Mod03-Lec04 Ion Exchange

ION EXCHANGE
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Contents
5.1 Fundamentals .............................................................................................................. 4
5.1.1 Development and History of Ion Exchange ............................................. 5
5.1.2 Ion Exchange Resin ....................................................................................... 6
5.1.2.1 Resin .................................................................................................... 6
5.1.2.2 Functional Groups ............................................................................ 7
5.1.2.3 Forms .................................................................................................... 9
5.1.2.4 Selectivity .......................................................................................... 10
5.1.2.5 Process Water .................................................................................... 11
5.1.2.6 Regeneration..................................................................................... 17
5.1.2.7 Strong Acid Cation (SAC) Resin .................................................. 18
5.1.2.8 Strong Base Anion (SBA) Resin ................................................... 22
5.1.2.9 Weak Acid Cation (WAC) Resin ................................................... 26
5.1.2.10 Weak Base Anion (WBA) Resin .................................................... 27
5.1.2.11 Organic Scavenging Resins ........................................................... 29
5.1.2.12 Weak/Strong Anion Resin ............................................................. 30
5.1.2.13 Inert Resin......................................................................................... 30
5.1.3 Process Water ................................................................................................ 31
5.1.3.1 Strong Acids and Bases .................................................................. 31
5.1.3.2 Weak Acids and Weak Bases ......................................................... 32
5.1.4 Service Cycle ................................................................................................ 32
5.1.4.1 Application ....................................................................................... 32
5.1.4.2 (SAC) Ion Exchange Unit – Hydrogen Form .............................. 33
5.1.4.3 (SBA) Ion Exchange Unit – Hydroxide Form ............................. 34
5.1.4.4 (SAC) Ion Exchange Unit – Sodium Form .................................. 35
5.1.4.5 (SBA) Ion Exchange Unit – Chloride Form ................................ 35
5.1.4.6 (WAC) Ion Exchange Unit – Hydrogen Form ............................. 36
5.1.4.7 (WBA) Ion Exchange Unit – Free Base Form .............................. 37
5.1.5 Regeneration .............................................................................................. 38
5.1.6 Special Concerns for Ion Exchange Performance ................................. 38
5.1.6.1 Effects of Cation Leakage on Anion Performance .................... 38
5.1.6.2 Practical Considerations for Ion Exchange Performance ........ 39
34a_m5_r0 5-1 Ion Exchange

5.1.7 Process Overview ........................................................................................ 39
5.1.8 Equipment Design ...................................................................................... 43
5.1.8.1 Resin .................................................................................................. 43
5.1.8.2 Basic Design Vessel ......................................................................... 45
5.1.8.2.1 Manways ........................................................................... 45
5.1.8.2.2 Sightglasses ...................................................................... 45
5.1.8.2.3 Internals ............................................................................. 46
5.1.8.2.4 Lining ................................................................................. 46
5.1.8.2.5 Piping ................................................................................. 46
5.1.8.2.6 Valves ................................................................................. 47
5.1.8.2.7 Instrumentation ............................................................... 47
5.1.9 Resources ...................................................................................................... 48
5.2 Co-Current Ion Exchange Units ............................................................................ 49

5.2.1 Process and Operations Overview ........................................................... 49
5.2.2 Equipment Design and Options .............................................................. 55
5.2.3 Application and Design ............................................................................. 55
5.2.3.1 Application ....................................................................................... 55
5.2.3.2 Design ................................................................................................ 56
5.2.3.2.1 Process Design Parameters ............................................ 56
5.2.3.2.2 Calculation Methodology .............................................. 65
5.2.3.2.3 Example Calculation ....................................................... 68
5.3 Split-Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Units .............................................. 70

5.3.3.1 Application ....................................................................................... 80
5.3.3.2 Design ................................................................................................ 80
5.3.3.2.2 Calculation Methodology .............................................. 86
5.3.3.2.3 Example Calculation ....................................................... 89
5.4 Packed Bed Ion Exchange Units ............................................................................ 91

5.4.3.1 Application ....................................................................................... 99
5.4.3.2 Design ................................................................................................ 99
5.4.3.2.2 Calculation Methodology ............................................ 104
5.4.3.2.3 Example Calculation ..................................................... 107

5.5 Mixed Bed Exchangers .......................................................................................... 109
5.5.1 Process and Operations Overview ......................................................... 109
5.5.2 Equipment Design and Options ............................................................ 121
5.5.3 Application and Design ........................................................................... 122
5.5.3.1 Application ..................................................................................... 122
5.5.3.2 Design .............................................................................................. 122
5.5.3.2.1 Process Design Parameters .......................................... 122
5.6 Cation Polisher ....................................................................................................... 132

5.6.3.1 Application ..................................................................................... 138
5.6.3.2 Design .............................................................................................. 138
5.6.2.3.4 Expected Results ............................................................ 140
5.7 Counter-Current Layered Bed Ion Exchange Unit ........................................... 141

5.7.2 Equipment and Design Options ............................................................ 150
5.7.3.1 Application ..................................................................................... 151
5.7.3.2 Design .............................................................................................. 151
5.8 Sandwich Packed Bed Exchangers ..................................................................... 160

5.8.3.1 Application ..................................................................................... 168
5.8.3.2 Design .............................................................................................. 168

Ion Exchange
Resin Bed
Figure 5.1-2: Ion Exchange Unit
34a_m5_r0 5-4a Ion Exchange

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Module 5
ION EXCHANGE
5.1 Fundamentals
Ion exchange is the giving and receiving of ions between an ion exchange material
and a process liquid. It takes place as the process liquid flows through the ion
exchange material. Mobile ions on the ion exchange material are exchanged with
ions in the process fluid. For water treatment applications, the ion exchange material
is a resin and the process fluid is water.
Ion exchange resin, shown below in Figure 5.1-1, is an activated, synthetic, organic,
copolymer matrix comprised of porous beads with a typical diameter of 0.4 – 1.2 mm
(0.01 - 0.04 inch). Ion exchange resin beads (several hundred thousand per cubic
inch) are placed in a pressure vessel to make the ion exchange resin bed. The ion
exchange resin bed and pressure vessel, with associated face piping, valves, and
instruments, comprise an ion exchange unit, as shown on the opposite page in
Figure 5.1-2. As process water passes through the unit, undesirable ions are
exchanged for the mobile (and more desirable) ions in the resin. When the ion
exchange resin bed can no longer remove undesirable ions, it is exhausted. It must
then be regenerated before it is able to remove ions again.
courtesy of Rohm & Haas
Figure 5.1-1: Ion Exchange Resin

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Ion exchange (IX) is the traditional method for softening and for the removal of
dissolved solids (ions) to low part per million (ppm) concentrations in high purity
water treatment applications. It competes with reverse osmosis for the job of
“working” deionizer (also called demineralizer). A working demineralizer removes
the largest portion, about 95% - 99.9%, of dissolved solids. The remainder is
removed by a “polishing” demineralizer.
Several types of ion exchange resins are available for the treatment of process waters.
The selection of an ion exchange resin for a particular application is based on the
process water analysis and the treatment objective: deionization (demineralization),
softening, dealkalization, or organic scavenging (organic matter removal). There are
also numerous pressure vessel configurations. Ion exchange resins and pressure
vessel configurations are compared to determine the most appropriate ion exchange
units for each treatment application. This section of the training module considers
the spectrum of ion exchange resins and pressure vessel configurations available for
the treatment of process waters.
5.1.1 Development and History of Ion Exchange
Two Englishmen, Thompson and Way, first recognized the process of ion exchange in
1850. They reported that when a fertilizer solution was poured over a column of soil,
ammonia in the fertilizer solution was replaced by calcium from the soil. Ion
exchange was not used for any industrial application until 1905. At that time, a
German chemist, Gans, used a synthetic sodium aluminosilicate cation exchange
material called zeolite in water softeners. Gans’ water softeners exchanged sodium
ions in the zeolite for both the calcium and magnesium ions in the water, softening
water by removing these hardness ions.
A naturally occurring zeolite called greensand later replaced synthetic aluminosilicate

for use in softeners. Greensand has greater physical strength than aluminosilicate,
which made it more suitable for industrial applications.
In 1944, strong acid cation (SAC) exchange resin was produced by copolymerization
of styrene and divinylbenzene. The styrene-divinylbenzene (S-DVB) copolymer is
very stable and has more capacity for ion exchange than greensand. A styrene-
divinylbenzene strong base anion (SBA) exchange resin was developed in 1948. It
was capable of removing all anions, including silicic and carbonic acids (silica and
carbon dioxide in water, respectively). Many modifications have been made to the
copolymer structure of the original SAC and SBA styrene-divinylbenzene ion
exchange resins since 1948. These modifications have been made in an attempt to
meet specific industrial needs and to provide increased resin life.

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Mobile Ion
Functional
Group
Polymer
Chain
Adapted from Applebaum

Cross-link
Figure 5.1-3: Ion Exchange Resin Bead Structure

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5.1.2 Ion Exchange Resin
5.1.2.1 Resin
Ion exchange resin beads are made of a copolymer matrix. The matrix is created by
the polymerization of two organic compounds; one compound is the chain and one
is the cross-link, as shown on the opposite page in Figure 5.1-3. A number of
compounds can be used for the chains and cross-links, producing resins with
different qualities. There are four main types of resin used in ion exchange: strong
acid cation (SAC), strong base anion (SBA), weak acid cation (WAC), and weak base
anion (WBA). Each type of resin consists of a copolymer matrix. To be capable of
exchanging ions, the copolymer matrix must have attached functional groups. If the
matrix as created does not possess functional groups, they must be added in a
separate processing step called activation.
As process water passes through the ion exchange resin bed, ions in the process
water encounter individual resin beads. Ion exchange takes place at the functional
groups located on the surface of, and throughout the interior of, the resin bead, as
shown below in Figure 5.1-4.
Process Displaced
Water Ion Mobile Ion
Polymer Chain
Cross-link
Figure 5.1-4: Ion Exchange at Functional Group

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Mobile Ion

Functional
Group
Polymer Chain
Cross-link
Copolymer
Copolymer Process
Matrix
Process Matrix Water Ion
Water Ion
Fixed Ion Fixed Ion
Exchange Exchange
Site Site
Dissociated
Mobile Ion Dissociated
Mobile Ion
Figure 5.1-5: Ion Exchange, Before and After

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In addition to removing process water ions, anion resins also remove non-ionic
process water organics by absorption into individual ion exchange resin beads and
adsorption onto the surface of individual resin beads. Over time, organics cause the
anion resin beads, and the anion resin bed, to lose ion exchange capacity,
necessitating the early replacement of the resin bed. When there is a high
concentration of organics in the process water, ion exchange units with organic
scavenging resin beds are used prior to the working demineralizer to prevent this
premature replacement of the anion resin.
5.1.2.2 Functional Groups
Strong resins can remove more ions from process water than weak resins can. The
characteristics of the functional groups determine which ions can be removed from
the process water. Functional groups are either strong or weak, as discussed in the
next section. Strong groups are present in SAC and SBA resin. Weak groups are
present in WAC and WBA resin.
The functional groups in SAC, SBA, and WAC resin beads have two parts: a fixed, or
immobile, ion exchange site and a mobile ion. The functional groups for WBA resin
have only one part (called a free base). The functional group is attached to the
copolymer matrix, as shown on the previous page in Figure 5.1-4. The functional
group makes ion exchange possible and determines the type of resin (weak/strong,
cation/anion). Functional groups either occur naturally, as a by-product of the
polymerization technique (as in WAC resin), or have to be added to the copolymer
matrix (as in SAC, SBA, and WBA resins) in a process called activation. During ion
exchange, dissociated mobile ions of resin bead functional groups exchange with
process water ions, as shown on the opposite page in Figure 5.1-5.
Functional groups are either strong or weak; the strength of functional groups is
determined by the degree of dissociation, or separation, of the mobile ions from the
fixed ion exchange sites. The strength of a resin, or the resin beads, is determined by
the strength of its functional groups and the availability of mobile ions for ion
exchange. In strong resins, the strong functional groups completely dissociate,
making all mobile ions available for exchange. Weak resins can have functional
groups that do not dissociate at all, or that only partially dissociate, with only a small
percentage of the mobile ions available for exchange.

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Figure 5.1-7: WBA Free Base Functional Group Before and After Molecule Exchange

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WAC resins are weak, with functional groups that only partially dissociate, while
WBA resin functional groups are weak and do not dissociate at all. SCA and SBA are
strong resins, having resin bead functional groups that completely dissociate, as
shown below in Figure 5.1-6.
Strong Functional Groups (SAC, SBA) Complete Dissociation
(Fixed Ion Exchange Site)(Mobile Ion) (Fixed Ion Exchange Site) + (Mobile Ion)
Weak Functional Groups (WAC) Partial Dissociation
(Fixed IX Sites)(Mobile Ions) (Fixed IX Site)(Mobile Ion) + (Fixed IX Site) + (Mobile Ion)
most some
Undisocciated Functional Dissociated Functional

Groups Groups
Figure 5.1-6: Dissociation Equations
The free base functional groups of WBA resin beads do not dissociate. The free base
consists of a pair of free electrons, which provide the force of attraction for a polar
water molecule. Rather than exchanging ions with the process water, the free base
functional group exchanges a water molecule that is associated with the free base for
a strong acid (hydrochloric and sulfuric) molecule from the process water. This
process is illustrated on the opposite page in Figure 5.1-7.
As shown in the figure, the exchange reaction alters the form of the WBA functional
group. Because the WBA free base functional groups do not exchange ions with the
process water, WBA resin is not a true ion exchange resin, even though it
demineralizes the process water. Further details regarding the exchange reactions for
hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid are provided in Section 5.1.2.10.

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5.1.2.3 Forms
The form of the resin is defined by the mobile ion in the functional group. If the
mobile ion is hydrogen, the resin is in the hydrogen form; if the mobile ion is
sodium, the resin is in the sodium form; if the mobile ion is hydroxide, the resin is in
the hydroxide form; and if the mobile ion is chloride, the resin is in the chloride form.
If there is no mobile ion, the resin is in the free base form. The four resin types,
along with the common forms in which they are used, is given in Table 5.1-1. SAC
resin is furnished in the hydrogen form or the sodium form. SBA resin is furnished
in the hydroxide form or the chloride form. WAC resin is furnished in the hydrogen
form, but not the sodium form (because it is a weak resin). WBA resin is furnished in
the free base form.
Resin Type Mobile Ion Form
SAC H+ Hydrogen
SAC Na+ Sodium
WAC H+ Hydrogen
SBA OH - Hydroxide
SBA Cl- Chloride
WBA None Free Base
Table 5.1-1: Resin Forms
Strong acid cation (SAC) resin which is to be used for softening (removal of calcium
and magnesium) is typically purchased in the sodium form. The resin is
manufactured in the hydrogen form and then converted to the sodium form before
shipment to the end-user. For deionization applications, SAC resin is furnished in
the hydrogen form.
Strong base anion (SBA) resin is manufactured in the chloride form. This form is the
least expensive and is purchased for many applications. For installations requiring
deionization ability before a first regeneration (occasional anion exchange unit and
some mixed bed units), the resin manufacturers can pre-regenerate the anion resin at
the factory and ship it in the hydroxide form.

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5.1.2.4 Selectivity
Selectivity is the affinity, or attraction, of a resin functional group for the various ions
(or acids in the case of WBA resins) in process water. With the exception of WBA
resins in the free base form, selectivity refers to the stability of the electrostatic
interaction between a fixed ion exchange site in the functional group and the specific
process water ion with which it bonds. For WBA resins in the free base form,
selectivity refers to the stability of the bond that forms between a specific acid
molecule in the process water and a free base functional group. Selectivity primarily
depends on ion valence. Valence is the charge of an ion. For example, Ca2+ has a +2
charge, so its valence is +2. In cation resin, the order of the selective hierarchy is
calcium, then magnesium, and then sodium, as shown below in Table 5.1-2. In
anion resin, the order of the selective hierarchy is sulfate, chloride, bicarbonate, and
silica, as shown in Table 5.1-3. The manner in which ions are removed in resin is
discussed in the section on process water, below, and Sections 5.1.4.2 through
5.1.4.7.
Strong Base
Anion Exchange Resin
PO43-
SO42-
Strong Acid
Cation Exchange Resin SO32-
Fe3+ HPO42-
Al3+ B4O72-
Ba2+ HSO4-
Sr2+ ClO4-
Fe2+ NO3-
Mn2+ HSO3-
Ca2+ B(OH)4-
Mg2+ NO21-
K+ Cl-
Na+ HCO3-
H+ HSiO3-
Li1+ OH-
Table 5.1-2: Strong Acid Cation Resin Table 5.1-3: Strong Base Anion
Selectivity Resin Selectivity

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5.1.2.5 Process Water
Selectivity is not the only important factor in the performance of ion exchange resin.
An ion (or acid molecule) in the process water must reach the functional group of an
ion exchange resin bead before selectivity is considered. The ability of an ion to
reach the functional groups is dependent on the ion’s hydrated size. As discussed in
Module 2, polar water molecules become associated with each ion, forming complex
molecules that are much larger than the original ions. Figure 5.1-8 illustrates the
increase in size a sodium ion undergoes when it is hydrated.
Electrostricted Zone
“Cluster” Zone “Free Water”
Figure 5.1-8: Hydrated Sodium Ion

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Nearly all functional groups (99.9%) are located inside the resin beads, rather than
on the surface. The hydrated size of an ion (or acid molecule) in water determines its
ability to diffuse into the porous bead, reach a functional group, and exchange with a
mobile ion. The larger the hydrated size of the ion, the longer it takes process water
ions to reach functional groups inside the resin bed beads. The hydrated size of an
ion is a function of its hydration number, or its ability to attract water molecules. The
hydration numbers of some common ions are listed in Table 5.1-4.
For ion exchange to occur, the process Hydration Numbers

water must be in contact with the resin of a Few Common Ions
bed long enough for process water ions
Range of
to diffuse into the resin beads, reach the Typical
Ion Reported
Value
functional groups, and exchange (react) Values
with the mobile ions (or the free base).
Na+ 2 - 70 4
The required contact time between the
process water and the resin bead is the K+ 0.6 - 20 4
kinetic value. As the hydrated ion size
Mg2+ 6 - 36 12
(radius) of process water ions increases,
the kinetic value (contact time) increases. Ca2+ 4 - 29 8
2-
SO4
1 - 12 12
Kinetic value is higher for ions of higher
valence. For example, process water must Table 5.1-4: Hydration Numbers of a
be in contact with the resin bed longer for Few Common Ions
2+
the removal of magnesium ions (Mg )
than for the removal of sodium ions (Na+). A magnesium ion has approximately 12
water molecules attached to it when it is dissolved in water. A sodium ion has only 4
water molecules attached to it when dissolved in water. Magnesium ions have a
higher charge (+2) than sodium (+1) and therefore attract and hold a larger number
of water molecules than sodium. Since magnesium ions attract more water
molecules, they have a larger hydrated size than sodium ions. A longer contact time
between the process water and resin is required for the exchange of magnesium ions
than is required for the exchange of sodium ions. This results in a higher kinetic
value for magnesium.

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Process Water
Copolymer Sodium Ion Copolymer Process Water
Matrix Matrix Sodium Ion
Fixed Ion Fixed Ion

Exchange Exchange
Site Site
Dissociated
Mobile Ion
Process Water Copolymer

Copolymer
Magnesium Ion Matrix Process Water
Matrix
Magnesium Ion
Fixed Ion
Exchange
Fixed Ion Site
Exchange
Site
Dissociated
Mobile Ion
Figure 5.1-9: Functional Group Ion Exchange

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When process water ions finally reach the resin bead functional groups to be
exchanged for mobile ion(s), selectivity becomes the most important factor in the ion
exchange dynamics. Selectivity depends on ion valence. Ions of higher valence
exchange with more mobile ions than do lower valence ions, as shown on the
opposite page in Figure 5.1-9. Because they exchange with more mobile ions,
higher valence ions are more tightly held by the resin bead than are lower valence
ions. Because the resin beads hold these higher valence ions more tightly, the resin
beads, and hence the resin, are said to have a higher selectivity for higher valence
ions.
In summary, process water ions with higher valence attract and hold more water
molecules when dissolved. This gives them a larger hydrated size. Because of the
larger hydrated size, ions of higher valence require a longer contact time with a resin
bead to be exchanged at a functional group. This means that they have a higher
kinetic value. Higher valence ions exchange with more functional group mobile ions.
This causes them to be more
tightly held in a resin bead.
Because higher valence ions
are more tightly held, the resin
has higher selectivity for them.
Higher valence ions have a
higher selectivity, but they
require more time for
exchange than ions with lower Resin Bed
valence.
The above discussion

addresses ion exchange within
an individual ion exchange
resin bead. The following
discussion covers ion exchange
in a resin bed. When an ion
exchange unit begins to treat
process water, all of the
functional groups on all of the
resin beads in the resin bed
have mobile ions (or free
bases) available for ion
exchange. At the beginning of
the service cycle, the ion
exchange resin is free of any
process water ions, as shown Figure 5.1-10: Beginning of the Service Cycle
on the right in Figure 5.1-10.

