1 Contact Mills 54.2 Ball Mills 54.3 Impact Mills 544 Mill Feeders 54.5 Gravimetric Feeders 5.4.6 Burners 547 Lighters .. . 54.8 Flame Safety System 54.9 Operation 5.5 Fuel Oil ise 4 5549 atop noe 55.1 Steam- or Air-Atomizing Burners 55.2 Pressure-Type Burners 55.3 Oil Burning Characteristics 5.6 Gas : 57 Oil- and Gas-Firing Safety Precautions 5.8 Automatic Operation of Boilers 59 Stacks ...... 5.10 Mechanical Draft: Fans 5.11 Steam and Air Jets 5.12. Fluesand Ducts. 5.13 Ash Handling Systems Questions and Problems 6 Boiler Accessories. ....... 6.1 Water Columns cee 6.2. Pressure Measurement ...... 6.3 Temperature Measurement 64 Feedwater Control System 65. Safety Valves . 66 Blowdown Equipment 67 Nonreturn Valves 68 Steam Piping 6.9 Sootblowers 6.10. Valves 6.11 Instruments and Power Plant Automation ‘Questions and Problems Contents 210 217 219 219 221 223 224 225 243 246 + 307 307 314 316 316 324 337 339 339 345, 349 359xii Contents 7 Operation and Maintenance of Boilers 7.1 Boiler Startup 7.2. Normal Operation povooDbeeoseoHe 7.2.1 Combustion Control boaeesen once 7.2.2. Ash Handling : 7.2.3 Water Supply . 7.24 Boiler Efficiency ; 7.2.5. Insulation and Lagging 73. Operating Characteristics of Fluidized Bed Boilers 7.3.1 Circulating Fluid Bed (CFB) Boilers 73.2. Bubbling Fluid Bed (BFB) Boilers 7.4 Abnormal Operation ; 75 Idle Boilers 7.6 Maintenance 77 Boiler Internal Inspection. 78 Evaluating the Condition of a Boiler 7.9 Making Repairs . . 7.10 Inspection and Maintenance Requirements of Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HIRSGs) cee Questions and Problems 8.1 Pumps 8.2. Injectors 83 Duplex Pumps 84 Power Pumps 85 Vacuum Pumps 8.6 Rotary Pumps 5 87 Centrifugal Pumps . 88 Facts about Fluids and Pumping... 89 Factors Affecting Pump Operation .. 8.10 Considerations for Pump Selection 8.11 Pump Installation and Operation 8.12 Pump Testing and Calculations 8.13 Pump Maintenance ‘Questions and Problems 9 Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers .. 9.1 Steam Turbines 9.1.1 Turbine Types and Applications 9.1.2 Turbine Stage Design .. 9.13 Major Components of a Turbine 9.2. Turbine Design and Construction 9.2.1 Thrust Bearing 92.2 Packing Z 9.23. Governors 9.24 Lubrication 361 361 365 365 366 376 379 379 380 381 381 384 387 304 396 397 400 401 405 406 406 407 408 au 412 415 426 427 429 430 432 436 440 443, 443, 454 455 460 469 470 471 475Contents 9.2.5 Turbine Control 4 477 9.2.6 Erection of the Steam Turbine 477 9.2.7 Relief Valves for Turbines 480 9.2.8 Turbine Piping 481 9.3. Electric Generators 481 9.4 Condensers _ 484 94.1 Surface Condensers 485 94.2. Air-Cooled Condensers 488 943. Condenser Materials and Construction... .... 489 95 Cooling Towers .... 491 9.5.1 Types of Cooling Towers 492 9.5.2. Design Considerations 499 9.5.3. Materials of Construction 500 9.6 Condenser Auxiliaries 500 Questions and Problems... 502 10 Operating and Maintaining Steam Turbines, Condensers, Cooling Towers, and Auxiliaries .... 505 101 Turbines .. 505 10.1.1 Turbine Operation 510 10.1.2 Turbine Maintenance 513 10.1.3 Turbine Performance 517 10.2 Condensers 2.22.0... 518 10.2.1 Surface Condenser Operation 519 10.2.2 Surface Condenser Maintenance ..... 520 10.2.3 Air-Cooled Steam Condenser Operation 522 103 Cooling Towers Ee 523 10.3.1 Operation of Cooling Towers 524 10.3.2 Maintenance of Cooling Towers 527 104 Auxiliaries 528 104.1 Traveling Screens | 528 10.4.2 Pumps tees 529 104.3 Steam-Jet Ejectors and Vacuum Pumps 529 10.44 Vacuum Gauges .........0.. ‘Questions and Problems vies 11 Auxiliary Steam-Plant Equipment ......... 533 11.1 Condensate System Ba 534 11.2. Feedwater Heaters 536 11.2.1 Closed Feedwater Heaters : 536 11.22 Open Feedwater Heaters (Deaerators) 539 11.23. Operation and Maintenance of Feedwater Heaters. 551 113. Condensate Polishing Systems 551 114 Raw Water Treatment 553 11.4.1 Ion-Exchange Water Conditioners 554 11.42 Evaporators 557 115 Boiler Blowdown 559xiv Contents 11.6 Piping System 117. Steam Traps 118 Pipeline Separators and Strainers 574, 11.9 Lubricants and Lubricating Devices 576 Questions and Problems .....66-+es0000+ 582 12 Environmental Control Systems 585 12.1 Introduction 585 122 Environmental Considerations 585 123 Sources of Plant Emissions cee 585 124 Available Technologies for the Control of Emissions... 588 12.4.1 SO, Control 588 124.2 NO, Control 588 12.4.3 Particulate Control... 589) 1244 Control of Carbon Dioxide (CO) 590 125 Regulatory Requirements ........ 592 126 Particulate and Sulfur Dioxide Removal Requirements 594 12.6.1 Particulate Removal 594 12.62 Sulfur Dioxide Removal 596 126.3 Industrial Boilers .. 597 127. Equipment for Particulate Emission Control 598 127.1 Mechanical Collectors... 598 12.7.2. Electrostatic Precipitators 599 12.73 Bag Filterhouses 606 128 Equipment for Sulfur Dioxide Scrubber Systems 61 128.1 WetScrubbers .- et 1282 Dry Scrubbers. 616 625 129 Systems for Control of Nitrogen Oxides 0, ) Questions and Problems =" 5 13 Waste-to-Energy Plants 13.1 Introduction 132 Waste Disposal—A Worldwide Problem 13.3. Potential Energy from MSW 13.4 Landfills 13.5 Solid Waste Composition 13.6 Types of Energy-Recovery Teehnologis 639 13.7 Mass Burning. , 640 138 Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) Burning... 649 139. Operation and Maintenance of Refuse Boilers 655, 13.10 Recycling ; 658 13.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Recycling, 659 13.10.2_ Economics and Quality Products from Recycling 660 13.11 Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) 661 13.12 Waste-to-Energy Plants and Recycling 668 Questions and Problems .......-.0++ ; 669)