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As process water begins to flow through the resin bed, +1 valence process water ions
(such as sodium in cation resin or chloride in anion resin) are removed first, because
they reach the resin bead interior functional groups more quickly than the +2 valence
process water ions (such as calcium in cation resin or sulfate in anion resin). As
these ions are removed from the process water, they form a band at the top of the
resin bed, as shown in Figure 5.1-11.
+1 Valence Ions
Exchanged for
Mobile Ions
+1 Ion and Process

Water Exhaustion Line
Mobile Ions
Figure 5.1-11: Early in the Service Cycle

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Later in the service cycle, +2 valence process water ions reach the functional groups
that the +1 ions reached earlier. The resin bed has higher selectivity for higher
valence ions, so the +1 ions that were bonded to the fixed exchange sites earlier in
the cycle are exchanged for the +2 ions in the process water. The +1 valence ions are
returned to the process water and travel farther into the resin bed. The +1 valence
ions are again exchanged for mobile ions farther down in the resin bed, where they
are not competing with +2 valence ions. Figure 5.1-12 shows the resin bed with two
bands, one of +1 valence ions, and one of +2 valence ions. The +2 band contains the
+2 ions that replaced the +1 ions that were initially removed from the process water.
The band of +1 ions is farther down in the ion bed because the functional groups of
the resin exhibit lower selectivity for the ions with a valence of +1.
+2 Valence Ions Exchanged

for +1 Valence Ions
+2 Ion
Exhaustion Line
+1 Valence Ions
Exchanged for Mobile
Ions +1 Ion and
Process Water
Exhaustion Line
Mobile Ions
Figure 5.1-12: Later in the Service Cycle

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As the service cycle progresses, more process water ions are removed, and the +1
band and the +2 band widen and move farther down the resin bed. At the end of
the service cycle, only a small band of mobile ions remains at the bottom of the resin
bed, as shown in Figure 5.1-13.
+2 Valence Ions
Exchanged for +1
Valence Ions
+2 Ion
+1 Valence Ions Exhaustion
Line
Exchanged for
Mobile Ions
+1 Ion and Process Water
Exhaustion Line
Mobile Ions
Figure 5.1-13: End of the Service Cycle

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The leading edge of the +1 valence band is the exhaustion line for both the process
water and the +1 ions. The exhaustion line marks the division between resin that is
exhausted (has given up its mobile ions for +1 valence process water ions) and resin
that is available for ion exchange (has not given up its mobile ions). The leading
edge of the band containing the +2 ions is the exhaustion line for the +2 ions. It
marks the division between resin that is exhausted to +2 valence process water ions
and resin that is exhausted to +1 valence process water lines. These exhaustion ions
are labeled in Figures 5.1-11 through 5.1-13. For simplicity, the exhaustion lines are
illustrated using precise boundaries; in working resin beds, the exhaustion lines are
blurred boundaries.
5.1.2.6 Regeneration
When all of the ion exchange beads in the resin bed have exchanged all of their
mobile ions for process water ions, the resin bed is exhausted and must be
regenerated. Regeneration chemicals are pumped through the resin bed to
regenerate it. Acid (sulfuric or hydrochloric) is used to regenerate cation resin, and
caustic (sodium hydroxide) is used to regenerate anion resin. These chemicals
provide new mobile ions, hydroxide (OH-) or hydrogen (H+), for all of the resin bead
functional groups in the resin bed. The new mobile ions exchange with the process
water ions attached to the resin bead functional groups. This exchange is possible
because the concentration of mobile ions in the regeneration chemical is much
higher than the concentration of process water ions in the resin. Although the
regenerant mobile ions are last in the selectivity hierarchy, the high concentration of
these ions in the regeneration chemical overrides the resin’s selectivity, allowing the
mobile ions to exchange with the process water ions.

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5.1.2.7 Strong Acid Cation (SAC) Resin
SAC resin beads are made from styrene and divinylbenzene. They are known as
DVB-S (divinylbenzene-styrene) resins. Although other types of resin exist, DVB-S is
predominant in all industrial applications. Figure 5.1-14 shows the molecular
structure of styrene and divinylbenzene, and the cross-linked copolymer matrix.

Figure 5.1-14: Styrene and Divinylbenzene Molecules
DVB-S resins are produced by suspension copolymerization. This process starts with
the addition of two non-polar liquids, styrene and divinylbenzene, to water. These
two oil-like substances mix with each other but are insoluble in water. A small
amount of detergent is added and the solution is agitated, causing the
divinylbenzene and styrene mixture to form small droplets in the water.
Polymerization of the DVB-S mixture is achieved using a catalyst, such as benzoyl
peroxide. Molecules of styrene and divinylbenzene attach to each other, forming a
copolymer.

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Molecules of divinylbenzene form cross-links between the chains of styrene. The
amount of cross-linking is expressed as a percentage that reflects the weight of
divinylbenzene present in the resin, relative to the weight of styrene in the resin.
Typically, the weight of divinylbenzene in an ion exchange resin bead is 8 - 12% of
the weight of styrene. At this weight percentage, the resin has 8 - 12% cross-linking.
The DVB-S resin beads have

micropores, pores so small that
only single ions or small
molecules can pass through.

Because of this porous
structure, the DVB-S resin
beads are called“gel-type”
resin beads. Ion exchange
resin of this type is called gel
resin. Figure 5.1-15 shows a
photograph of gel-type resin
beads under approximately
100X magnification.
Under special conditions, Figure 5.1-15: Gel Resin

DVB-S resin beads with large
pores, called macropores, are produced. These macroporous resin beads contain
larger pores than the micropores of gel-type resin beads. Ion exchange resin
composed of this type of resin bead is called macroporous, or macroreticular, resin.
Macroporous resins were developed to reduce the effects of organic fouling. One
type of macroporous resin production consists of copolymerization of divinylbenzene
and styrene in the presence of a third ingredient. The third ingredient is soluble in
solution with the monomers (divinylbenzene and styrene) but does not polymerize
with the DVB-S copolymer. Because it does not polymerize with the DVB-S
copolymer, this third ingredient can be removed from the DVB-S copolymer after the
polymerization of divinylbenzene and styrene into a copolymer. The third ingredient
is removed, leaving behind large pores (macropores) in the DVB-S copolymer resin
bead. The macroporous resin bead possesses a continuous resin phase (the DVB-S
copolymer) and a continuous pore phase. The continuous pore phase gives the
macroporous resin bead considerable internal surface area.

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A magnified macroporous resin
bead is shown at the right in Figure
5.1-16. Gel resin beads are shiny,
while macroporous resin beads
appear dull.
At this point in the production

process, the DVB-S copolymer resin
beads do not have any ion exchange
capability. The ability to exchange
ions is achieved by adding
functional groups to the DVB-S
copolymer matrix. Functional
groups are added by heating the
DVB-S solution and adding sulfuric
acid. The reaction between the
warm copolymer matrix and the
sulfuric acid adds sulfonic functional
Figure 5.1-16: Magnified View of a
groups (_ SO3-H+) to the resin beads.
Macroporous Resin Bead
Figure 5.1-17 below shows the
resulting structure. The fixed
exchange site is the sulfonate group (_ SO3-) and the mobile ion is hydrogen (H+).
Ion exchange resin composed of this type of resin bead is called cation resin because
the mobile ion (H+) is a cation. courtesy of Rohm & Haas
Figure 5.1-17: Structure of Strong Acid DVB-S Cation Exchange Resin

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Figure 5.1-18 is a cross-sectional illustration of a sulfonic strong acid cation
exchange resin bead. A functional group, a fixed negatively charged ion exchange
site and a mobile hydrogen ion, are labeled in the figure. Ion exchange takes place at
the fixed negatively charged ion exchange site.
Fixed Ion
Exchange
Mobile
Site
Ion
Functional
Group
Polystyrene
Chain
Divinylbenzene
Cross-link
Figure 5.1-18: Pictorial Representation of a Sulfonic Strong Acid
Cation Exchange Resin Bead.
Strong acid cation (SAC) resin in the hydrogen form removes all cations. In the
sodium form, it primarily removes hardness (calcium and magnesium).
The performance of SAC resins is reduced by chlorine, iron, manganese, aluminum,

and calcium in the process water. Chlorine oxidizes the resin, causing it to break
down. Iron, manganese, and aluminum foul the resin by forming hydroxide
precipitates. Calcium sulfate precipitate, or gypsum, forms in the resin during
sulfuric acid regeneration if the regenerant chemical concentration is too high.

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Courtesy of Rohm & Haas
Figure 5.1-19: Styrene SBA Type I Chloride Form

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5.1.2.8 Strong Base Anion (SBA) Resin
The production process for strong base anion (SBA) resin beads is the same as for
SAC resin beads until the functional group is added. SBA resin bead functional
groups are added in a two step process: chloromethylation followed by amination.
Amination is accomplished using either trimethylamine or dimethylethanolamine.
Amination with trimethylamine produces Type I SBA resin beads. Amination with
dimethylethanolamine produces Type II SBA resin beads. Both Type I SBA resin
beads and Type II SBA resin beads have quaternary ammonium functional groups:
benzyltrimethyl-ammonium (-CH2N(CH3)3+Cl-) for Type I, and
benzyldimethylethanol-ammonium (_CH2N(CH3)2(CH2)2OH+Cl-) for Type II. The
fixed ion exchange site is (_CH2N(CH3)3+) for Type I SBA resin beads and
(_CH2N(CH3)2(CH2)2OH+) for Type II SBA resin beads. Type I SBA ion exchange resin
is made of Type I SBA resin beads, and Type II SBA ion exchange resin is made of
Type II SBA resin beads. Both Type I and Type II SBA resins are manufactured in the
chloride form; the hydrogen form of each type is prepared by regeneration of the
chloride form before shipment. The structures of Type I SBA resin and Type II SBA
resin are shown on the opposite page in Figure 5.1-19 and below in Figure 5.1-20.
Figure 5.1-20: Styrene SBA Type II Chloride Form

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SBA resin beads can also be produced using DVB with acrylic rather than styrene.
The production process for SBA acrylic resin beads is the same as for SBA styrene
resin beads, except acrylic is used as one of the copolymers rather than styrene. The
structures of Type I and Type II SBA acrylic resins are shown below in Figures 5.1-21
and 5.1-22.

Figure 5.1-21: Acrylic SBA Type I Chloride Form
Figure 5.1-22: Acrylic SBA Type II Chloride Form
The properties of Type I styrene, Type II styrene, Type I acrylic, and Type II acrylic SBA
resin beads are related to their individual structures. Type I styrene operates at a
higher temperature (120oF maximum) than Type II styrene (105oF maximum) due to
the nature of the functional group. Styrene resins operate at higher temperatures
than do acrylic resins (95oF maximum) due to the nature of the copolymer matrix.

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Type II styrene and acrylic resins have lower basicity (are less strongly basic), less
silica removal capacity, and have higher ion exchange capacity and regeneration
efficiency than the respective Type I resins, due to the nature of the functional groups.
Type II styrene and acrylic SBA resins are useful on influent waters in which the
combined concentration of CO2 and SiO2 is less than 25% of the total anion
concentration. Type I and Type II acrylic SBA resins have a higher resistance to
organic fouling than Type I and Type II styrene SBA resins.
All SBA resins have inherently unstable functional groups. The functional groups
degrade due to temperature, with higher temperatures causing greater degradation.
The degradation is manifested in a loss of ion exchange capacity that begins
immediately after production. This process is called thermal degradation. The rate of
degradation depends on the operating temperature of the resin and the degree of
cross-linking in the resin beads. The rate of degradation is directly proportional to
the operating temperature and inversely proportional to the degree of cross-linking
in the resin. The capacity for ion exchange degrades slowly (typically 20% per year).
Based on cycling tests and field information, thermal degradation of SBA resin is
believed to be caused by the breakdown of the SBA resin quaternary ammonium
functional groups into weak base anion (WBA) tertiary amine functional groups. The
reactions of the degradation process are shown in Figure 5.1-23.
Figure 5.1-23: SBA Resin Thermal Degradation

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Type II SBA resin degrades at a much higher rate than Type I. The degradation of
Type I resin produces triethylamine, which is characterized by a fishy smell. The
degradation of Type II resins produces ethanol, an alcohol, which has a less pungent
odor.
SBA resin in the hydroxide form removes both strong acids (sulfuric and
hydrochloric) and weak acids (carbonic and silicic) from decationized (cation
exchange unit effluent) process water. Sulfate (present as sulfuric acid), chloride
(present as hydrochloric acid), and bicarbonate (present as the bicarbonate ion after
the conversion of carbonic acid) are removed by ion exchange. Silica, present
primarily as monomeric silicic acid, is removed by adsorption.
SBA resin in the chloride form removes bicarbonate and sulfate ions by ion
exchange. It does not remove chloride (Cl-), because Cl- is the mobile ion of the
functional group. It does not remove silica, because silica is below the mobile ion
(Cl-) in the selectivity hierarchy.
Thermal degradation and silica fouling reduce SBA ion exchange capacity. Thermal
degradation is an inherent property of SBA resin. Silica can polymerize in the resin
bead if a sufficient concentration is present and the pH is low enough. If it
polymerizes into colloidal silicic acid in the beads, the resin fouls.

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5.1.2.9 Weak Acid Cation (WAC) Resin
WAC resin is a good candidate for the treatment of process waters with more than
20% of the anions present as bicarbonate ions. The bicarbonate ion is a component
of alkalinity. Alkalinity is comprised of bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide ions in
the process water. The presence of alkalinity in process water fed to a WAC ion
exchange unit increases the exchange capacity of WAC resin. The presence of
alkalinity in the process water allows more complete dissociation of the carboxyl
functional group. Since waters with appreciable amounts of alkalinity tend to be
alkaline (basic, pH > 7), WAC resin works best when treating alkaline process waters.
WAC resins swell considerably (20% to 30%) as they go from the regenerated state
to the exhausted state. SAC resins swell 5% to 8%, but they swell as they go from
the exhausted state to the regenerated state. The two types of resins swell during
different parts of the cycle, but it is the amount of swelling, rather than when it
occurs, that is an important design consideration. The amount of swelling must be
considered when selecting the placement of the chemical regeneration header in an
ion exchange unit. If swelling is not factored into the placement of the regeneration
chemical header, the resin and regeneration chemical header could come in contact.
If they come in contact, proper regeneration flow cannot be attained, which results in
poor chemical performance in the ion exchange unit.
WAC resin in the hydrogen form removes an amount of cations from the process
water equal to the alkalinity (amount of bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide ions)
of the process water. In other words, WAC resin in the hydrogen form removes an
amount of cations equal to the total concentration of all cations associated with
alkalinity. If the process water contains 30 ppm of cations and 20 ppm of alkalinity,
the WAC resin removes 20 ppm of cations. WAC resin is not used in the sodium
form.
The performance of WAC resin is reduced by chlorine, iron, manganese, aluminum,

or calcium in the process water. Chlorine oxidizes the resin, causing it to break
down. Iron, manganese, and aluminum foul the resin by forming hydroxide
precipitates. Calcium sulfate precipitate forms in the resin during sulfuric acid
regeneration if the regenerant chemical concentration is too high.

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Figure 5.1-24: WBA Styrene Resin
Figure 5.1-25: WBA Acrylic Resin

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5.1.2.10 Weak Base Anion (WBA) Resin
The production process for WBA resin beads is similar to that of SBA resin beads.
Either styrene or acrylic can be used in the copolymerization step. The production of
WBA resin beads and SBA resin beads differ in the chloromethylation and amination
steps. WBA resin beads have tertiary amine functional groups (_CH2N(CH3)2).
Tertiary amine functional groups do not have mobile ions; they are in the free base
form. Figures 5.1-24 and 5.1-25 on the opposite page show the structures of WBA
styrene and acrylic resins.
The pair of free electrons on the nitrogen atom makes up the free base, as shown
below in Figure 5.1-26.
Figure 5.1-26: WBA Free Base

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Adapted from Rohm & Haas
Figure 5.1-27: WBA Removal of HCl
Figure 5.1-28: WBA Removal of H2SO4

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The free base functional group removes strong acids from the process water by
molecule exchange; individual water molecules are exchanged for individual acid
molecules, as shown on the opposite page in Figures 5.1-27 and 5.1-28.
WBA resins cannot remove weak acids such as carbonic acid (H2CO3, carbon dioxide
dissolved in water) or silicic acid (H2SiO3, silica dissolved in water) from process
water because the WBA functional group (free base) is weakly dissociated. SBA
resins with strongly dissociated functional groups are required for removal of
carbonic and silicic acid.
The ion exchange capacity and the regeneration efficiency are higher for WBA resin
than for SBA resin due to the nature of the WBA resin tertiary amine functional
group. WBA resin regeneration is normally co-current. It is not normally considered
in applications with counter-current regeneration, also discussed below, because the
regeneration efficiency of weak resins is high. Because the regeneration efficiency of
WBA resin is high, the additional regeneration efficiency gained with counter-current
regeneration SBA resin is not gained with counter-current regeneration WBA resin.
Therefore, there is no additional benefit derived by employing counter-current WBA
resin regeneration.
Weak base anion exchange units are sometimes located upstream of strong base
anion exchange units to protect the strong base anion resin from organic fouling.
WBA resins are not fouled by process water organics as much as SBA resins are.
For process waters with high concentrations of bicarbonate ions and low
concentrations of chlorides and sulfates, WBA resin is not an appropriate selection.
WBA resins are designed to remove strong acids. Bicarbonate ions neutralize the
acids present in cation exchange unit effluent. Additionally, if the concentration of
chlorides and sulfates in the process water is low, the cation effluent will not contain
an appreciable amount of strong acids (sulfuric and hydrochloric). If the process
water does not contain an appreciable amount of strong acids and there is not a
sufficient level of chlorides and sulfates to form an appreciable amount of strong
acids, WBA resin is an inappropriate selection.
WBA resins undergo considerable swelling (20% to 30%) as they go from the
regenerated state to the exhausted state. SBA resins also undergo swelling, but they
swell 5% to 8% as they go from the exhausted state to the regenerated state. The
amount of swelling that the resin exhibits, rather than when it occurs, must be
considered when selecting the placement of the chemical regeneration header in an
ion exchange unit. If swelling is not factored into the placement of the regeneration
chemical header, the resin and regeneration chemical header could come in contact.
If they come in contact, proper regeneration flow cannot be attained, resulting in
poor chemical performance in the ion exchange unit.

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5.1.2.11 Organic Scavenging Resins
Organic matter is acidic in nature and typically has a negative charge. It can be
removed from process water using alum clarification and organic scavenging resin,
either individually or in combination. When alum clarification and/or organic
scavenging resin are employed, they are located upstream of the working
demineralizer. This prevents organic fouling of the anion resin, which reduces the
life of the resin.
Organic scavenging units, also called organic traps, commonly employ strong base
Type I macroporous resin in the chloride form to remove organic matter by
absorption into and adsorption onto the resin beads, as shown in Figure 5.1-29. The
organics are desorbed from the resin beads as the resin beads swell during
regeneration. The resin is operated in the chloride form because more swelling
occurs during regeneration with this form than with the hydroxide form, allowing
the desorbtion of more organic matter.
Figure 5.1-29: Organic Scavenging Resin

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Organic scavengers do not only remove organic matter from process water. The resin
used in organic scavengers is anion resin, which also removes anions from the
process water. SBA organic scavenging resins exchange chloride for bicarbonate and
sulfate ions in the process water, as does any SBA resin operated in the chloride
form.
SBA organic scavenging resins are regenerated with brine and caustic. The brine
regenerates the resin to the chloride form, and the caustic elutes silica from the resin.
5.1.2.12 Weak/Strong Anion Resin
Weak/strong anion resin is a special type of anion resin with limited application.
Production of the resin beads is the same as for WBA resin beads until the amination
step is reached. During the amination step, tertiary cross-links are produced, rather
than divinylbenzene (DVB) cross-links. The tertiary cross-links create strong base
quaternary ammonium functional groups in addition to the weakly basic tertiary
amine functional groups. The presence of both weakly basic tertiary amine
functional groups and strongly basic quaternary ammonium functional groups is the
characteristic feature of weak/strong anion resin. The resulting weak/strong anion
resins therefore have mixed functionality (both strong and weak anion groups).
Weak/strong anion resin has high ion exchange capacity, the ability to remove weak
acids (carbonic and silicic), and resistance to organic fouling (good adsorption/
deadsorption characteristics). It can be used at temperatures up to 100oF and is
recommended for process waters with greater than 75% strong acid (sulfuric and
hydrochloric) concentration and less than 10% SiO2 concentration (as a fraction of
total anion concentration). When weak/strong anion resin is used in place of SBA
resin, the water chemistry has to be carefully checked to ensure compatibility.
5.1.2.13 Inert Resin
Inert resins are copolymer matrices with little porosity and no functional sites. They
are used to separate Strong Acid Cation (SAC) resin and Strong Base Anion (SBA)
resin in mixed bed ion exchange units during regeneration to decrease the amount of
cross-contamination. Cross-contamination occurs when acid comes in contact with
the SBA resin or when caustic contacts the SAC resin. Cross-contamination typically
causes beads of cation resin to be exposed to sodium hydroxide and left in the
sodium (exhausted) state. This causes poor ion exchange performance.

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By separating the cation and anion resin with a layer of inert resin, the chance for
cross contamination should be greatly reduced. In practice, inert resin does not work
nearly as well as theory predicts.
5.1.3 Process Water
5.1.3.1 Strong Acids and Bases
Acids are compounds that yield hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. Bases
are compounds that yield hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water. When
acids and bases are mixed, they neutralize each other.
Strong acids completely dissociate, or separate into ions, in water. The dissociation
of strong acids forms hydrogen ions and acid anions. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and
hydrochloric acid (HCl) are two examples of strong acids. Both acids dissociate
completely, according to the reactions shown in Table 5.1-5.
Strong Acid Hydrogen Ion Acid Ion
H2SO4 ® 2H+ + SO42-

Sulfuric Acid Sulfate Ion
HCl ® H+ + Cl-
Hydrochloric Acid Chloride Ion
Table 5.1-5: Dissociation of a Strong Acid
Strong bases also completely dissociate in water. The dissociation products of strong
bases are hydroxide ions and base cations. Sodium hydroxide is a strong base and
dissociates completely, according to the reaction shown in Table 5.1-6.
Strong Base Base Cation Hydroxide Ion
NaOH ® Na+ + OH-
Table 5.1-6: Dissociation of a Strong Base

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5.1.3.2 Weak Acids and Weak Bases
Weak acids only partially dissociate in water. Carbonic acid and the bicarbonate ion
are two examples of weak acids. When a weak acid dissociates, only some of the
acid molecules dissociate into hydrogen ions and acid anions. Most of the acid
molecules remain intact, as shown by the equations for carbonic acid in Table 5.1-7.
Weak Acid Undissociated Acid Dissociated Acid

Hydrogen Ion Acid Anion
2H 2CO3 ® (most) H2CO3 + (some) H+ + (some) HCO3-
2HCO3- ® (most) HCO3- + (some) H- + (some) CO32-
Table 5.1-7: Dissociation of a Weak Acid
Weak bases also partially dissociate in water, in a manner similar to weak acids.
When a weak base dissociates, only some of the base molecules dissociate into
hydroxide ions and base cations. Most of the base molecules remain intact, as
shown by the equations for ammonia in Table 5.1-8.
Weak Base Undissociated Base Dissociated Base

Base Cation Hydroxide Ion
NH4OH ® (most) NH4OH + (some) NH4+ + (some) OH-
Table 5.1-8: Dissociation of a Weak Base
5.1.4 Service Cycle
5.1.4.1 Application
Ion exchange resins are selected to treat specific process water with a specific
treatment objective, such as demineralization (deionization), softening,
dealkalization, or organic scavenging (organic matter removal). Demineralization, or
deionization, is the complete removal of ions from the process water. Only pure
water remains after treatment. Demineralization requires Strong Acid Cation (SAC)
and Strong Base Anion (SBA) resins because Weak Acid Cation (WAC) resin does not
remove all cations and Weak Base Anion (WBA) resin does not remove weak acids
(carbonic acid and silicic acid). Softening removes calcium and magnesium ions
(hardness). SAC resin in the sodium form removes all hardness, and WAC resin in
the hydrogen form removes hardness associated with alkalinity. Organic matter is
removed with SBA resin operated in the chloride form.

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5.1.4.2 Strong Acid Cation (SAC) Ion Exchange Unit – Hydrogen Form
Strong Acid Cation (SAC) resin is operated in the hydrogen form for deionization.
All mobile ions of the SAC functional groups are hydrogen ions. When the process
water initially contacts the resin, sodium ions, with a valence of +1, are removed.
(Refer to Section 5.1.2.5 for a detailed explanation of how ion valence and resin
selectivity affect the removal of process water ions.) With increased contact time,
these sodium ions are displaced by magnesium ions. The resin has a higher
selectivity for magnesium, but it takes longer for magnesium to reach the fixed ion
exchange site. In a similar manner, calcium displaces the magnesium. The resin has
a higher selectivity for calcium than for either magnesium or sodium, but it takes
calcium the longest to reach the fixed ion exchange site.
At the sodium exhaustion line, sodium is removed and hydrogen is added to the
process water. This decreases the pH of the process water. Hydrogen ions react with
the bicarbonate ions to from carbonic acid and react with silica to form silicic acid.
As carbonic acid is formed, hydrogen ions are consumed, slowing the increase in pH.
When all of the bicarbonate ions have reacted with hydrogen ions to form carbonic
acid, the hydrogen ions are available for the sulfate and chloride ions to form sulfuric
acid and hydrochloric acid. The effluent from the SAC exchange unit operated in the
hydrogen form consists of strong acids (sulfuric and hydrochloric), weak acids
(carbonic and silicic), and a small amount of sodium. The small amount of sodium
present in the effluent is called sodium leakage. Sodium leakage occurs because the
deionization process is not 100% efficient.
As the flow of process water continues, the calcium, magnesium, and sodium bands
widen and move down the resin bed. The bands widen because more process water
ions are removed, and they move down the resin bed because ions of higher
selectivity replace ions of lower selectivity. At the end of the service cycle, sodium is
no longer removed, because all ion exchange sites have exchanged their hydrogen
ions for process water cations. The capacity of the resin for process water cation
removal is measured in kilograins (1 lb = 7 kilograins) of ions removed per cubic foot
of resin.

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5.1.4.3 Strong Base Anion (SBA) Ion Exchange Unit – Hydroxide Form
The following discussion is a simplified explanation of the very complex process that
occurs as anions and organic matter are removed from process water passing
through SBA resin.
SBA exchange units operated in the hydroxide form are located downstream of
cation exchange units for demineralization (deionization) applications. All mobile
ions of SBA resin functional groups are hydroxide ions. Influent to the SBA ion
exchange unit is typically cation exchange unit effluent directly or decarbonated
cation exchange unit effluent (i.e., cation exchange unit effluent that has passed
through a forced draft decarbonator). When the process water initially contacts the
resin, silicic acid is removed. (Refer to Section 5.1.2.5 for a detailed explanation of
how ion valence and resin selectivity effect removal of process water ions.) Although
SBA resin has the lowest selectivity for silicic acid, it is removed first because it
reaches the functional groups first. As contact time increases, carbonic acid displaces
the silicic acid because the resin has a higher selectivity for carbonic acid, although it
takes longer for carbonic acid to reach the fixed ion exchange site. As contact time
further increases, chloride displaces the carbonic acid, because SBA resin has a higher
selectivity for chloride, but it takes longer for chloride to reach the fixed ion exchange
site. After a long enough contact time, sulfate displaces the chloride, because the
resin has a higher selectivity for sulfate, but it takes the longest time for sulfate to
reach the fixed ion exchange site. At the silica exhaustion line, hydroxide is added to
the process water. This causes the pH of the process water to increase. The effluent
from the SBA ion exchange unit in the hydroxide form is therefore sodium hydroxide
(sodium leaked from the cation ion exchange unit plus hydroxide exchanged for
anions) with a very small amount of silica (silicic acid). This very small amount of
silica is called silica leakage. Silica leakage occurs because the demineralization
process is not 100% efficient.
As the flow of process water continues, the sulfate, chloride, carbonic acid, and silica
(silicic acid) bands widen and move down through the resin bed. The bands widen
because more process water ions have been removed, and they move down the resin
bed because anions of higher selectivity replace anions of lower selectivity. At the
end of the service cycle, silica is no longer removed. The ion exchange capacity of the
resin for process water ion removal is measured in kilograins (1 lb = 7 kilograins) of
ions removed per cubic foot of resin.
During the removal of anions, organic matter is adsorbed onto the surface of the
resin beads and absorbed into the resin bead copolymer matrix. It is very important
to remove all organic matter. Organic matter increases the conductivity of
demineralized water and leads to downstream deposits. Organics removed by the
anion resin can irreversibly foul the resin, shortening its useful life.

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5.1.4.4 Strong Acid Cation (SAC) Ion Exchange Unit – Sodium Form
SAC resin is operated in the sodium form for softening. Softening removes calcium
and magnesium ions from the process water. All mobile ions of SAC resin functional
group are sodium ions. When the process water initially contacts the resin,
magnesium ions are removed because they reach the functional group first, although
SAC resin has a lower selectivity for magnesium than calcium. (Refer to Section
5.1.2.5 for a detailed explanation of how ion valence and resin selectivity effect
removal of process water ions.) As contact time increases, calcium displaces the
magnesium, because the resin has a higher selectivity for calcium. At the
magnesium exhaustion line, magnesium is removed and sodium is added to the
process water. Since the mobile ion is sodium rather than hydrogen, sodium is
added to the process water, and the pH of the process water does not change. The
effluent from the SAC resin ion exchange unit in the sodium form consists of sodium
salts, i.e., sodium bicarbonate, sodium chloride, and sodium sulfate.
As process water flow continues, the calcium and magnesium bands widen and
move down through the resin bed. The bands widen as more ions are removed from
the process water, and they move down the bed because ions of higher selectivity
replace ions of lower selectivity. At the end of the service cycle, magnesium is no
longer removed because all ion exchange sites have exchanged their sodium ions for
calcium and magnesium ions. The ion exchange capacity of the resin for ion removal
is measured in kilograins (1 lb = 7 kilograins) of ions removed per cubic foot of resin.
5.1.4.5 Strong Base Anion (SBA) Ion Exchange Unit – Chloride Form
SBA resin is operated in the chloride form for dealkalization (removal of bicarbonate,
carbonate, and hydroxide ions.). All of the functional group mobile ions are chloride.
Influent to the SBA ion exchange unit is typically either cation exchange unit effluent
directly or decarbonated cation exchange unit effluent (i.e., cation exchange unit
effluent that has passed through a forced draft decarbonator). When the process
water initially contacts the resin, silicic acid is removed because it reaches the
functional group first, although the resin has the lowest selectivity for silicic acid.
(Refer to Section 5.1.2.5 for a detailed explanation of how ion valence and resin
selectivity effect removal of process water ions.) As contact time increases, carbonic
acid displaces the silicic acid, because SBA resin has a higher selectivity for carbonic
acid, even though it takes longer for carbonic acid to reach the fixed ion exchange
sites. As contact time further increases, sulfate displaces the carbonic acid because
the resin has a higher selectivity for sulfate, but it takes longer for sulfate to reach the
fixed ion exchange site. The effluent from the SBA exchange unit in the chloride
form contains primarily sodium chloride.

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5.1.4.6 Weak Acid Cation (WAC) Ion Exchange Unit – Hydrogen Form
WAC resin is operated in the hydrogen form for softening (removal of calcium and
magnesium) and dealkalization (conversion of bicarbonate and carbonate ions to
carbonic acid). All mobile ions of WAC resin functional groups are hydrogen ions.
When the process water initially contacts the resin, sodium is removed because it
reaches the functional group first, although the resin has the lowest selectivity for
sodium. (Refer to Section 5.1.2.5 for a detailed explanation of how ion valence and
resin selectivity effect removal of process water ions.)
As contact time increases, magnesium displaces the sodium because the resin has a
higher selectivity for magnesium, even though it takes longer for magnesium to
reach the fixed ion exchange site. After a long enough contact time, calcium
displaces the magnesium. The resin has a higher selectivity for calcium, but it takes
the longest time for calcium to reach the fixed ion exchange site. At the sodium
exhaustion line, sodium is removed and hydrogen is added to the process water.
This causes the pH of the process water to begin dropping. Hydrogen ions react
with the bicarbonate ions and any carbonate ions in the process water to carbonic
acid and silica to form silicic acid. As carbonic acid is formed, hydrogen ions are
consumed, slowing the pH increase.
When all of the bicarbonate and carbonate ions have reacted with hydrogen ions to
form carbonic acid, the hydrogen ions are available to react with sulfate and chloride
ions to form sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid. WAC resin in the hydrogen form
removes cations from the process water up to the level of alkalinity (bicarbonate,
carbonate, and hydroxide: all cations associated with alkalinity). For example, if the
process water contains 30 ppm of cations and 20 ppm of alkalinity, the WAC resin
removes 20 ppm of cations. When the concentration of sulfuric and hydrochloric
acid is high enough, the acids begin to regenerate the WAC resin. At this point, the
resin is exhausted.
The effluent from a WAC exchange unit in the hydrogen form contains carbonic and
silicic acids and sodium salts (sodium chloride and sodium sulfate). The carbonic
acid is removed in a downstream forced draft decarbonator. Refer to Module 7 on
Degasification for a discussion of the removal mechanism.

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5.1.4.7 Weak Base Anion (WBA) Ion Exchange Unit – Free Base Form
WBA resin is operated in the free base form for removal of strong acids. Either a
WBA ion exchange unit is located upstream of a SBA exchange unit or WBA resin is
layered with SBA resin in a layered counter-current ion exchange unit. Refer to
Section 5.7 for a discussion of the layered counter-current ion exchange unit. All
functional groups of the WBA resin are in the free base form. When the process
water initially contacts the resin, hydrochloric acid is removed because it reaches the
functional group fastest, although the resin has a lower selectivity for hydrochloric
acid than for sulfuric acid. (Refer to Section 5.1.2.5 for a detailed explanation of how
ion valence and resin selectivity effect removal of process water ions.) As contact
time increases, sulfuric acid displaces the hydrochloric acid because WBA resin has a
higher selectivity for sulfuric acid, but it takes longer for sulfuric acid to reach the free
base functional group. At the hydrochloric acid exhaustion line, hydroxide is added
to the process water. This causes the pH of the process water to increase. As the pH
increases, the hydroxide ions associate with sodium ions that leaked from the
upstream cation exchange unit, forming caustic (sodium hydroxide). When the
caustic concentration is high enough, it begins to regenerate the resin. At this point,
the resin is exhausted. The effluent from a WBA ion exchange unit in the free base
form consists of sodium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate, and silicic acid.
As the flow of process water continues, the sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid bands
widen and move down the resin bed. The bands widen as more acid ions are
removed from the process water, and they move down the resin bed as the acid of
higher selectivity replaces the acid of lower selectivity. The ion exchange capacity of
the resin for ion removal is measured in kilograins (1 lb = 7 kilograins) of ions
removed per cubic foot of resin.
During the removal of anions, organic matter is adsorbed onto the surface of the
resin beads and absorbed into the resin bead copolymer matrix. This is important for
two reasons. First, organic matter in demineralized water increases its conductivity
and leads to downstream deposits. Second, organics removed by the anion resin can
irreversibly foul the resin and shorten its useful life.

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5.1.5 Regeneration
When the resin in an ion exchange unit exhausts, it must be regenerated. The choice
of regeneration chemical depends on the type (cation or anion) and form of the
resin. Either sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid is used to regenerate cation resin in
the hydrogen form. Sodium hydroxide is used for anion resin in the hydroxide form
and free base form. Brine, a solution of salt (sodium chloride) and water, is used to
regenerate cation resin in the sodium form and anion resin in the chloride form.
The regeneration process for individual ion exchange units is discussed in the
Process and Operations Overview sections of Sections 5.2-5.8. Weak resins are
typically regenerated with 110% - 120% of the theoretical stoichiometric amount of
regenerant. They use regenerant very efficiently. Strong resins often require two to
three times that amount of regeneration chemical to achieve a reasonable
regeneration.
5.1.6 Special Concerns for Ion Exchange Performance
5.1.6.1 Effects of Cation Leakage on Anion Performance
Demineralization of process water requires a Strong Acid Cation (SAC) resin

operated in the hydrogen form and a Strong Base Anion (SBA) resin operated in the
hydroxide form. If the SAC resin fails to remove all cations from the process water,
the missed cations react with hydroxide ions from the SBA resin. For example,
sodium leakage occurs during normal operation of the SAC ion exchange unit. If the
SAC unit is operated past exhaustion, it results in significant amounts of sodium in
the SAC unit effluent. Operation of the SBA resin produces hydroxide ions. The
hydroxide ions normally combine with hydrogen ions in the SAC unit effluent to
produce water. If the SAC resin is operated past exhaustion, hydrogen ions are not
present to react with the hydroxide ions. The sodium ions that are present react with
the hydroxide to form caustic (sodium hydroxide). The caustic begins to regenerate
the SBA resin. Operating a SAC exchange unit past exhaustion results in the
presence of caustic in SBA unit effluent, causing an in-service regeneration of the
SBA resin. The in-service regeneration increases silica leakage from the SBA unit.
This condition implies that the SBA unit needs to be regenerated, when it does not.

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34a_m5_r0
IX units present
WAC SAC FDD WBA SBA Constituents Removed Advantages Disadv IXCALC Comments
All Alkalinity Sodium Sulfate Chloride Alkalinity Silica Eq Cost Regen Cost Repumping Selection
Hardness Hardness
√ √ x x x 1 2 See Notes 4 & 5.
√ √ √ x x x 2 1 x See Notes 1, 4 & 5.
√ √ x x x x x 1 3 See Note 5.
√ √ √ x x x x x 2 2 x See Note 1 & 5.
√ √ x x x x 1 3 See Note 4.
√ √ √ x x x x 2 2 x Yes See Notes 1 & 4.
√ √ x x x x x x 1 4 Yes
√ √ √ x x x x x x 2 3 x Yes See Note 1.
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√ √ √ x x x x x 2 3 See Notes 3 & 5.
√ √ √ √ x x x x x 3 2 x See Notes 1, 3 & 5.
√ √ √ x x x x x x 2 4 See Note 3.
√ √ √ √ x x x x x x 3 3 x Yes See Notes 1 & 3.
√ √ √ x x x x 2 3 See Note 2 & 4.
√ √ √ √ x x x x 3 2 x Yes See Notes 1, 2 & 4.
√ √ √ x x x x x x 2 4 See Note 2.
√ √ √ √ x x x x x x 3 3 x Yes See Notes 1 & 2.
√ √ √ √ x x x x x x 3 4 See Notes 2 & 3.
√ √ √ √ √ x x x x x x 4 3 x Yes See Notes 1, 2 &3.
5-39a
Notes
1 Decarbonators mechanically remove carbon dioxide from cation exchange unit effluent lowering the volume of anion resin and reducing the amount of regenerant
caustic. Repumping with stainless steel pumps is required. An economic evaluation of the increase in capital cost due to the decarbonator and pumps vs
reduction in operating cost due to regenerant chemical savings and resin replacement should be performed. The following rules of thumb can be used in deciding
whether or not to use a decarbonator. If HCO3
HCO3 < 20%, do not use a decarbonator. If capital cost is not a concern and HCO
HCO33 > 20%, use a decarbonator. If
capital cost is a concern, do not use a decarbonator. If a decarbonator is not employed, the SBA removes alkalinity that would have been removed by the
decarbonator.
2 WAC preceeds SAC to lower regenerant acid requirement (and hence regenerant operating cost) in high alkalinity waters. Layered bed arrangements reduce
system vessel cost by eliminating the WAC vessel. The WAC removes hardness associated with bicarbonate alkalinity. Layered beds are counter-current.
3 WBA preceeds SBA to lower regenerant caustic requirement (and hence regenerant operating cost) in high acidity waters. Layered bed arrangements reduce
system vessel cost by eliminating the WBA vessel. The WBA removes acidity (sulfate and chloride). Layered beds are counter-current.
4 Not applicable for power generation applications because silica is not removed.
5 Not applicable for power generation applications because all hardness is not removed.
6 Equipment Cost Ranking = number or vessels - 1 (This is an arbitrary ranking scale for screening purposes.)
Table 5.1-9: Common Ways to Demineralize Water

7 Regeneration Cost Ranking = +1 for weak resin w/o following strong resin, +0 for weak resin w/strong resin following, +2 for strong resin, -1 for decarbonator
(This is an arbitrary ranking scale for screening purposes.)
8 For power applications, only consider working bed configurations that remove all hardness and silica. These selections are highlighted.
9 Strong resins can be regenerated counter-current to increase effluent quality over co-current. Weak resins by themselves are not regenerated counter-current
because co-current regeneration efficiency is already high.
Ion Exchange
5.1.6.2 Practical Considerations for Ion Exchange Performance
The following are practical concerns for ion exchange resin performance and must be
considered when selecting resins for a particular application.
• Weak resins have more ion exchange capacity and regenerate more efficiently
(require less regenerant chemical) than strong resins.
• Weak Acid Cation resin may not remove all hardness (calcium and magnesium).
Strong Acid Cation resin removes all hardness.
• Strong Acid Cation resin must be used for sodium removal.
• Weak Base Anion resin does not remove carbon dioxide or silica. Strong Base
Anion resin must be used to remove these constituents.
• Type I styrene anion resins have the highest allowable operating temperature
and lowest silica leakage of all the anion resins.
5.1.7 Process Overview
Ion exchange units can be arranged in a number of ways to perform

demineralization. Table 5.1-9 on the opposite page shows common ways to do this.
Some of the ways are not appropriate for power generation applications, as noted in
the figure. Strong Acid Cation (SAC) and Strong Base Anion (SBA) ion exchange
units are always required for high purity water production.
The SAC exchange unit is first, sometimes with a WAC exchange unit upstream. The
SAC unit removes all process water cations with a small amount of sodium leakage.
Alkalinity (bicarbonate and carbonate ions) is converted to carbonic acid. SAC unit
effluent is piped either to a forced draft decarbonator to reduce the level of carbonic
acid or directly to anion exchange units.

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Co-Current Split-Flow
Counter-Current
Counter-Current
Layered
Packed bed Sandwich

Packed Bed
Figure 5.1-30: Working Ion Exchange Unit Designs

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The SBA exchange unit, sometimes with an upstream WBA exchange unit, removes
all process water anions with a small amount of silica leakage. Polishing SAC and
SBA exchange units remove the sodium and silica leakage from the upstream SCA
and SBA exchange units. The use of a WAC exchange unit, forced draft
decarbonator, and WBA exchange unit depends on project economics. Weak and
strong resin can be loaded into one ion exchange unit rather than individual units, as
shown in Figure 5.1-30 on the oppsite page and below in Figure 5.1-31. Several
polishing exchange unit designs are available.
Mixed Bed Hi-Flow Cation Sandwich

Polisher Packed Bed
Figure 5.1-31: Polishing Ion Exchange Unit Designs
Given all of the process possibilities for resin and ion exchange units, one process
must eventually be selected for each application. The primary factors in the selection
are water analysis and resin characteristics.

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Figure 5.1-32: Cation Resin Capacity and Leakage vs. Regeneration Level for Sulfuric
Acid and Hydrochloric Acid Regenerants

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5.1.8 Equipment Design
The key features of an ion exchange unit are as follows:
Resin
• One or two resins
• Resin types
• Resin configuration
Regeneration Method
• Co-current
• Counter-current
Vessel Design
• Co-Current
• Split-Flow Counter-Current
• Counter-Current Layered Bed
• Mixed Bed
• Packed Bed
• Sandwich Packed Bed
• Cation Polisher
An ion exchange unit can be thought of as a basic vessel with face piping, valves, and
instruments, plus internals and resin. The following discussion provides an overview
of the components of an ion exchange unit.
5.1.8.1 Resin
Each of the resins that can be used in an ion exchanger has defined characteristics.
These include ion exchange capacity and leakage. These characteristics are a
function of the level at which the resin is regenerated and the regeneration chemical
employed. Figure 5.1-32 on the opposite page is a collage showing the ion
exchange capacity and sodium leakage of a common cation resin as a function of
regeneration level and regeneration chemical for a given water analysis.

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Figure 5.1-33: Cation Resin Capacity and Leakage Charts

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Figure 5.1-33 on the opposite page shows capacity and leakage charts that are
employed to define the data points in Figure 5.1-32.
The Rohm & Haas software program IXCALC determines resin capacity and leakage
for an input water analysis.
An example of output from the program is shown Figure 5.1-34. IXCALC design
calculations include all operating parameters and safety factors. Leakages do not
normally have a safety factor applied. Waters with anions having greater than 30%
silica require special consideration and should be reviewed with the resin
manufacturer.
Figure 5.1-34: IXCALC Printout

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Inlet Inlet
Distributor
Chemical
Downfow
Distributor
Collector
False Bottom
with Strainers
Chemical Outlet
Upflow
Distributor
Figure 5.1-35: Split Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Unit

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5.1.8.2 Basic Design Vessel
Features that are common to all ion exchange vessels are discussed in this section.
Items specific to a particular ion exchange vessel are presented in the subsection
discussing that ion exchange vessel. Details on all vessel features are provided in
Appendix H. Refer to Figure 5.1-35, on the opposite page, for a model showing
many of the features discussed below.
5.1.8.2.1 Manways
Each chamber of each vessel requires a manway for construction access. Manways
must be designed for minimal chemical and resin hideout. A circular manway
installed in the side shell of the resin compartment must be provided with a plug to
prevent resin from sitting in the manway neck. Elliptical manways do not have this
requirement as they are mounted to the inside of the vessel. A 24-inch diameter
manway cannot be installed in a vessel less than 48 inches in diameter and a 20-inch
diameter manway cannot be installed in a 36-inch diameter vessel.
5.1.8.2.2 Sightglasses
Sightglasses can be provided at several elevations on a vessel. A sightglass at the top

of the resin bed allows the operator to view the resin bed surface. A sightglass at the
top of the expanded bed (backwash level) allows the operator to confirm correct
backwash flow. A sightglass at the interface level of mixed bed units allows the
operator to confirm proper separation of the different types of resin beads.
A backwash sightglass in the backwash outlet piping allows the operator to detect
resin loss due to excessive backwash. This sightglass can be provided in place of a
sightglass at the expanded bed (backwash) level.

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5.1.8.2.3 Internals
Internals are sized according to the flow they handle. For header-lateral type
distributors, the nominal pipe size (NPS) is determined from the flow by using
normal design rules provided in Appendix I.
Any distributor that sits in the resin bed should be manufactured from metallic
components so that it is strong enough to withstand the stresses induced by resin
expansion.
Strainers in false bottoms and flat plate distributors can be arranged in several
packing densities. For flow rates not exceeding 20 gpm/ft2, metallic strainers are
installed at a density of 1.5 strainers per square foot of false bottom, and
polypropylene strainers are installed at 2 per ft2. For higher flow rates, it is necessary
to install strainers at 4 per ft2.
5.1.8.2.4 Lining
Ion exchange vessels are provided with a 3/16-inch thick, sheet applied rubber lining.
Spray-on linings are not recommended due to the use of strong chemicals during
regeneration. A soft rubber lining is typical, but a semi-hard lining is also available.
5.1.8.2.5 Piping
A general discussion of piping materials and sizing is provided in Appendix I.

Piping that comes in contact with hydrochloric acid regenerant chemical in cation
exchange or mixed bed applications must not be stainless steel due to chloride
corrosion problems. Either plastic pipe or polypropylene lined (PPL) steel is used in
these applications.
A resin trap can be provided in the vessel outlet to catch resin in the unusual event of
a strainer breaking. This is a particularly good option to select where leaking resin
could damage or affect the performance of downstream equipment. In vessels using
hydrochloric acid for regeneration, the resin trap must be of hasteloy construction.

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5.1.8.2.6 Valves
Butterfly valves are provided for compact installation and bubble-tight closure. In
designs where precise setting of small flows is required, a diaphragm valve can be
selected. Diaphragm valves are also used on all chemical lines because they are
completely lined (no wetted metallic surfaces). Chemical service valves are provided
with fail-safe actuators. Backwash and rinse outlet valves, and any other valves
required to set a flow rate, have adjustable opening stops.
Actuated valves are provided with either double acting or spring-to-close actuators.
Double acting actuators are much less expensive but have an indeterminate position
on loss of air pressure: they can be open, closed, or partially open.
Chemical lines can be provided with optional block and bleed valve assemblies to
provide an air gap in the regenerant chemical piping. This ensures that a leaky
chemical valve can not contaminate the operating system.
5.1.8.2.7 Instrumentation
Flow transmitters are needed on the service inlet of ion exchange units to ensure
proper flow and to provide a basis for measurement of the total throughput of the
bed.
Differential pressure switches can be provided for resin traps to indicate plugging.
Visual inspection can also serve this purpose.
A conductivity analyzer or pH analyzer can be installed on the outlet of any ion

exchange unit. A silica analyzer for anion exchange units and a hardness analyzer or
sodium analyzer for all cation exchange units are also available. These analyzers
monitor ion exchange unit performance and indicate when a resin bed is exhausted
and must be regenerated.

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5.1.9 Resources
Applebaum, S.B., 1968. Demineralization by Ion Exchange. New York: Academic Press.
Dorfner, Konrad. Ion Exchangers. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.
Kunin, Robert. Amber-hi-lites #79, #87, #131, #132, #137, #164-170, #173-178.
Philadelphia: Rohm & Haas.
Kunin, Robert. Ion Exchange. Melbourne, FL: Krieger Publishing.
Lowenthal and Marias. 1976. Carbonate Chemistry of Aquatic Systems: Theory and
Application. Ann Arbor: Ann Abor Science Publishers, Inc.
Meltzer, Theodore H. 1993. High Purity Water Preparation. Littleton, CO: Tall Oaks
Publishing, Inc.
Meltzer, Theodore H. Pharmaceutical Water Systems. Littleton, CO: Tall Oaks

Publishing, Inc.
Owens, Dean L. 1985. Practical Principles of Ion Exchange Water Treatment. Voorhees,
NJ: Tall Oaks Publishing, Inc.

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Inlet
Distributor
Regenerant
Distributor
False
Bottom
and
Strainers
Service
Inlet
Service
Outlet
Figure 5.2-1: Co-Current Ion Exchange Unit

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5.2 Co-Current Ion Exchange Units
A co-current ion exchange unit is the simplest of the in-situ regenerated ion
exchange technologies. A unit is shown in Figure 5.2-1, on the opposite page, with
the main components labeled.
In a co-current design, the regenerant chemical flow during regeneration is in the

same direction, in this case downward, as the service flow during the service cycle. If
the resin is cationic, the unit is called a co-current cation exchange unit. Similarly, if
the resin is anionic, the unit is called a co-current anion exchange unit.
A co-current design provides good ion exchange performance for applications in

which very low ion leakage and minimized operating costs are not critical
considerations.
Chemical regeneration equipment is required to provide the dilute chemical used to

regenerate the resin when it is exhausted. The regeneration equipment may also
require other ancillary equipment. See Section 9.4 of the Ancillary Equipment
module for further information.
5.2.1 Process and Operations Overview
A co-current ion exchange unit is designed so that service flow enters the inlet
distributor at the top of the vessel and flows down through the resin bed. After
passing through the bed, the treated service water is collected in the strainers located
in the false bottom of the vessel. Service water exits the vessel through the service
outlet at the bottom.
When the ion leakage from the resin bed approaches an unacceptable level (i.e.,
product quality starts to decrease) the resin bed is nearing exhaustion and a
regeneration procedure must be performed. Regeneration can also take place at
fixed time intervals, or, most commonly, after a pre-determined volume of water has
been treated.
When regeneration is required, the resin bed is backwashed prior to regenerant

injection. Backwash removes any accumulated particulate matter that may have
collected at the top of the bed. Backwash water flows up through the resin bed in a
reverse direction relative to normal service flow. The resin bed is expanded and
fluidized by the backwash flow, allowing particulate matter to be washed away.

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Figure 5.2-2: Co-Current Ion Exchange Unit P&ID

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If the ion exchange unit contains anion resin, warm water is introduced before
regenerant chemical to warm the resin bed and facilitate silica removal. Regenerant
is added to the vessel through a downflow regenerant header located above the bed.
Regenerant flows through the resin bed, flows out the strainers located in the false
bottom at the bottom of the bed, and then exits the vessel.
When a sufficient amount of regenerant has flowed through the resin bed, the
chemical is displaced with a slow flow of water. The bed is then rinsed to remove all
traces of the regenerant.
The performance of co-current ion exchange units depends on the type of ion
exchange resin, the regenerant chemical, and the relative position of the unit within
a water treatment system. The following resins can be used in co-current ion
exchange units:
• Softening resin (styrenic gel or styrenic macroreticular)

• Weak acid resin (acrylic gel)
• Strong acid resin (styrenic gel or styrenic macroreticular)
• Weak base resin (acrylic gel, styrenic macroreticular or acrylic gel S/W)
• Strong base resin (acrylic or styrenic gel, acrylic or styrenic macroreticular, or
acrylic gel S/W)
• Many of these resins are also available in a regenerated or exhausted state.
Figure 5.2-2, on the opposite page, is a P&ID of a co-current cation unit which
shows all of the process components.
Specific modes or steps involved in the operation of a co-current ion exchange unit
are described below:
• Service
• Backwash
• Preheat (for anion resins only)
• Regenerant introduction
• Displacement
• Fast rinse
• Service rinse

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Step
Valve Fast Service
Service Backwash Preheat Regenerant Displace
Rinse Rinse
Service Inlet Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open
Service Outlet Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Backwash Inlet Closed Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Fast Backwash
Closed Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Outlet
Chemical Inlet Closed Closed Open Open Open Closed Closed
Chemical
Closed Closed Open Open Open Closed Closed
Block*
Chemical
Open Open Closed Closed Closed Open Open
Bleed*
Rinse Outlet Closed Closed Open Open Open Open Open
* Note that the chemicalblock and bleed valves are optional
Table 5.2-1: Valve Configuration for Co-Current Ion Exchange Unit

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A summary of the valve positions for each of these steps is provided on the opposite
page in Table 5.2-1.
Service
The service cycle is the normal operation mode for the ion exchange unit.
All valves are closed with the exception of the service inlet valve, service outlet valve,
and chemical bleed valve (optional and not shown here), as shown in Figure 5.2-3.
Service
In
Service
Out
Figure 5.2-3: Co-Current Ion Exchange Unit – Service Cycle

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Backwash
This step expands the resin bed, removing silt, broken resin beads, and other foreign
suspended matter. Adequate backwash flow is critical to prevent poor resin
performance due to compaction and channeling, but excessive backwash flow must
be avoided. Excessive flow sweeps the resin out the backwash outlet with the
particulate matter. The backwash inlet and outlet valves are open, as shown in
Figure 5.2-4.
Backwash
In
Backwash Out
to Waste
Figure 5.2-4: Co-Current Ion Exchange Unit – Backwash

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Warm
Dilution
Water or
Regenerant
Inlet
To Waste
Figure 5.2-5: Co-Current Ion Exchange Unit – Bed Preheat (Anion Only)

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Preheat (Anion Resin Only)
This step preheats an anion resin bed before regenerant caustic (sodium hydroxide)
is added. Heating the resin increases the efficiency of silica removal by the
regenerant chemical. This step is not used for cation resin.
The regenerant inlet and the rinse outlet valves are open. Block valves, if present, are
open; the bleed valve, if present, is closed (not shown here). The valve
configurations are shown on the opposite page in Figure 5.2-5. The dilution water
pump is turned on (or appropriate valves opened, depending on the dilution water
source arrangement), and hot dilution water is pumped through the resin bed.
Regenerant Chemical Introduction
In this step, dilute regenerant chemical is applied to the resin bed. The regenerant
flow rate must be adequate to ensure proper distribution of chemical over the bed.
The regenerant concentration must not be too high or too low. If too high, problems
with precipitation can occur. If too low, proper regeneration will not occur. See
Section 9.4 of the Ancillary Equipment module for a discussion and calculations of
proper regenerant flow and concentration.
The regenerant inlet, rinse outlet, and block valves (if present) remain open. The
bleed valve, if present, is closed. The valve configuration, shown in Figure 5.2-5, is
the same one used in the preheat step for anion units, but during regenerant
introduction, chemical is added to the dilution water. Pumps and valves associated
with the regeneration system also need to be turned on or opened.
Displacement (Slow Rinse)
After the regenerant chemical is introduced, a displacement step, or slow rinse,

removes regenerant chemical from the ion exchange unit. The valve configuration
for the slow rinse step is the same as for the regeneration and anion preheat steps, as
shown in Figure 5.2-5, but no chemical is added to the dilution water flow.

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Fast Rinse
A fast rinse step completely removes any regenerant chemical left in the unit after
the slow rinse. Effluent quality is monitored to ensure that the unit is ready to be
returned to service.
The service inlet valve and the rinse outlet valve are open, as shown in Figure 5.2-6.
The fast rinse step usually continues until a minimum effluent quality level is
achieved.
Service
Inlet
Rinse Outlet
Figure 5.2-6: Co-Current Ion Exchange Unit – Fast Rinse
Service Rinse
If the ion exchange unit has been idle for a while before it is required for service, it is
appropriate to perform a service rinse to ensure that ions released from the resin
during no-flow situations are removed. This procedure is the same as the fast rinse
step, but it takes less time.

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5.2.2 Equipment Design and Options
Figure 5.2-7 shows a cutaway of a co-current ion exchange unit. Major components
have been identified.
The vessel uses
standard features
and options as
identified in
Appendix H, Inlet
Pressure Vessels, Distributor
and Section 5.1.8.2. Regenerant
Co-current ion Distributor
exchange units have
an inlet distributor, a
downflow
regenerant False Bottom
distributor, and a flat and Strainers
false bottom
underdrain with
strainers. Valve
options include
regenerant block and Service
bleed, manual Inlet
regenerant isolation,
and rinse recycle Service
(outlet for anion Outlet
exchange unit and
inlet for cation Figure 5.2-7: Co-Current Ion Exchange Unit - Cutaway
exchange unit).
5.2.3 Application and Design
5.2.3.1 Application
Co-current ion exchange units are used as pretreatment to working exchange units
(for organic scavenging), working exchange units (for softening, dealkalization, and
demineralization), and polishing exchange units (demineralization). The organic
scavenging ion exchange unit is always located before the working exchange units.
Working cation exchange units are located in front of decarbonators or anion
exchange units. Polishing cation and anion exchange units can be an alternative to
mixed bed ion exchange units; however, this is rarely done today due to space and
capital cost constraints.

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5.2.3.2 Design
5.2.3.2.1 Process Design Parameters
The process design parameters for each of the resins used in co-current ion exchange
units is provided here. This section is a reference resource for the designer. An
example set of sizing calculations for one of the resins is provided at the end of the
section.
Design parameters for co-current sodium cycle cation (softener) units
1) The resin capacity for sodium cycle cation units is calculated by the Rohm & Haas
IXCALC software. No safety factor is added.
2) The hardness leakage is calculated by the Rohm and Haas IXCALC software. No
safety factor is added.
3) The minimum run length is 8 hours NET in service at the full design flow.
4) The minimum bed depth is 36 inches.
5) The maximum bed depth is dictated by the allowable pressure drop through the
system. IXCALC estimates pressure drops as a function of bed depth.
6) The minimum linear flow rate is 2 gpm/ft2.
7) The minimum vessel freeboard is 75% of the bed depth.

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Flow rates and volumes
Service Linear velocity is 6 to 20 gpm/ft2 of bed area.

Volumetric velocity is 5 gpm/ft3 of resin, maximum.
Backwash Sufficient flow to obtain 50% bed expansion at

maximum backwash water temperature(see chart
below).
Flow until 1 vessel volume has been displaced.
Backwash Water Backwash Flow

Temperature (ºF) Rate (gpm/ft2)
32 to <40 4
40 to <50 4.5
50 to <60 5
60 to <70 6
70 to <80 7
80 to <90 7.5
90 to <100 8
100 to <110 8.5
110 to 120 9
Chemical Injection See Section 9.4, Chemical Regeneration Equipment,

for calculations of regenerant chemical flows.
Sodium chloride regenerant:
Use a 10% NaCl solution.
A dosage of 15 lb NaCl/ft3 of resin is the normal
level to achieve 30 kgr/ft3 resin capacity.
Chemical Displacement Same as chemical dilution water flow rate.

Flow until 1 resin bed volume has been displaced (7.5
gal/ft3 of resin).
Fast Rinse Flow rate is the greatest of the following three values:
Service flow
1.5 gpm/ft3 of resin
6 gpm/ft2 of bed area
Volume = 42.5 gal/ft3 of resin.
Service Rinse Same as fast rinse flow rate.


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Design parameters for co-current strong acid cation units
1) The resin capacity is 95% of the capacity calculated by the Rohm & Haas IXCALC
software.
2) Sodium leakage is calculated by the Rohm and Haas IXCALC software. No

6) The minimum linear velocity is 2 gpm/ft2.

Sub-Surface Wash Sufficient flow to obtain 50% bed expansion at

maximum backwash water temperature (see chart
below).
Flow until 1 freeboard volume (the volume above the
resin bed) has been displaced.

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below).

32 to <40 4
40 to <50 4.5
50 to <60 5
60 to <70 6
70 to <80 7
80 to <90 7.5
90 to <100 8
100 to <110 8.5
110 to 120 9

for calculations of regenerant chemical flows and
strengths.

gal/ft3).
Note: The minimum contact time for sulfuric acid is 30

minutes. Contact time is equal to the sum of the
chemical injection and the displacement steps.
Service flow


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Design parameters for co-current strong base anion units
software except for Type 1 anion resin, for which the full, calculated capacity is
used.
2) Silica leakage is calculated by the Rohm and Haas IXCALC software. No safety
factor is added.
If silica is greater than 30% of the feed anions, do not accept software-calculated
values without the manufacturer’s explicit approval.


below).

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maximum backwash water temperature.

32 to <40 1.75
40 to <50 2
50 to <60 2.25
60 to <70 2.5
70 to <80 2.75
80 to <90 3
90 to 100 3.5
Preheat Same as the chemical dilution water flow rate.

gal/ft3).

strengths.

gal/ft3).
Service flow

Volume = 7.5 to 22.5 gal/ft3 of resin as required to reach
desired water quality.

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Design parameters for co-current weak acid cation units
software.


below).


32 to <40 3.5
40 to <50 3.75
50 to <60 4
60 to <70 4.25
70 to <80 4.5
80 to <90 5
90 to <100 5.5
100 to <110 6
110 to 120 6.25

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strengths.

gal/ft3).

Service flow

Design parameters for co-current weak base anion units
software.

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below).


32 to <40 1.5
40 to <50 1.75
50 to <60 2
60 to <70 2.25
70 to <80 2.5
80 to <90 2.75
90 to 100 3

strengths.

gal/ft3).
Service flow

Volume = 7.5 to 22.5 gal/ft3 of resin required to reach

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5.2.3.2.2 Calculation Methodology
A sodium cycle cation exchanger (softener) is used here as the basis for discussion.
Calculations for other units differ only slightly. Example calculations for other resins
are provided with other ion exchange units.
The Rohm & Haas IXCALC software is used to calculate the volume of resin
required to produce the specified effluent water quality from the specified influent
water analysis over the service cycle time at the specified flow rate and regenerant
dosage.
IXCALC provides the following outputs:
• Resin volume
• Regenerant salt requirement
• Displacement water volume
• Rinse water volume
To calculate the resin volume, IXCALC first calculates the resin capacity (kilograins
removed as CaCO3 per cubic foot of resin) based on the input influent water analysis,
effluent quality, and regenerant dosage (pound of regenerant per cubic foot of resin).
Higher regenerant dosages increase the resin capacity; lower dosages reduce it. After
the resin capacity is calculated, the concentration of hardness in the water is
converted from parts per million as CaCO3 to kilograins of hardness as CaCO3.
Based on the resin capacity (kgr/ft3), the water hardness (kgr), the flow rate (gpm),
and the service cycle time, IXCALC calculates the resin volume. The calculations are
as follows:
Hardness (gpg) =
[Ca ion (ppm as CaCO3) + Mg ion (ppm as CaCO3)] / 17.12 ppm/gpg
gpg = grains per gallon
Resin Volume (ft3) =

(Flow Rate, gpm) x (Service Cycle, hr) x (60 min/hr) x (Hardness, gpg) / 1000 gr/kgr
(Capacity, kgr/ft3)
gpm = gallons per minute

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From the calculated resin volume and regenerant dosage, the amount of regenerant
is calculated as follows:
Regenerant Salt, lb = (Resin Volume, ft3) x (Regenerant Dosage, lb/ ft3)
The output items calculated, resin volume and regenerant salt requirement, are used
to complete the design of the sodium cycle cation softener. First, the vessel diameter
and the resin bed depth have to be determined. These two values must produce
linear and volumetric flow rates that are within the ranges set by the process design
parameters. Volumetric flow rate is determined as follows:
Volumetric Flow Rate, gpm/ft3 = (Flow, gpm) / (Resin Volume, ft3)
If the volumetric flow rate is too high, extra resin must be added to reduce the flow
rate to an acceptable number, which is provided in the process design parameters
above.
A vessel diameter is selected to achieve a linear flow rate within the acceptable
range, and an appropriate bed depth is selected, one that does not provide too large
a pressure drop. In general, bed depths over 9 feet should be carefully checked for
pressure drop. Vessel diameters are available in 6-inch increments. The vessel area,
linear flow rate and depth are calculated as follows:
Area, ft2 = p x (Diameter, ft)2 / 4
Linear Flow Rate, gpm/ft2 = (Flow, gpm) / (Area, ft2)
Bed Depth, ft = (Resin Volume, ft3) / (Area, ft2)
For precise calculations, the inside diameter of the vessel should be used. Twice the
thickness of the vessel steel and the lining should be subtracted from this nominal
diameter.
Adding side shell height is less expensive than adding diameter, so the unit should
be designed with the smallest possible diameter that is consistent with the process
design parameters.
The vessel side shell height is based on the resin bed depth and the freeboard. The
minimum freeboard is 75%.
Side Shell Height, ft = (1 + % Freeboard / 100) x (Resin Bed Depth, ft)

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Once the vessel diameter has been computed, the resin backwash flow rate can be
calculated using the table in the process design parameters. Backwash must take
place for enough time to produce at least 1 vessel volume of water.
Backwash Flow, gpm = (Area, ft2) x (Backwash Rate, gpm/ft2)
Vessel Volume, ft3 = (Area, ft2) x (Side Shell Height, ft)
Backwash Time, min = 1 x (Vessel Volume, ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (Backwash Flow, gpm)
The salt injection flow rate and time is calculated in Section 9.4, Chemical
Regeneration Equipment.
Salt displacement flow is at the same rate as salt dilution water flow.
Salt Displacement Flow Rate, gpm = Dilution Water Flow Rate, gpm
Because salt is displaced for 1 bed volume, the time required is:
Salt Displacement Time, min = 1 x (Resin Volume, ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3)

(Salt Displacement Flow Rate, gpm)
The fast rinse and service rinse flow rates are equal and are computed as the
maximum of the following values:
• Service Flow, gpm

• (1.5 gpm/ft3) x (Resin Volume, ft3)
• (6 gpm/ft2) x (Area, ft2)
Fast rinse time is calculated from the requirement for 42.5 gallons of rinse water per
ft3 of resin:
Fast Rinse Time, min = 42.5 gal/ft3 x (Resin Volume, ft3) / (Rinse Flow, gpm)
Similarly, the service rinse time can be calculated:
Service Rinse Time, min = 1 x (Resin Volume, ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (Rinse Flow, gpm)

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5.2.3.2.3 Example Calculation
Using the method introduced above, the resin volume, regenerant salt requirement,
displacement water volume, and rinse water volume are calculated using input
values for a typical sodium cycle cation exchange unit. For the purposes of this
example, IXCALC has determined that 100 ft3 of resin is required for a 150 gpm
sodium cycle cation exchange unit.
Volumetric Flow Rate, gpm/ft3 = (150 gpm)/(100 ft3) = 1.5 gpm/ft3
Because this is less than the 5 gpm/ft3 limit, the resin volume is acceptable.
It is necessary to use a vessel diameter that keeps the linear flow rate within the
acceptable range. An initial value of 3 feet is used. The 3-foot diameter is used to
calculate the cross-sectional area, which is used to calculate the linear flow rate.
Area, ft2 = p x 32 / 4 = 7.1 ft2
Linear Flow Rate, gpm/ft2 = (150 gpm)/(7.1 ft2) = 21.1 gpm/ft2
The linear flow rate is above the maximum of 20 gpm/ft2, so a larger diameter than 3
feet must be selected. A value of 3.5 feet is used for the second calculation.
Area, ft2 = p x Diameter2 / 4 = 9.6 ft2
Linear Flow Rate, gpm/ft2 = (150 gpm) / (9.6 ft2) = 15.6 gpm/ft2
The linear flow rate is below the maximum, which is acceptable, so a diameter of 3.5
feet is chosen as the final value.
The depth of the resin bed is then calculated:
Depth = 100 ft3 / 9.6 ft2 = 10.4 ft
This is greater than 9 feet, so the pressure drop should be checked to ensure that
there is enough pressure to flow through the system without damaging the resin.
Side Shell Height, ft = (1 + 75%/100) x (10.4 ft) = 18.2 ft

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An 18.5-foot side shell is selected.
Backwash Flow, gpm = (9.6 ft2) x (6 gpm/ft2 @ 60oF) = 58 gpm
Backwash Time, min = 9.6 ft2 x 18.5 ft x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (58 gpm) = 22.9 min
The salt injection rate is calculated from equations in Section 9.4. For this example,
the salt dilution water flow rate is 35 gpm.
Salt displacement flow is at the same as the salt dilution flow.
Salt Displacement Flow Rate, gpm = 35 gpm
Salt is displaced for 1 bed volume.
Salt Displacement Time, min = (100 ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (35 gpm) = 21 min
The fast rinse and service rinse flow rates are equal and computed as the maximum
of the following values:
• Service Flow, gpm = 150 gpm

• (1.5 gpm/ft3) x (100 ft3) = 150 gpm
• (6 gpm/ft2) x (9.6 ft2) = 58 gpm
A 150 gpm rinse flow rate is used.
The fast rinse volume and flow rate allow calculation of the fast rinse time:
Fast Rinse Time, min = 42.5 gal/ft3 x (100 ft3) / (150 gpm) = 28.3 min
Service rinse is for 1 bed volume.
Service Rinse Time, min = 1 x (100 ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (150 gpm) = 5 min

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Inlet Inlet
Distributor
Chemical
Downflow
Distributor
Collector
False Bottom
with Strainers
Chemical Outlet
Upflow
Distributor
Figure 5.3-1: Split-Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Unit

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5.3 Split-Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Units
Split-flow counter-current ion exchange units operate the same way as co-current
units during the service cycle. Regeneration procedures and internals differentiate
the two. Figure 5.3-1 shows a split-flow counter-current exchanger. Major
components are identified. The service flow direction for split-flow counter-current
ion exchange units is downward. Regeneration flow is also downward for the top
one-third of the resin bed, but upward for the bottom two-thirds of the resin bed.
Because the regenerant flow is split and the bulk of the regenerant flows in the
opposite direction of the service water, the ion exchange unit regeneration is split-
flow counter-current.
A split-flow counter-current cation exchanger contains cation resin. A split-flow

counter-current anion exchanger contains anion resin. In addition to the basic
internals described in Section 5.1.8.2, the split-flow counter-current ion exchange
unit has an interface collector buried in the resin and an upward regenerant header
below the false bottom. The interface collector provides backwash water for the
upper one-third of the resin bed and it collects regenerant waste during regeneration
of the resin.
Split-flow counter-current ion exchange units provide better product water quality
(lower ion leakage) and slightly higher resin capacity than co-current units. This is
achieved at a higher capital cost for the equipment.
The advantage of the split-flow design over a completely counter-current design is

that no other blocking flow or blocking air is needed to prevent the top of the resin
bed from moving during regeneration. The freshest and strongest regenerant
chemical contacts both of the areas which benefit most from this: the highly
exhausted inlet area and the resin near the outlet.
Chemical regeneration equipment is required to provide the dilute chemical to

require other ancillary equipment. See Section 9.4 in the Ancillary Equipment
module for further information.

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Service flow for a split-flow counter-current ion exchange unit enters the inlet
distributor at the top of the vessel via the service inlet valve. Water passes through
the resin bed, is collected by the strainers located in the false bottom, and exits the
unit through the service outlet valve.
When the ion leakage from the resin bed approaches an unacceptable level (product
quality starts to decrease), the resin bed is nearing exhaustion and a regeneration
procedure must be performed. Regeneration can also take place at fixed time
intervals or, most commonly, after a pre-determined volume of water has been
treated.
Before regeneration is begun, a backwash of the upper one-third of the resin bed is
performed. The backwash removes particulate material retained on the resin surface.
The lower two-thirds of the resin bed is not disturbed. This is important for the
continued production of high quality product water. The resin at the bottom of the
bed is always the resin that has been exposed to the smallest amount of contaminant
ions (most ions have been removed farther up the bed). Backwashing the whole bed
would mix this resin with exhausted resin from the top of the bed, and some
exhausted resin beads from the top of the bed would be left at the bottom of the
bed.
Approximately once every 20 regeneration cycles, the whole bed is backwashed to

remove any particulate matter that has found its way to the bottom two-thirds of the
bed and any resin fines (broken beads) which might have been produced during past
regenerations. After a whole bed backwash, the resin is regenerated with twice the
amount of chemical to ensure that the resin beads at the bottom of the bed are in a
highly regenerated state and will produce high quality water.
If the ion exchange unit contains anion resin, warm water is introduced before the
regenerant chemical to preheat the resin bed. This facilitates silica removal. The
regenerant flow from the regeneration equipment is split so that one-third of the
flow is directed to the top of the resin bed and two-thirds of the flow is directed to
the bottom. This split normally takes place at the regeneration skid. Regenerant
enters the vessel at the top through a downflow regenerant header located just
above the bed. Regenerant simultaneously enters the vessel at the bottom through
an upflow regenerant header located below the false bottom. Chemical flows down
from the top and up from the bottom and meets at the interface collector buried in
the resin.

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After sufficient regenerant chemical has flowed through the resin bed, the chemical
is displaced with a slow flow of water. The bed is then rinsed to remove all traces of
regenerant.
The basic benefit of split-flow counter-current regeneration is highly regenerated

resin at both the top and bottom of the resin bed. Any process water ions not
removed during regeneration are left in the resin bed near the interface collector
rather than at the bottom of the resin bed, which is the case with co-current
regeneration. This results in a lower ion leakage from the resin bed and higher
product quality.
Split-flow counter-current ion exchange units must have regenerant dilution water
that is at least as good as the product water produced from the unit. Thus, a cation
exchanger must use at least decationized water and an anion exchanger must use
dilution water that has passed through at least the anion resin. Higher-quality
dilution water improves regeneration efficiency.
The performance of an ion exchange unit depends on the type of ion exchange resin
used in the regenerant chemical and the relative position of the unit within the water
treatment system. The following resins can be used in split-flow counter-current ion
exchange units:

acrylic gel S/W)
Many of these resins are available in a regenerated or exhausted state. Weak resins
are not used in counter-current designs because there is no advantage in striving for
higher product quality (they only remove a portion of the ions) or for increased
efficiency (they already use chemicals extremely efficiently).

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Figure 5.3-2: Split-Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Unit P&ID

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Figure 5.3-2, on the opposite page, is a P&ID of a split-flow counter-current cation
exchange unit, which shows all of the process components.
Specific modes, or steps, involved in the operation of a split-flow counter-current

vessel are described below:
• Service
• Sub-surface wash
• Backwash
• Displacement
• Fast rinse
• Service rinse
A summary of the valve positions for each of these steps is provided in Table 5.3-1.
Step
Valve Sub-Surface Fast Service
Service Backwash Preheat Regenerant Displace
Wash Rinse Rinse
Service Inlet Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open
Service
Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Outlet
Backwash
Closed Closed Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Inlet
Sub-Surface
Closed Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Wash Inlet
Backwash
Closed Open Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Outlet
Chemical
Closed Closed Closed Open Open Open Closed Closed
Inlets2
Chemical
Blocks1,2
Chemical
Open Open Open Closed Closed Closed Open Open
Bleeds1,2
Collector
Outlet
Rinse
Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open
Outlet
1
Chemical block and bleed values are optional
2
There are two chemical valves of wach type, up flow and down flow
Table 5.3-1: Split-Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Unit Valve Configuration

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Service
The service cycle is the normal operation mode for the ion exchange unit. All valves
are closed with the exception of the service inlet valve and service outlet valve, as
listed in Table 5.3-1. Figure 5.3-3 shows the flow path of feedwater through the
vessel during the service cycle. The optional chemical bleed valves are also open
whenever the chemical inlet valves are closed. They will not be explicitly mentioned
any further in these descriptions.
Service
Inlet
Service
Outlet
Figure 5.3-3: Split-Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Unit – Service Cycle

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Sub-Surface Wash
This step expands and fluidizes the top one-third of the resin bed to remove
particulate matter from the top of the bed. Adequate flow is required to ensure
particulate removal; however, excessive flow will sweep the resin out with the
backwash. Figure 5.3-4 shows flow paths and valve positions for this step. The sub-
surface wash inlet and backwash outlet valves are open.
Service
Inlet
Backwash
Outlet
Figure 5.3-4: Split-Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Unit – Sub-Surface Wash

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Backwash
A full-bed backwash removes silt, broken resin beads, and other foreign suspended
matter. As with the sub-surface wash, a proper flow is necessary. Figure 5.3-5
shows a backwash step. The backwash inlet and outlet valves are open.
Service
Inlet
Backwash
Outlet
Figure 5.3-5: Split-Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Unit – Backwash

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Downflow
Regenerant
Preheat Inlet
Waste
Upflow
Regerant
Preheat
Inlet
Figure 5.3-6: Split-Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Unit – Bed Preheat

(Anion Only)

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Bed Preheat (Anion Resin Only)
This step preheats the anion resin bed before regenerant caustic (sodium hydroxide)
is added. Heating the resin increases the efficiency of silica removal. The bed
preheat step is not used for cation resin.
The upflow and downflow regenerant inlet valves (block valves, if these are present)
and the collector outlet valve are open, as shown in Figure 5.3-6. The dilution water
pump is turned on (appropriate valves are opened depending on the dilution water
source arrangement) and hot dilution water is pumped through the resin bed.
The regenerant concentration must not be too high or too low. If too high, problems
with precipitation can occur. If too low, proper regeneration will not occur and
dilution water will be wasted. See Section 9.4, Ancillary Equipment, for a
discussion and calculations of proper regenerant flow and concentration.
The upflow and the downflow regenerant inlet valves and the collector outlet valve
are open, as shown in Table 5.3-1. If present, block valves are open and bleed valves
are closed. This is the same valve configuration as for the preheat step for anion
exchange units, but in this step, regenerant chemical is added to the dilution water.
Pumps and valves associated with the regeneration system also need to be turned on
or opened.
Displacement (or Slow Rinse)
After the regenerant chemical is introduced, a slow rinse removes chemical

remaining in the ion exchange unit. Valves remain in the same position as for bed
preheat, as shown in Figure 5.3-6, but no chemical is added to the dilution water
flow.

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Fast Rinse
A fast rinse step completely removes any regenerant chemical left in the unit.
Effluent quality is monitored to ensure that the unit is ready to be returned to
service.
achieved.
Service
Inlet
Rinse
Outlet
Figure 5.3-7: Split-Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Unit – Fast Rinse
Service Rinse
during no-flow situations are removed. The service rinse procedure is the same as
the fast rinse step above, but it takes less time.

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Figure 5.3-8 shows a cutaway of a split-flow counter-current ion exchange unit, with
major components identified. The vessel uses standard features and options as
identified in Appendix H and Section 5.1.8.2. Split-flow counter-current ion
exchange units have an inlet distributor, a downflow regenerant distributor, an
interface collector, an upflow regenerant distributor, and a flat false bottom
underdrain with strainers. Valve options include regenerant block and bleed (for
both upflow and downflow chemical), manual regenerant isolation (again, for both),
and rinse recycle (outlet for anion exchange unit and inlet for cation exchange unit).
Inlet
Inlet
Distributor
Chemical
Downflow
Distributor
Collector
False Bottom
with Strainers
Outlet
Chemical
Upflow
Distributor
Figure 5.3-8: Split-Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Unit

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5.3.3.1 Application
Split-flow counter-current ion exchange units are used as working exchange units
(softening, dealkalization, and demineralization) and polishing exchange units
(demineralization). Working cation exchange units are located in front of
decarbonators or anion exchange units. Polishing cation and anion exchange units
are an alternative to mixed bed ion exchange units; however, this is seldom done due
to space and capital cost constraints.
5.3.3.2 Design
The process design parameters for each of the resins used in split-flow counter-
current ion exchange units is provided here. This section is a reference resource for
the designer. An example set of sizing calculations for one of the resins is provided
at the end of the section.
Design parameters for split-flow counter-current sodium cycle cation (softener)

units
1) The resin capacity is calculated by the Rohm & Haas IXCALC software. No
2) The hardness leakage is calculated by the Rohm and Haas IXCALC software. No
4) The minimum bed depth is 54 inches (this provides 36 inches below the interface
collector).

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below).

below).

32 to <40 4
40 to <50 4.5
50 to <60 5
60 to <70 6
70 to <80 7
80 to <90 7.5
90 to <100 8
100 to <110 8.5
110 to 120 9

for calculations of regenerant chemical flows.
Sodium chloride regenerant:
Use a 10% NaCl solution.
A dosage of 15 lbs NaCl/ft3 of resin is the normal
level to achieve 30 kgr/ft3 resin capacity.

gal/ft3 of resin).

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Service flow

Design parameters for split-flow counter-current strong acid cation units
software.

collector).


below).

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below).

32 to <40 4
40 to <50 4.5
50 to <60 5
60 to <70 6
70 to <80 7
80 to <90 7.5
90 to <100 8
100 to <110 8.5
110 to 120 9

strengths.

gal/ft3).

chemical injection and displacement steps.
Service flow


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Design parameters for split-flow counter-current strong base anion units
used.
factor is added.
If silica is greater than 30% of the feed anions do not accept software-calculated
collector).


below).

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below).

32 to <40 1.75
40 to <50 2
50 to <60 2.25
60 to <70 2.5
70 to <80 2.75
80 to <90 3
90 to 100 3.5
Preheat Same as chemical dilution water flow rate.

gal/ft3).

strengths.

gal/ft3).
Service flow


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dosage. IXCALC provides the following outputs:
• Resin volume
• Regenerant chemical requirement
IXCALC first calculates the resin capacity (kilograins removed as CaCO3 per cubic
foot of resin) for dissolved minerals based on the input influent water analysis,
effluent leakage, and regenerant dosage (pounds of chemical per cubic foot of resin).
Higher regenerant dosages increase the resin capacity; lower dosages reduce it.
Next, the concentration of minerals in the water to be removed is converted to

kilograins as CaCO3. Based on the resin capacity (kgr/ft3), the mineral content (kgr),
the flow rate (gpm), and the service cycle time, IXCALC calculates the volume of
resin.
The following calculation is done for a split-flow counter-current strong acid cation
unit. Examples using other resin types are provided with some of the other process
unit calculations.
TEC (gpg) =
[Ca ion (ppm as CaCO3) + Mg ion (ppm as CaCO3) + Na ion (ppm as CaCO3)
+ K ion (ppm as CaCO3) + any others] / 17.12 ppm/gpg
TEC = total exchangeable cations

Resin Volume, ft3 =

(Flow Rate, gpm) x (Service Cycle, hr) x (60 min/hr) x (TEC, gpg) / 1000 gr/kgr
(Capacity, kgr/ft3)

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For the calculated resin volume and regenerant dosage, the amount of regenerant is
calculated as follows:
Regenerant Chemical, lb = (Resin Volume, ft3) x (Regenerant Dosage, lb/ ft3)
The resin volume and regenerant chemical requirement are used to complete the
design of the strong acid cation unit. First, the vessel diameter and resin bed depth
must be determined. These two values must produce linear and volumetric flow
rates that are within the ranges set by the process design parameters. Volumetric
flow rate is determined as follows:
rate to an acceptable number.
range, and an appropriate bed depth is selected (i.e., one that does not provide too
large a pressure drop). In general, the pressure drop of vessel designs with bed
depths over 9 feet should be carefully checked to ensure that they are within the
acceptable range. Vessel diameters are available in 6-inch increments. The vessel
area, linear flow rate, and depth are calculated as follows:
diameter.
be designed with the smallest diameter that is consistent with the process design
parameters.
Side Shell Height, ft = (1 + % Freeboard / 100) x (Resin Bed Depth, ft)

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calculated using the table for split-flow counter-current cation exchange units in the
process design parameters above. Backwash must take place for enough time to
produce at least one vessel volume of water.
The regenerant chemical injection flow rate and time are calculated in Section 9.4,
Chemical Regeneration Equipment.
Chemical displacement flow is at the same rate as chemical dilution water flow.
Displacement Flow Rate, gpm = Dilution Water Flow Rate, gpm
Because chemical is displaced for 1 bed volume, the time required is as follows:
Displacement Time, min = 1 x (Resin Volume, ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3)

(Displacement Flow Rate, gpm)

ft3 of resin for cation resin:
Fast Rinse Time, min = 42.5 gal/ft3 x (Resin Volume, ft3)

(Rinse Flow, gpm)
Service Rinse Time, min = 1 x (Resin Volume, ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3)

(Rinse Flow, gpm)

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Using the method introduced above, the resin volume, regenerant acid requirement,
displacement water volume, and rinse water volume are calculated using input
values for a typical strong acid cation exchange unit. For the purposes of this
example, IXCALC has determined that 184 ft3 of resin is required for a 200 gpm
strong acid cation exchange unit.
Volumetric Flow Rate, gpm/ft3 = (200 gpm) / (184 ft3) = 1.1 gpm/ft3
This is less than the 5 gpm/ft3 limit, so the resin volume is acceptable.
It is necessary to use a vessel diameter that keeps the linear flow rate within the
acceptable range. An initial value of 6 feet is used. The 6-foot diameter is used to
calculate the cross-sectional area, which is used to calculate the linear flow rate.
Area, ft2 = p x 62 / 4 = 28.3 ft2
Linear Flow Rate, gpm/ft2 = (200 gpm)/(28.3 ft2) = 7.1gpm/ft2
This flow rate is below the maximum of 20 gpm/ft2, but it is likely that a smaller
diameter vessel would also work and be less expensive. For a 5-foot diameter vessel,
the calculations would yield the following results:
Area, ft2 = p x 52 / 4 = 19.6 ft2
Resin Depth = 184 ft3 / 19.6 ft2 = 9.4 ft
This is a deep bed, so pressure drop calculations should be checked to ensure that
there is enough pressure available and that the resin will not be damaged. The linear
flow rate would indicate that a smaller diameter could be used, but the bed depth is
already high, so the 6-foot diameter is reasonable.
Side Shell Height, ft = (1 + 75% / 100) x (9.4 ft) = 16.45 ft

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A 16.5-foot side shell is selected.
Backwash Flow, gpm = (19.6 ft2) x (7 gpm/ft2 @ 72oF, for example)

= 137 gpm
Backwash Time, min = 19.6 ft2 x 16.5 ft x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (137 gpm)
= 17.7 min
The acid injection rate is calculated from equations in Section 9.4. For this example,
the sulfuric acid dilution water flow rate is 64 gpm.
Acid displacement flow is at the same rate as the acid dilution flow.
Acid Displacement Flow rate, gpm = 64 gpm
Acid is displaced for 1 bed volume.
Acid Displacement Time, min = (184 ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (64 gpm) = 21.5 min

• (1.5 gpm/ft3) x (184 ft3) = 276 gpm
• (6 gpm/ft2) x (19.6 ft2) = 117.6 gpm
A 276 gpm rinse flow rate is used. The main vessel piping must be sized for this
flow.
Fast Rinse Time, min = 42.5 gal/ft3 x (184 ft3) / (276 gpm) = 12.9 min
Service rinse is for 1 bed volume.
Service Rinse Time, min = 1 x (184 ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (276 gpm) = 5 min

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Outlet Retaining
Plate with Strainers
Service
Inlet
Resin Bed
Inlet Retaining
Service
Outlet
Figure 5.4-1: Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit

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5.4 Packed Bed Ion Exchange Units
Packed bed ion exchange units operate with the service water flowing upward. This
is the opposite direction from conventional, non-packed bed, ion exchange units that
have service water flowing downward. Regeneration flow for a packed bed is
downward, providing a counter-current regeneration. Figure 5.4-1, on the opposite
page, shows a packed bed ion exchange unit with major components labeled.
The upward service flow of the packed bed design requires unique vessel internals:
an inlet retaining plate with strainers and an outlet retaining plate with strainers.
These retaining plates with strainers replace the internals of conventional ion
exchange units. The inlet retaining plate on the bottom of the vessel holds the resin
when the ion exchange unit is not in service. The resin is pushed up against the
upper outlet retaining plate by the flow of water during service. Strainers are plastic
and are designed for the unique operation of the packed bed ion exchange unit.
If the resin is cationic, the ion exchange unit is a packed bed cation exchange unit. If
the resin is anionic, the ion exchange unit is a packed bed anion exchange unit.
Packed bed ion exchange units provide the higher quality product water typical of
counter-current designs. They also operate more efficiently than other single resin
designs, with lower chemical consumption and lower water consumption. Much of
this efficiency is a result of the resin being packed between plates. The resin is not
backwashed regularly, so it does not get an opportunity to mix. This keeps highly
regenerated resin at the outlet from cycle to cycle.

regenerate the resin when it is exhausted. The regeneration may also require other
ancillary equipment. See Section 9.4 in the Ancillary Equipment module for
further information on regeneration equipment.
A resin maintenance tank is also required for the infrequent backwash requirement
of the packed bed unit.
If the service flow is interrupted on a regular basis, it is necessary to provide

recirculation pumps to maintain a minimum flow through the ion exchange unit.
The service run length may be reduced if the resin bed is allowed to drop onto the
bottom inlet retaining plate.

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In a packed bed ion exchange unit, service water flows through the service inlet
valve, enters the vessel at the bottom, and passes through the inlet retaining plate
strainers. After passing through the resin bed, treated service water is collected by
the outlet retaining plate strainers and exits the vessel through the service outlet
valve.
When the resin bed is regenerated, no backwash cycle is performed in the vessel.
Backwashing is done infrequently in an external resin maintenance tank, which is
shown in Figure 5.4-2. Because a backwash is not regularly performed, it is
important to have good filtration, when required, before the ion exchange units. A
maximum turbidity level of 1 NTU is appropriate. When a backwash is required, the
resin is manually transferred to the resin maintenance tank.
Backwash
Overflow
Weir
Backwash
Distributor
Figure 5.4-2: Packed Bed Exchanger – Resin Maintenance Tank

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Figure 5.4-3: Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit P&ID

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Only a small freeboard is needed to accommodate resin swelling during
regeneration. Packed bed ion exchange units are physically smaller than split-flow
counter-current ion exchanger units and give the same performance while
generating less wastewater.
The performance of packed bed ion exchange units depends on the type of ion
exchange resin loaded, the regenerant chemical, and the relative position of the unit
within a water treatment system. The following resins can be used in packed bed ion
exchange units:

• Weak acid resin (acrylic gel)
• Weak base resin (acrylic gel, styrenic macroreticular, or acrylic gel S/W)
acrylic gel S/W)
• Many of these resins are also available in a regenerated or exhausted state.
Figure 5.4-3, on the opposite page, is a P&ID of a packed bed unit showing all
process components. Specific modes, or steps, involved in the operation of a packed
bed ion exchange unit are described below:
• Service
• Recycle
• Displacement
• Fast rinse
• Service rinse

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Step
Valve Fast Service
Service Recycle Preheat Regenerant Displace
Rinse Rinse
Service Inlet Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open
Service
Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Outlet
Recycle
Inlet*
Recycle
Outlet*
Chemical
Inlet
Chemical
Outlet
Chemical
Block*
Chemical
Open Open Closed Closed Closed Open Open
Bleed*
Rinse
Closed Closed Open Open Open Open Open
Outlet
* Note the recycle and the chemical block and bleed values are optional
Table 5.4-1: Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit Valve Configuration

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A summary of the valve positions for each of these steps is providedn on the
opposite page in Table 5.4-1.
Service
The service cycle is the normal operation mode for the ion exchange unit.
All valves are closed with the exception of the service inlet valve and the service
outlet valve, as shown in Figure 5.4-4. Service flow is up from the bottom of the
vessel, packing the resin against the upper retaining plate.
Service
Inlet
Service
Outlet
Figure 5.4-4: Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit – Service

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Recycle
Recycle mode is used only when the service flow is stopped, to keep the resin bed
from dropping onto the inlet retaining plate. An interruption in flow to a packed bed
exchanger invariably causes some mixing of resin and often results in a decrease in
product water quality and service run length.
All valves are closed with the exception of the recycle inlet and outlet valves, as
shown in Figure 5.4-5. The recycle pump must be started and the recycle valves
opened in sequence to ensure non-stop flow to the bed.
Recycle
Outlet
Recycle Inlet
Figure 5.4-5: Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit – Recycle

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Warm
Dilution
Water Inlet
To Waste
Figure 5.4-6: Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit – Bed Preheat (Anion Only)

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Bed Preheat (Anion Only)
This step preheats the anion resin bed before regenerant caustic (sodium hydroxide)
is added. Heating the resin increases the efficiency of silica removal. The bed
preheat step is not used for cation resin.
The regenerant inlet and outlet valves are open, as shown in Figure 5.4-6. The block
valve is open and the bleed valve is closed, if present. The dilution water pump is
turned on (appropriate valves are opened, depending on the dilution water source
arrangement) and warm dilution water is pumped through the resin bed.
The regenerant concentration must not be too high or too low. If it is too high,
problems with precipitation can occur. If it is too low, proper regeneration will not
occur. See Section 9.4 in the Ancillary Equipment module for a discussion and
calculations of proper regenerant flow and concentration.
The regenerant inlet and outlet valves open, as shown in Figure 5.4-6. This is the
same valve position as for the preheat step for anion exchange units but chemical is
now added to the dilution water. Pumps and valves associated with the regeneration
system also need to be turned on or opened.
Displacement (or Slow Rinse)
After the regenerant chemical is introduced, a slow rinse removes regenerant

chemical remaining in the ion exchange unit. Valves remain in the same position as
for the regeneration step, as shown in Figure 5.4-6, but no chemical is added to the
dilution water flow.

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Fast Rinse
Before the ion exchange unit is returned to service, service water rinses out any
regenerant chemical left in the unit. Effluent quality is monitored to ensure that the
vessel is ready to be returned to service.
achieved.
Service
Inlet
Rinse
Outlet
Figure 5.4-7: Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit – Fast Rinse
Service Rinse
during no-flow situations are removed. This procedure is the same as the fast rinse
step, but it takes less time.

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Figure 5.4-8 shows a cutaway of a packed bed ion exchange unit with major
components identified. The vessel uses standard features and options as identified in
Appendix H and Section 5.1.8.2, with the exception of internals. The packed bed
ion exchange unit has no internals beyond an inlet retaining plate with strainers and
an outlet retaining plate with strainers. Valve options include regenerant block and
bleed, manual regenerant isolation, and recycle.
Outlet Retaining
Service
Inlet
Resin Bed
Inlet Retaining
Service Outlet
Figure 5.4-8: Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit
The packed bed ion exchange unit vessel diameter is smaller than that of a split-flow
counter-current ion exchange unit because the resin can operate at a higher linear
flow rate. This results in a smaller, simpler design that generates less wastewater.
Because of higher linear flow rate design, the resin must be upgraded to uniform
particle size resin.

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5.4.3.1 Application
Packed bed counter-current exchangers are used as working exchangers. The cation
exchanger is located in front of the anion exchanger. These exchangers may be
separated by a decarbonator. Product water quality is better than that from a co-
current exchanger design.
5.4.3.2 Design
The process design parameters for each of the resins used in packed bed ion
exchange units is provided here. This section is a reference resource for the designer.
An example set of sizing calculations for one of the resins is provided at the end of
the section.
Design parameters for packed bed strong acid cation units
software.

8) The vessel freeboard is 2 inches above the expanded bed (resin in the form where
it is largest).

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strengths.

Flow until 1.2 resin bed volumes have been displaced (9
gal/ft3).
Flow until 2.5 resin bed volumes (18.75 gal/ft3), if rinse
recycle is used.

Fast Rinse Flow rate is the greatest of these two values:

Service flow
Volume = 41 gal/ft3 of resin.

Design parameters for packed bed strong base anion units
used.
factor is added.
If silica is greater than 30% of the feed anions do not accept software calculated

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it is largest).
system. IXCALC estimates pressure drops.

Preheat Same as the chemical dilution water flow for 1 resin bed
volume.

strengths.

Flow until 1.5 resin bed volumes have been displaced.
If rinse recycle is used:
For styrenic resins, flow until 3.5 resin bed
volumes have been displaced.
For acrylic resins flow until 4 resin bed volumes
have been displaced.

Service flow

quality.

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Design parameters for packed bed weak acid cation units
1) The resin capacity is 95% of the capacity calculated by the Rohm & Haas
IXCALC software.
it is largest).


strengths.

Flow until 1.2 resin bed volumes (9 gpm/ft3) have been
displaced.


Service flow


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Design parameters for packed bed weak base anion units
software.
2) The minimum run length is 8 hours NET to service at the full design flow.
it is largest).


strengths.
Chemical Displacement Same as chemical dilution water flow rate

Flow until 3 resin bed volumes have been displaced or
for 4 resin bed volumes if rinse recycle is used.

Service flow

quality.

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required to produce the specified effluent water quality from a specific influent water
analysis over the service cycle time at the specified flow rate and regenerant dosage.
IXCALC provides the following outputs:
• Resin volume
foot of resin) for dissolved minerals based on the input influent water analysis,
effluent leakage, and regenerant dosage (pounds of chemical per cubic foot of resin).
Higher regenerant dosages increase the resin capacity; lower dosages reduce it.
The concentration of minerals in the water to be removed is then converted to

kilograins as CaCO3. Based on the resin capacity (kgr/ft3), the mineral content (kgr),
the flow rate (gpm) and the service cycle time, IXCALC calculates the volume of
resin.
This sample calculation is done for a strong base anion unit. Examples using other
resin types are provided with some of the other process unit calculations.
TEA (gpg) =
[HCO3 ion (ppm as CaCO3) + Cl ion (ppm as CaCO3) + SO4 ion (ppm as CaCO3)
+ NO3 ion (ppm as CaCO3) + SiO2 (ppm as CaCO3) + CO2 (ppm as CaCO3)
+ any other anions] / 17.12 ppm/gpg
TEA = total exchangeable anions

Resin Volume, ft3 =

(Flow Rate, gpm) x (Service Cycle, hr) x (60 min/hr) x (TEA, gpg) / 1000 gr/kgr
(Capacity, kgr/ft3)

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calculated as follows:
Regenerant Chemical, lb = (Resin Volume, ft3) x (Regenerant Dosage, lbs/ ft3)
The values for the resin volume and the regenerant chemical requirement are used to
complete the design of the strong acid cation unit. First, the vessel diameter and
resin bed depth must be determined. These two values must produce linear and
volumetric flow rates that are within the ranges set by the process design parameters.
Volumetric flow rate can be determined immediately as follows.
range, and a bed depth that does not provide too high a pressure drop. In general,
the pressure drop produced by any bed depth over 9 feet should be checked carefully
to ensure that sufficient pressure is available and that resin will not be damaged.
Vessel diameters are available in 6-inch increments. The vessel area, linear flow rate,
and depth are calculated as follows:
diameter.
be designed with the smallest diameter possible that is consistent with the process
design parameters.

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The vessel side shell height is based on the resin bed depth and the freeboard.
Side Shell Height, ft = 2 inches / 12 (inches/foot) + (Resin Bed Depth, ft)
The vessel volume and the resin bed volume are almost identical for the packed bed,
because there is very little freeboard.
The regenerant chemical injection flow rate and time are calculated in Section 9.4,
Chemical displacement flow is at the same rate as chemical dilution water flow.
When chemical is displaced for 3.5 bed volumes, the time required is:
Displacement Time, min = 3.5 x (Resin Volume, ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3)

For other displacement volumes, multiply accordingly.

Fast rinse time is calculated from the requirement of 56.25 gallons (for strong base
anion resin) of rinse water per ft3 of resin:
Fast Rinse Time, min = 56.25 gal/ft3 x (Resin Volume, ft3) / (Rinse Flow, gpm)
Similarly, the service rinse time can be calculated as follows:

(Rinse Flow, gpm)

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For the purposes of this example, IXCALC has determined that 126 ft3 of resin is
required for a 320 gpm strong base anion exchange unit.
As this is less than the 5 gpm/ft3 limit the resin volume is acceptable.
The selected diameter must keep the linear flow rate within the acceptable range.
Start with a 6-foot diameter:
Area, ft2 = p x 62 / 4 = 28.3 ft2
Linear Flow Rate, gpm/ft2 = (320 gpm)/(28.3 ft2) = 11.3 gpm/ft2
This flow rate is below the maximum of 25 gpm/ft2, but it is likely that a smaller
diameter vessel would also work and be less expensive. For a 4.5-foot diameter
vessel, the calculations are as follows:
Area, ft2 = p x 4.52 / 4 = 15.9 ft2
Resin Depth = 126 ft3 / 15.9 ft2 = 7.9 ft
Side Shell Height, ft = 2/12 + 7.9 = 8.1 ft
An 8-foot, 2-inch (98 inch) side shell is selected.
The caustic injection rate is calculated from equations in Section 9.4. For this
example, the sodium hydroxide dilution water flow rate is 36 gpm.

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Caustic displacement flow is at the same rate as the caustic dilution flow.
Caustic Displacement Flow Rate, gpm = 36 gpm
Caustic is displaced for 3-bed volumes.
Caustic Displacement Time, min =3.5 x (126 ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (36 gpm)
= 92 minutes

• (1.5 gpm/ft3) x (126 ft3) = 189 gpm
A 320 gpm rinse flow rate is used.
Fast Rinse Time, min = 56.25 gal/ft3 x (126 ft3) / (320 gpm)
= 22.1 minutes
The minimum service rinse is for 1 bed volume.
Service Rinse Time, min = 1 x (126 ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (320 gpm)
= 3 minutes

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Inlet
Distributor
Caustic
Distributor
Interface
Collector
False Bottom
with Strainers
Acid Service
Distributor Outlet
Figure 5.5-1: Mixed Bed Exchanger

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5.5 Mixed Bed Exchangers
Both cation and anion resin can be added to an ion exchange vessel and mixed to
create a mixed bed exchanger, as shown in Figure 5.5-1. A mixed bed exchanger is
more complicated than other types of ion exchangers because it has to separate and
regenerate the two resins.
The intimate mixing of the cation and anion resin allows a very high degree of
deionization. Mixed bed exchangers produce the highest quality demineralized
water of any of the ion exchange units.
Chemical regeneration equipment is required for both cation and anion resin. The
regeneration equipment may also require other ancillary equipment. See Section
9.4, Chemical Regeneration Equipment for further information. An air blower for
mixing air may also be required if plant utilities are not able to supply sufficient air.
Service flow for mixed bed exchangers enters the inlet distributor at the top of the
vessel. Water passes through the resin bed, is collected by the strainers located in the
false bottom, and exits the unit through the service outlet.
When the ion leakage from the resin bed approaches an unacceptable level (product
quality starts to decrease) a regeneration procedure must be performed. The cation
and anion resins are separated by a backwash procedure. This leaves cation resin at
the bottom of the vessel and anion resin sitting on top. The two resins are
regenerated in a normal fashion: caustic is fed from above, and acid is fed from
below. Both chemicals are removed from the vessel at the interface between the two
resins.
This section reviews a mixed bed vessel regenerated in-situ. The term “in-situ
regeneration” means that the resin in the mixed bed is regenerated in-place, not
externally. Caustic regenerant passes through the anion resin in the same direction
as the service flow. Acid regenerant passes through the cation resin in the opposite
direction to the service flow.
In-situ regenerated mixed bed exchangers perform either a working or a polishing

function. They are loaded with strong acid cation resin and strong base anion resin
and regenerated with either sulfuric or hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.
Working mixed bed exchangers deionize water with up to 50 ppm TDS (Total
Dissolved Solids). Polishing mixed bed exchangers are located after working cation
and anion exchangers or reverse osmosis units.

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Figure 5.5-2: Mixed Ion Exchange Unit P&ID

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Strong acid cation and strong base anion resins are used in mixed bed exchangers, as
complete demineralization is the objective. Either gel or macroreticular resins can be
used, although gel type resins are normal. A small volume of inert resin can also be
used to facilitate separation of the cation and anion resin beads during regeneration
(this technique is rarely applied in industrial systems).
Figure 5.5-2, on the opposite page, is a P&ID of a mixed bed ion exchange unit,
which shows all of the process components.
Specific modes or steps are involved in the operation of a mixed bed in-situ
regeneration vessel:
• Service
• Fast backwash
• Slow backwash
• Settle
• Anion bed preheat
• Acid/caustic inject
• Acid displace/caustic inject
• Acid/caustic displace
• Acid displace/caustic rinse
• Full bed rinse
• Draindown
• Air mix
• Refill
• Rinse

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Step
Acid
Valve Acid/
Fast Slow Displ.
Service Settle Preheat Caustic
Backwash Backwash Caustic
Inject
Inject
Service Inlet Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Service Outlet Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Backwash Inlet Closed Open Open Closed Closed Closed Closed
Fast Backwash
Outlet
Slow Backwash
Closed Closed Open Closed Closed Closed Closed
Outlet
Acid Inlet Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open Open
Acid Block Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open Open
Acid Bleed Open Open Open Open Closed Closed Closed
Caustic Inlet Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open Open
Caustic Block Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open Open
Caustic Bleed Open Open Open Open Closed Closed Closed
Collector
Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open Open
Outlet
Caustic Rinse
Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Inlet
Air Inlet Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Air Outlet Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Rinse Outlet Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Table 5.5-1: Valve Configurations for Operational Modes of

Mixed Bed In-situ Regeneration Units

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A summary of the valve positions for each of these steps is provided on the opposite
page in Table 5.5-1 and below in Table 5.5-2.
Step
Acid
Valve Acid/
Displace Full Bed
Caustic Drain Air Mix Refill Rinse
Caustic Rinse
Displace
Rinse
Service Inlet Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Open
Service Outlet Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Backwash Inlet Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Fast Backwash
Outlet
Slow Backwash
Outlet
Acid Inlet Open Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Acid Block Open Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Acid Bleed Closed Closed Open Open Open Open Open
Caustic Inlet Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Caustic Block Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Caustic Bleed Closed Open Open Open Open Open Open
Collector
Open Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Outlet
Caustic Rinse
Closed Open Open Closed Closed Open Closed
Inlet
Air Inlet Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Closed Closed
Air Outlet Closed Closed Closed Open Open Open Closed
Rinse Outlet Closed Closed Open Open Closed Closed Open
Table 5.5-2: Valve Configurations for Operational Modes of

Mixed Bed In-situ Regeneration Units

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The service cycle is the normal operation mode for the vessel. It provides a flow path
for service water with all other valves isolated.
All valves are closed, with the exception of the service inlet valve, service outlet valve,
and the optional chemical bleed valves, as shown below in Figure 5.5-3.
Service
Inlet
Service
Outlet
Figure 5.5-3: Mixed Bed Ion Exchange Unit - Service Cycle

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Fast Backwash
This step cleans the resin bed by removing broken resin beads and other foreign
suspended matter. Excessive backwash flow could sweep resin out the backwash
outlet along with the particulate matter. The backwash inlet and the fast backwash
outlet valves are open, as shown below in Figure 5.5-4.
Service
Inlet
Backwash
Outlet
Figure 5.5-4: Mixed Bed Ion Exchange Unit - Fast Backwash
Slow Backwash
After the fast backwash step, a slow backwash step separates the cation resin from
the anion resin. The backwash flow is sufficient to fluidize the bed but not sufficient
to keep the resins mixed. The more dense cation resin beads sink below the less
dense anion resin beads, allowing the resins to separate. The backwash inlet is left
open and the slow backwash outlet valve is open instead of the fast backwash outlet
valve. Occasionally a single modulating backwash valve is used instead of the two
separate valves discussed here.

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Settle
After the slow backwash step, the resin bed is allowed to settle. All valves are closed.
Anion Bed Preheat
This step pre-warms the anion resin before regenerant caustic (sodium hydroxide) is
added. Heating the resin increases the efficiency of silica removal. Caustic dilution
water is used to preheat the anion resin. Acid dilution water flows up through the
cation resin bed as a blocking flow, preventing warm water from reaching the cation
resin beads.
The acid and caustic regenerant inlet valves and the interface collector valve are
open, as shown below in Figure 5.5-5. Chemical block valves are open and bleed
valves are closed if present. Pumps and valves in the regeneration system are
actuated as required to supply the flow.
Warm Dilution
Water Inlet
To
Waste
Figure 5.5-5: Mixed Bed Ion Exchange Unit - Anion Preheat

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Caustic
Inlet
Acid To
Inlet Waste
Figure 5.5-6: Mixed Bed Ion Exchange Unit - Acid/Caustic Injection

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Acid/Caustic Inject
This step applies dilute regenerant chemicals to both the cation and anion resins.
The regenerant flow rates must be adequate to ensure proper flow distribution over
the bed. The regenerant concentrations must not be too high or too low and the
caustic temperature must be controlled. See Section 9.4, Chemical Regeneration
Equipment for a discussion and calculations of proper regenerant flows and
concentrations.
Valve positions are the same as for the preheat step. The downflow caustic
regenerant inlet valve, the interface collector valve and the upflow acid regenerant
inlet valve are open. Chemical block valves are open and bleed valves, if present, are
closed. Pumps and valves associated with the regeneration system are turned on or
opened as required to supply regenerant.
Acid Displace/Caustic Inject
Because the cation resin completes its regeneration before the anion resin, acid
introduction terminates while the anion regeneration goes to completion. Acid
dilution water continues to flow as blocking flow during this part of the regeneration
sequence. Valves remain in the same positions shown, on the opposite page, in
Figure 5.5-6.
Acid/Caustic Displace
When the anion resin regeneration is complete, regenerant caustic is displaced from
the anion resin and acid continues to be displaced from the cation resin. Valves
remain in the same positions shown in Figure 5.5-6.

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Acid Displace/Caustic Slow Rinse
When the caustic has been displaced, the anion resin is slowly rinsed with service
water.
The caustic rinse valve is open to allow water in, and the collector outlet valve is
open to send rinse water to drain, as shown in Figure 5.5-7. The acid dilution flow
continues as in the previous step to provide a blocking flow.
Service
Inlet
To
Waste
Figure 5.5-7: Mixed Bed Ion Exchange Unit - Caustic Rinse

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Full Bed Rinse
Both anion and cation resin beds are rinsed to remove any remaining traces of
regenerant chemical left in the vessel, especially in the bottom head cavity.
The caustic rinse inlet and the rinse outlet valves are open, as shown in Figure 5.5-8.
Service
Inlet
To
Waste
Figure 5.5-8: Mixed Bed Ion Exchange Unit - Full Bed Rinse

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Draindown
After the regenerant chemical is rinsed out of the vessel, the water level is lowered to
the resin bed surface in preparation for air mixing. This is necessary to ensure that
resin does not have room to reclassify at the conclusion of the air mix step.
The air inlet valve (which acts as a vent to allow atmospheric air in) and the rinse
outlet valve are open, as shown in Figure 5.5-9. The water is drained via a pipe loop
with a vacuum breaker vent valve set at the same level as the resin bed surface. If
the rinse line is being hard piped to an above ground neutralization tank, a dedicated
draindown valve is required that will drain to an atmospheric floor trench or drain.
Air Inlet
Water to
Drain
Figure 5.5-9: Mixed Bed Ion Exchange Unit - Draindown

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Air Mix
After the vessel is drained, air is blown through the bed to re-mix the resin.
The air inlet and outlet valves are open, as shown in Figure 5.5-10. If air is provided
from a blower, the blower is turned on for this step.
Air
Outlet
Pressurized
Air Inlet
Figure 5.5-10: Mixed Bed Ion Exchange Unit - Air Mix
Refill
After the resin is mixed, the vessel is re-filled slowly so that the resin bed surface is
not significantly disturbed.
The caustic rinse inlet valve is open to allow water in and the air outlet valve is open
to allow air to leave the vessel.

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Rinse
The resin bed is rinsed prior to returning the vessel to service.
This step continues until the rinse discharge water reaches an acceptable quality.
Service
Inlet
Rinse
Outlet
Figure 5.5-11: Mixed Bed Ion Exchange Unit - Rinse

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The mixed bed ion exchange unit has an inlet distributor, a downflow regenerant
header (caustic distributor), an interface collector, a false bottom with strainers, and
an upflow regenerant header (acid distributor), as shown below in Figure 5.5-12.
For installations where the rinse water must be discharged to an overhead piping
system, a separate draindown lateral and valve can be added to the system.
Inlet
Caustic
Distributor
Distributor
Interface
Collector
False Bottom
with Strainers
Service
Acid
Outlet
Distributor
Figure 5.5-12: Mixed Bed Ion Exchange Unit

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5.5.3.1 Application
Mixed bed ion exchange units are normally used as polishing exchangers after
roughing demineralization by separate cation and anion beds or reverse osmosis. In
some cases (TDS of feed less than 50 ppm), they can be used directly without
upstream demineralization.
Mixed bed exchangers produce highly demineralized water. Either mixed bed ion
exchange or electro-deionization (EDI) is required when resistivity values over 10
Mohm-cm are specified.
5.5.3.2 Design
The process design parameters for mixed bed ion exchange units are provided here.
This section is a reference resource for the designer. An example set of sizing
calculations is provided at the end of the section.
Design parameters for mixed bed ion exchange units
1) Resin capacity for polishing mixed bed units is not more than 10 kgr/ft3 for both
cation and anion resins.
3) The minimum bed depth is 24 inches for cation resin, 24 inches for anion resin,
and 9 inches for inert resin (if used).
6) The vessel freeboard is a minimum of 90% of the bed depth.
7) Operating temperature is 100°F maximum to ensure good silica removal.
8) The cation to anion resin ratio must be between 2:1 and 1:2.

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Service Linear velocity is 12 to 25 gpm per ft2 of bed area.

Fast Backwash Sufficient flow to obtain 100% bed expansion of the

anion resin at maximum backwash water temperature
(see chart below).
Flow until 1 vessel volume of water has been displaced.
Backwash Water Fast Backwash

Temperature (ºF) Flow Rate (gpm/ft2)
32 to <40 3
40 to <50 3.25
50 to <60 3.5
60 to <70 3.75
70 to <80 4.25
80 to <90 5
90 to <100 6
Slow Backwash Flow at 2 gpm/ft2 of bed area for 5 minutes to classify

the resin bed.
Settle For 5 minutes.
Anion resin bed preheat Same as the caustic dilution water flow rate.
Flow until 1 anion bed volume has been displaced (7.5
gal/ft3).

strengths.
Normal regenerant dosage is 8 to 10 lb/ft3.
Chemical Displacement Same as the chemical dilution water flow rates.

Flow until 1 resin bed volume has been displaced. The
cation resin displacement is extended until the end of
the caustic rinse step.
Caustic Rinse Flow rate is 3 gpm/ft2 of bed area.

Flow until a volume of 25 gallons per ft3 of anion resin
has been displaced.

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Full Bed Rinse Flow rate is the same as the caustic rinse flow rate.
Flow for 10 minutes (until two bottom head volumes are
displaced).
Draindown For 15 minutes minimum.
Air Mix Blow 10 SCFM/ft2 of bed area at 7.5 psig for 15 minutes.
Refill Flow rate is the same as the caustic rinse flow rate.
Refill for 15 minutes.
Service flow

Volume = 7.5 to 22.5 gal/ft3 of resin.
The Rohm & Haas IXCALC software is used to calculate the capacity (kilograins
removed as CaCO3 per cubic foot of resin) for both cation resin and anion resin
based on the input influent water analysis and regenerant dosage (pounds of
chemical per cubic foot of resin). Higher regenerant dosages increase the resin
capacity, lower dosages reduce it. If the calculated capacity of polishing mixed beds
is above 10 kgr/ft3, it is reduced to this value.

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The concentration of minerals in the water is converted to grains as CaCO3 per
gallon of water. Based on the resin capacity (kgr/ft3), the mineral content (gr/gal), the
flow rate (gpm), and the service cycle time, the volume of both cation and anion
resins are calculated as shown below.
TEC (gpg) =
[Ca ion (ppm as CaCO3) + Mg ion (ppm as CaCO3) + Na ion (ppm as CaCO3)
+ K ion (ppm as CaCO3) + any others] / 17.12 ppm/gpg
TEC = Total Exchangeable Cations

Cation Resin Volume, ft3 =

(Flow Rate, gpm) x (Service Cycle, hr) x (60 min/hr) x (TEC, gpg) / 1000 gr/kgr
(Cation Resin Capacity, kgr/ft3)
TEA (gpg) =
[HCO3 ion (ppm as CaCO3) + Cl ion (ppm as CaCO3) + SO4 ion (ppm as CaCO3)
+ NO3 ion (ppm as CaCO3) + SiO2 (ppm as CaCO3) + CO2 (ppm as CaCO3)
+ any other anions] / 17.12 ppm/gpg
TEA = Total Exchangeable Anions
Anion Resin Volume, ft3 =

(Flow Rate, gpm) x (Service Cycle, hr) x (60 min/hr) x (TEA, gpg) / 1000 gr/kgr
(Anion Resin Capacity, kgr/ft3)
If the cation to anion resin ratio is not between 2:1 and 1:2, the volume of the
limiting resin is increased to bring the ratio into range.
Note that the resin volumes calculated by the Rohm & Haas IXCALC program are in
the Na and Cl forms and must be converted to the H and OH forms for service in
the mixed bed.
calculated as follows for both acid and caustic.
Regenerant Chemical, lb =
(Cation or Anion Resin Volume, ft3) x (Regenerant Dosage, lb/ ft3)

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Next, the vessel diameter and resin bed depth must be determined. These two
values must produce linear and volumetric flow rates that are within the ranges set
by the process design parameters above. The volumetric flow rate can be determined
immediately as follows.
Volumetric Flow Rate, gpm/ft3 = (Flow, gpm) / (Total Resin Volume, ft3)
rate to an acceptable number. Either cation or anion resin can be added as long as
the resin ratio is kept within range.
A vessel diameter is selected to achieve a linear flow rate within the acceptable range
and a bed depth which does not provide too high a pressure drop. In general, bed
depths over 9 feet should be carefully checked for pressure drop. Note that vessel
diameters are available in 6-inch increments. The vessel area, linear flow rate, and
depth are calculated as follows:
Bed Depth, ft = (Total Resin Volume, ft3) / (Area, ft2)
diameter.
Because adding side shell height is less expensive than adding diameter, the unit
should be designed with the smallest diameter possible, consistent with the process
design parameters.
Side Shell Height, ft = (1 + % Freeboard / 100) x (Total Resin Bed Depth, ft)

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Once the vessel diameter has been computed, the resin fast backwash flow rate can
be calculated using the table in the process design parameters (above) for the fast
backwash rate. Fast backwash must take place for enough time to produce at least 1
vessel volume of water.
Fast Backwash Flow, gpm = (Area, ft2) x (Backwash Rate, gpm/ft2)
Slow Backwash Flow, gpm = (Area, ft2) x (2 gpm/ft2)
Fast Backwash Time, min = 1 x (Vessel Volume, ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (Backwash Flow, gpm)
Slow Backwash Time = 5 minutes
The regenerant chemical injection flow rates and times are calculated in Section 9.4,
Chemical Regeneration Equipment. The two resins can be treated as separate
beds in the calculations, noting that the cation resin displacement step is extended to
finish concurrently with the caustic rinse step.
The anion bed preheat step uses the anion resin caustic dilution water flow rate.
Chemical displacement flows are at the same rate as chemical dilution water flows.
The acid/caustic injection step completes when the acid injection step is done. The
acid displacement/caustic injection step completes when the caustic injection step is
done. The acid/caustic displacement step continues until the caustic displacement is
complete.
Acid Displacement Flow Rate, gpm = Acid Dilution Water Flow Rate, gpm
Caustic Displacement Flow Rate, gpm = Caustic Dilution Water Flow Rate, gpm
Acid/Caustic Injection Time, min = Acid Injection Time

Acid Displacement/Caustic Injection Time, min =
Caustic Injection Time – Acid Injection Time
Chemical is displaced for 1 bed volume:
Acid/Caustic Displacement Time, min =

1 x (Anion Resin Volume, ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (Anion Displacement Flow Rate, gpm)

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The caustic rinse flow and time is calculated from the anion resin volume:
Caustic Rinse Flow, gpm = (Area, ft2) x (3 gpm/ft2)
Caustic Rinse Time, min =

(25 gal/ft3 x Anion Resin Volume, ft3) / (Caustic Rinse Flow, gpm)
A full bed rinse of both cation and anion resin beds continues at the caustic rinse
flow rate for 10 minutes.
Because the draindown step occurs with gravity flow only, this step runs for a fixed
amount of time that is certain to allow the vessel time to drain.
The air mix flow rate is a function of the vessel diameter and runs for 15 minutes:
Air Mix Flow, SCFM = (Vessel Area, ft2) x (10 SCFM/ft2)
After the air mix step, the vessel is refilled, again using a time which is certain to fill
the vessel.

• (1.5 gpm/ft3) x (Total Resin Volume, ft3)
Fast rinse time is calculated from the requirement for 40 gallons of rinse water per ft3
of total resin volume:
Fast Rinse Time, min = (40gal/ft3) x (Total Resin Volume, ft3) / (Rinse Flow, gpm)
Service Rinse Time, min = 1 x (Resin Volume, ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (Rinse Flow, gpm)

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For the purposes of this example, IXCALC has determined that 43 ft3 of cation resin
is required (11 kgr/ft3 capacity) and 91 ft3 of anion resin is required (9.2 kgr/ft3
capacity) for a 550 gpm polishing mixed bed ion exchange unit.
Because the cation resin capacity is over 10, it is reduced to 10 kgr/ft3. The new
volume of cation resin required is as follows:
Cation Resin Volume = 43 ft3 x 11 / 10 = 47.3 ft3 (use 48 ft3)
The cation:anion resin ratio is now 48:91 or 1:1.9, which is within the correct range.
Total Resin Volume = 91 ft3 + 48 ft3 = 139 ft3
Because this is less than the 5 gpm/ft3 limit, the resin volume is acceptable.
A diameter is selected which will keep the linear flow rate within the acceptable
range. For a 5.5-foot diameter vessel:
Area, ft2 = p x 5.52 / 4 = 23.7 ft2
Cation Resin Depth = 48 ft3 / 23.7 ft2 = 2.03 ft
Because this is above the minimum depth of 24 inches (2 ft), it is not necessary to
add further cation resin.
Anion Resin Depth = 91 ft3 /23.7 ft2 = 3.8 ft (46 inches)
Recalculate other items for confirmation as follows:
Total Resin Volume = 91 ft3 + 48 ft3 = 139 ft3
Volumetric Flow Rate = 550 gpm / 139 ft3 = 3.96 gpm/ft3

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The vessel side shell height can now be calculated:
Side Shell Height, ft = (1 + 90% / 100) x (2 + 3.8 ft) = 11 ft
An 11-foot side shell is selected.

Now that the vessel has been designed, the flow and duration of each of the steps in
the regeneration procedure can be calculated.
Fast Backwash Flow, gpm = (23.7 ft2) x (4.25 gpm/ft2 @ 72oF, for example) = 101 gpm
Slow Backwash Flow, gpm = (23.7 ft2) x (2 gpm/ft2 ) = 48 gpm for 5 minutes
Fast Backwash Time, min = 23.7 ft2 x 11 ft x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (101 gpm) = 19.3 min
The acid and caustic injection rates are calculated from equations in Section 9.4,
Chemical Regeneration Equipment. For this example, the caustic dilution water
flow rate is 24 gpm.
Caustic displacement flow is at the same rate as the caustic dilution flow.
Caustic Displacement Flow Rate, gpm = 24 gpm
Caustic is displaced for 1 anion resin bed volume.
Acid/Caustic Displacement Time, min = (91 ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (24 gpm) = 28.4 minutes
The caustic rinse flow and time is also calculated from the anion resin volume:
Caustic Rinse Flow, gpm = (23.7 ft2) x (3 gpm/ft2) = 71 gpm
Caustic Rinse Time, min = (25 gallons/ft3) x (91 ft3/ 71 gpm) = 32 minutes
A full bed rinse of both cation and anion resin beds continues at 71 gpm for 10
minutes.
Air Mix Flow, SCFM = (23.7 ft2) x (10 SCFM/ft2) = 237 SCFM

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• (1.5 gpm/ft3) x (139 ft3) = 208 gpm
• (6 gpm/ft2) x (23.7 ft2) = 142 gpm
A 550-gpm flow rate is used for the rinse.
of total resin volume:
Fast Rinse Time, min = (40gal/ft3) x (139 ft3) / (550 gpm) = 10 minutes
Further rinse time may be required depending on the quality setpoint.

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5.6 Cation Polisher
A cation polisher is a special type of the co-current cation exchanger discussed in

Section 5.2. It is used to further reduce the quantity of cations in the water after the
process flow has passed through the packed bed exchangers. Figure 5.6-1 identifies
the major components of the hi-flow cation polisher.
The cation polisher does not require any ancillary equipment beyond that required
for the existing ion exchange units that must be installed upstream of this unit.
Acid Inlet
Inlet
Retaining
Plate and
Strainers
Outlet
Retaining
Plate and
Strainers
Service
Outlet
Rinse
Outlet
Acid
Outlet
Service Inlet
Figure 5.6-1: Cation Polisher

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Figure 5.6-2: Cation Polisher P&ID

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A cation polisher is designed so that service flow enters the inlet retaining plate
distributor at the top of the vessel and flows down through a resin bed. After
passing through the bed, the treated service water is collected by the strainers located
in the outlet retaining plate at the bottom of the vessel. Purified water exists via the
service outlet.
Regeneration of the polisher occurs when regeneration of the upstream cation

exchanger takes place. As there is very little ion load on the polisher, the resin never
approaches exhaustion. Further, regenerant for the upstream cation exchanger
passes through the polisher first, resulting in a highly regenerated bed of cation
polishing resin at all times.
Cation polishers always contain strong acid cation resin so that the greatest degree of
demineralization can be obtained. The P&ID, on the opposite page in Figure 5.6-2,
identifies all of the process components.

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Step
Valve Service
Service Regenerant Displace
Rinse
Service Inlet Open Closed Closed Open
Service Outlet Open Closed Closed Closed
Chemical Inlet Closed Open Open Closed
Chemical Block* Closed Open Open Closed
Chemical Bleed* Open Closed Closed Open
Chemical Outlet Closed Open Open Closed
Rinse Outlet Closed Closed Closed Open
* Note that the chemical block and bleed valves are optional
Table 5.6-1: Valve Configuration for Co-Current Ion Exchange Unit

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The specific modes of operation for a cation polisher vessel are as follows:
• Service
• Displacement
• Service rinse
A summary of the valve positions for each of these steps is provided in Table 5.6-1,
on the opposite page.
Service
The service step is the normal operation mode for the vessel. It provides a flow path
for service water with all valves closed except the service inlet valve, the service outlet
valve and, when installed, the chemical bleed valve as shown in Figure 5.6-3.
All valves are closed with the exception of the service inlet valve, the service outlet
valve, and the chemical bleed valve (when installed), as shown in Figure 5.6-3.
Service
Outlet
Service
Inlet
Figure 5.6-3: Cation Polisher – Service

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Regenerant Introduction
Acid for the upstream cation exchanger is fed through the cation polisher in a
“thoroughfare” arrangement. The dilute acid from regeneration equipment flows
into the cation polisher, regenerates the cation resin, exits the cation polisher, and
then flows into the upstream cation exchanger to regenerate the cation resin.
Because the regenerant services both the polisher and the exchanger, the chemical
dosage to the regenerate the resins is much higher than usual.
The regenerant inlet valve (and block valve, where installed) and the regenerant
outlet valve are open, as shown in Figure 5.6-4. Because the acid regenerates both
the cation polisher and the cation exchanger the chemical dosage to the polisher
resin is much higher than normal.
Regenerant
Inlet
Regenerant
Outlet
Figure 5.6-4: Cation Polisher– Regenerant Introduction

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Slow Rinse
After the regenerant chemical has

passed through the polisher, a slow
rinse flushes any regenerant chemical
remaining in the vessel.
Valves remain in the same position as

for the regenerant introduction, but
no chemical is introduced into the
dilution water at the regeneration
equipment. The thoroughfare
arrangement provides a large volume
of rinse water to the polisher.
Rinse
Service Rinse Outlet
If the polisher has been sitting idle

before it is required for service, it is
appropriate to perform a service rinse. Service
This ensures that ions released from Inlet
resin during no flow are removed.
Figure 5.6-5: Cation Polisher– Service
During a service rinse, the service inlet Rinse
valve and the rinse outlet valve are
open, as shown in Figure 5.6-5. The service rinse step continues until a minimum
effluent quality level is achieved.

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Figure 5.6-6 identifies the major components of a cation polisher. The vessel uses
standard features and options as identified in Appendix H, Pressure Vessels, and
in Section 5.1.8.2. Cation polishers have a flat plate-type inlet distributor to handle
the high service flow rate and a flat, false bottom underdrain with strainers. Options
include regenerant block and bleed valves and manual regenerant isolation valves.
Inlet
Retaining
Plate and
Strainers
Outlet
Retaining
Plate and
Strainers
Service
Outlet
Service Inlet
Figure 5.6-6: Cation Polisher

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5.6.3.1 Application
Cation polishers are used to remove residual cations from process water once it has
passed though packed bed ion exchangers. In some applications cation polishers
can be used instead of mixed bed exchangers to achieve required water quality.
5.6.3.2 Design
The process design parameters for each of the cation polishers is provided here. This
section is a reference resource for the designer. A sample set of sizing calculations is
provided at the end of the section.
Design parameters for cation polishers
1) The bed depth is 24 inches nominal.
3) The vessel side shell height is 36 inches.
Chemical Injection Thoroughfare is based on the upstream cation

exchanger requirements.
Chemical Displacement Thoroughfare is based on the upstream cation

exchanger requirements.
Service Rinse Same as upstream cation fast rinse flow rate.


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The size of the cation polisher is based on the hydraulic requirements for the unit,
since the ionic load is negligible in polishing applications.
The vessel area, and hence the diameter, are calculated from the service flow rate and
the linear velocity.
Vessel Area, ft2 = Flow Rate, gpm____

Linear Velocity, gpm/ft2
Diameter, ft = (4 x Vessel area, ft2 / p )1/2
The diameter is rounded up to the nearest 6-inch increment and a new vessel area is
calculated.
The resin volume is calculated from the fixed resin depth and the vessel area:
Resin Volume, ft3 = Vessel Area, ft2 x Bed Depth, ft
The regenerant chemical injection flow rate and time and the displacement (slow
rinse) flow rate and time are calculated in Section 9.4, Chemical Regeneration
Equipment, for the upstream cation exchanger. Chemical displacement flow is at
the same rate as the chemical dilution water flow.
The service rinse flow rate is again taken from the upstream cation exchanger
conditions.
The service rinse time can be calculated:

Rinse Flow, gpm

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This example calculates the design conditions for an 800-gpm cation polisher.
To calculate the vessel diameter, assume the maximum allowable linear velocity.
Vessel Area, ft2 = 800 gpm = 13.3 ft2

60 gpm/ft2
Diameter, ft = (4 x 13.3 ft2 / p)1/2 = 4.1 ft
The diameter is rounded up to 4.5 feet and a new vessel area of 15.9 ft2 is calculated.
The resin volume is calculated from the fixed 2-foot bed depth.
Resin Volume, ft3 =15.9 ft2 x 2 ft = 31.8 ft3

= 32 ft3
Other flows and step times depend on the size of the upstream cation exchanger.
5.6.2.3.4 Expected Results
The product water conductivity will be below 0.1 microSiemens/cm. The pH of the
water will be between 6 and 7.

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Inlet
Distributor
Regenerant
Collector
Service
Inlet
Interface
Collector
False Bottom
with Strainers
Regenerant
Inlet
Distributor Service
Outlet
Figure 5.7-1: Counter-Current Layered Bed Exchanger

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5.7 Counter-Current Layered Bed Ion Exchange Unit
Counter-current layered bed ion exchangers have a layer of weak resin on top of a
layer of strong resin. This design combines the benefits of the high capacity found in
weak resin with the high degree of demineralization possible with strong resin. The
resin bed is regenerated in a counter-current manner providing low ion leakage and
higher quality product water than co-current designs.
Figure 5.7-1 identifies the major components of a counter-current layered bed ion
exchanger. The vessel is essentially identical to a split-flow counter-current ion
exchange unit but with two layers of resin. The downflow regenerant distributor in a
split-flow counter-current design becomes the regenerant collector in the counter-
current layered design.

require other ancillary equipment. See Section 9.4, Chemical Regeneration
Equipment, for further information.

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Service flow for a counter-current layered bed ion exchange unit enters the inlet
distributor at the top of the vessel via the service inlet valve. Water passes through
the resin beds, is collected by the strainers located in the false bottom, and exits the
unit through the service outlet valve.
When the ion leakage from the resin bed approaches an unacceptable level (i.e.,
product quality starts to decrease), the resin bed is nearing exhaustion and must be
regenerated. Regeneration can also take place at fixed time intervals or, most
commonly, after a pre-determined volume of water has been treated.
Before regeneration is begun, the bed is backwashed. The backwash removes

particulate material retained on the resin bed surface. The densities of the weak and
strong resins are such that the strong resin always settles to the bottom of the vessel
leaving the weak resin on top.
During regeneration, chemical enters the vessel at the bottom and flows up through
the resin bed, counter-current to the service flow direction. The strong resin near the
bottom of the vessel receives the best regeneration, enabling it to produce the low
ion leakage values. After the regenerant chemical flows through the strong resin
bed, it flows through the weak resin bed. As weak resin does not require excess
amounts of regenerant chemical, the chemical left over from the passage through the
strong resin bed is more than sufficient to provide weak resin regeneration. In
layered bed cation exchangers with sulfuric acid regeneration, it is necessary to dilute
the acid before it reaches the weak resin bed in order to prevent calcium sulfate
scaling.
The performance of counter-current layered bed ion exchange units depends on the
type of ion exchange resins loaded, the regenerant chemical, and the exchange unit’s
relative position within a water treatment system. The following strong/weak resin
combinations can be used in these exchangers:
1. Weak acid cation resin (acrylic gel) with strong acid cation resin (styrenic gel or
styrenic macroreticular)
2. Weak base anion resin (acrylic gel, styrenic macroreticular or acrylic gel S/W) with
strong base anion resin (acrylic or styrenic gel, acrylic or styrenic macroreticular)

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Figure 5.7-2: Counter-Current Layered Bed P&ID

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The P&ID in Figure 5.7-2 illustrates the process components in a layered cation
exchanger.
The specific steps involved in the operation of a layered counter-current vessel are as
follows:
• Service
• Displacement
• Backwash
• Fast rinse
• Service rinse
A summary of the valve positions for each of these steps is provided in Table 5.7-1.
Step
Valve Regenerant Regenerant Fast Service
Service Preheat Displace Backwash
Step 1 Step 2 Rinse Rinse
Service
Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open
Inlet
Service
Outlet
Backwash
Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Closed Closed
Inlet
Backwash
Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Closed Closed
Outlet
Chemical
Closed Open Open Open Open Closed Closed Closed
Inlet
Chemical
Closed Open Open Open Open Closed Closed Closed
Blo c k 1
Chemical
Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open Open
Bleed1
Chemical
Closed Closed Closed Open Open Closed Closed Closed
Outlet
Strong
Chemical Closed Open Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Outlet
Weak
Closed Closed Closed Open2 Closed Closed Closed Closed
Acid Inlet2
Rinse
Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open
Outlet
1
Chemical block and bleed valves are optional
2
The weak acid dilution inlet valve is only present on cation vessels
Table 5.7-1 Counter-Current Layered Bed Ion Exchange Unit Valve Configuration

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Service
are closed with the exception of the service inlet valve, the service outlet valve, and
(when installed) the chemical bleed valve, as listed on the previous page in Table
5.7-1. Figure 5.7-3 shows the flow path of feedwater through the vessel during the
service cycle.
Service
Inlet
Service
Outlet
Figure 5.7-3: Counter-Current Layered Bed - Service

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This step is used to pre-warm a strong anion resin bed before regenerant caustic is
added. Heat increases the efficiency of silica removal. The bed preheat step is not
used for cation resin.
During the bed preheat, the regenerant inlet and the strong regenerant outlet valves
are open. The chemical block valve, if present, is also open. Valve configurations are
shown in Figure 5.7-4. The dilution water pump is switched on, or the appropriate
valves are opened, depending on the dilution water source arrangement. Hot
dilution water is pumped through the bed.
Regenerant Chemical Introduction – Step 1
Step 1 of the chemical introduction applies regenerant to the strong resin bed, as
shown in Figure 5.7-4. The valves remain in the same position as for the preheat
step. Adequate dilution water
flow rates ensure proper
distribution over the bed, while
also providing a regenerant
strength that is neither too
high nor too low.
The regenerant inlet and

strong regenerant outlet valves
are open. The chemical block
valve, if present, is also open.
Pumps and valves on the
regeneration system must be
actuated. A stoichiometric
amount of regenerant is
introduced to provide most of
the regeneration of the strong
resin. Regenerant
Outlet
To Waste
Regenerant
Inlet
Figure 5.7-4: Counter-Current Layered Bed -

Preheat and Regeneration Step 1

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Regenerant chemical is applied to the weak resin and strong resin beds. The second
regenerant introduction step is different for anion and cation exchangers.
For anion exchangers the regenerant inlet and outlet valves are open, as shown in
Figure 5.7-5. Caustic flows counter-currently through both the strong and weak
resin beds and out to waste.
For cation exchangers using sulfuric acid as the regenerant, it is necessary to reduce
the concentration of acid by adding dilution water. The weak acid dilution inlet valve
is open, as shown in Figure 5.7-6. This allows regular strength acid to flow through
the strong resin bed and very dilute acid to flow through the weak resin bed.
Service
Inlet
Regenerant Regenerant
Outlet Outlet
to Waste to Waste
Regenerant Regenerant
Inlet Inlet
Figure 5.7-5: Counter-Current Layered Figure 5.7-6: Counter-Current Layered

Bed - Regeneration Step 2 (Anion) Bed - Regeneration Step 2 (Cation)

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Slow Rinse (Displace)
After the regenerant chemical is introduced, a slow rinse is performed with dilution
water from the regeneration system to rinse out regenerant chemical remaining in
the vessel. The regenerant inlet and outlet valves are open, as shown in Figure 5.7-7.
Dilution Water
to Waste
Dilution Water
Inlet
Figure 5.7-7: Counter-Current Layered Bed - Slow Rinse

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Backwash
The backwash step is used to clean the bed by removing silt, broken resin beads, and
other foreign suspend matter. It also re-classifies the bed. For counter-current
layered bed exchangers this step is performed after the resin is regenerated. This
ensures that the weak and strong resin beads have the proper densities to ensure
separation.
While adequate backwash flow is critical to prevent poor resin performance due to
compaction and channeling, excessive backwash flow must be avoided. Excessive
flow will sweep the resin out the backwash outlet along with the particulate matter.
During the backwash, the backwash inlet and outlet valves are open, as shown in
Figure 5.7-8.
Backwash
Inlet
Backwash
Outlet
Figure 5.7-8: Counter-Current Layered Bed - Backwash

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Fast Rinse
During the fast rinse, the service inlet valve and the rinse outlet valve are open, as
shown in Figure 5.7-9. The fast rinse step usually continues until a minimum
Service
Inlet
Rinse
Outlet
Figure 5.7-9: Counter-Current Layered Bed - Rinse

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Service Rinse
If the ion exchange unit has been sitting idle before it is required for service, it is
during no flow situations are removed. This procedure is the same as the fast rinse
step, but it is much shorter.
5.7.2 Equipment and Design Options
Figure 5.7-10 identifies the major components of a counter-current layered bed ion
exchange unit. The vessel uses standard features and options as identified in
Appendix H, Pressure Vessels and Section 5.1.8.2. Counter-current layered bed
ion exchange units have an inlet distributor, a regenerant collector, an interface
collector, an upflow regenerant distributor, and a flat false bottom underdrain with
strainers. Valve options include regenerant block and bleed, and manual regenerant
isolation. Optional rinse recycle valves are used on the outlet for the anion exchange
unit and inlet for the cation exchange unit.
Inlet Regenerant
Distributor Collector
Service
Inlet
Interface
Collector
False Bottom
with Strainers
Regenerant
Inlet Service
Distributor Outlet
Figure 5.5-10: Counter-Current Layered Bed Exchanger

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5.7.3.1 Application
Counter-current layered bed exchangers are used as working exchangers.
5.7.3.2 Design
5.7.3.2.1 Process and Design Parameters
The process and design parameters for each of the counter-current layered bed
exchangers is provided here. This section is a reference resource for the designer. A
sample set of sizing calculations is provided at the end of the section.
Design parameters for counter-current layered cation units
software.
3) The minimum strong resin bed depth is 24 inches.
4) The minimum combined bed depth is 48 inches.

Chemical Injection Step 1 See Section 9.4, Chemical Regeneration Equipment,

strengths. Base total dosage on strong acid cation resin
requirements. Inject a stoichiometric quantity of acid to
strong acid cation resin only.

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Chemical Injection Step 2 Inject the rest of the acid to both resins. If sulfuric acid
is used, dilute the acid to 0.8% before it reaches the
weak resin.
Chemical Displacement Displacement flow rate is equal to the flow rate for
chemical dilution water.
gal/ft3).
Note: The minimum strong resin contact time for

sulfuric acid is 30 minutes. Contact time is equal to the
sum of the chemical injection and the displacement
steps.
Backwash Provide sufficient flow to obtain 50% bed expansion of

the weak resin at the maximum backwash water
temperature.
Backwash Water Backwash Water

Temperature (oF) Flow Rate (gpm/ft2)
32 to <40 3.5
40 to <50 3.75
50 to <60 4
60 to <70 4.25
70 to <80 4.5
80 to <90 5
90 to <100 5.5
100 to <110 6
110 to 120 6.25
Fast Rinse Choose the greatest of these three values:

Service flow
Service Rinse Use the same flow rate as for the fast rinse.

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Design parameters for counter-current layered bed anion
software except for Type 1 anion resin, for which it is 100% of the calculated
value.
If silica is greater than 30% of the feed anions, values calculated by the software
must not be used without the manufacturer’s explicit approval.
3) The minimum depth for a strong resin bed is 24 inches.
4) The minimum depth for a combined resin bed is 48 inches.

Preheat Preheat flow rate is the same as for chemical dilution

water.
gal/ft3).

strengths. Base total dosage on strong base anion resin
requirements. Inject a stoichiometric quantity of caustic
to strong base anion resin only.
Chemical Injection Step 2 Inject the rest of the caustic to both resins.

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Chemical Displacement Displacement flow rate is the same as for chemical
dilution water.
gal/ft3).
Backwash Backwash flow must be sufficient to obtain 50%

expansion of the weak base anion resin at maximum
backwash water temperature.
Backwash Water Backwash Water

Temperature (oF) Flow Rate (gpm/ft2)
32 to <40 1.5
40 to <50 1.75
50 to <60 2
60 to <70 2.25
70 to <80 2.5
80 to <90 2.75
90 to 100 3
Service flow
Service Rinse The service rinse flow rate is the same as for the fast
rinse.

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Rohm & Haas IXCALC software is used to calculate the volumes of resin required to
produce the specified effluent water quality from the specified influent water analysis
over the service cycle time at the specified flow rate and regenerant dosage. IXCALC
provides the following outputs:
• Resin volumes (both weak and strong)

IXCALC first calculates the resin capacity for dissolved minerals (kilograins removed
as CaCO3 per cubic foot of resin) for both resins. The calculation is based on these
inputs: influent water analysis, effluent leakage, and weak resin regenerant dosage
(% of stoichiometric). Higher regenerant dosages increase resin capacity; lower
dosages reduce it. The weak resin dose determines the dose that the strong resin
receives. Changes in the percent overrun of the weak resin can modify the strong
resin dosage. The percent overrun indicates how far beyond the exhaustion point of
the weak resin the system can run before exhausting the strong resin. This
essentially changes the ratio of weak to strong resin in the vessel.
The concentration of minerals in the water to be removed is converted to kilograins

as CaCO3 per 1000 gallons of water. Based on the resin capacity (kgr/ft3), the mineral
content (kgr/1000 gal), the flow rate (gpm), and the service cycle time, IXCALC
calculates the volumes of the resins as shown below.
The following calculation is done for a counter-current layered bed cation unit.
For the weak acid resin:
WEC (gpg) =[Ca ion (ppm as CaCO3) + Mg ion (ppm as CaCO3)] / 17.12 ppm/gpg
WEC = Amount of cations exchanged by the weak resin

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For the strong acid resin:
SEC (gpg) =[Na ion (ppm as CaCO3) + K ion (ppm as CaCO3)] / 17.12 ppm/gpg
SEC = Amount of cations exchanged by the strong resin.
Weak Resin Volume, ft3 =

(Flow Rate, gpm) x (Service Cycle, hr) x (60 min/hr) x (WEC, gpg) / 1000 gr/kgr
(1+ % Overrun/100) x (Weak Capacity, kgr/ft3)
Strong Resin Volume, ft3 =

(Flow Rate, gpm) x (Service Cycle, hr) x (60 min/hr) x (SEC, gpg) / 1000 gr/kgr
(Strong Capacity, kgr/ft3)
Combined Resin Volume = Weak Resin Volume + Strong Resin Volume
If the percent overrun is greater then zero (i.e., there is overrun), then the strong
resin volume is increased to account for the ions that pass through the weak bed
after it is exhausted.
For the calculated resin volumes and weak resin regenerant % of stoichiometric, the
amount of regenerant is calculated as follows:
(Resin Volume, ft3) x (Resin Capacity, kgr/ft3) x % of stoichiometric/100
7 kgr/lb
Note that there are 7,000 grains, or 7 kilograins, per pound.
design of the cation unit. First, the vessel diameter and resin bed depths must be
determined. These values must produce linear and volumetric flow rates that are
within the ranges set by the process design parameters. Volumetric flow rate is
determined as follows:
Volumetric Flow Rate, gpm/ft3 = (Flow, gpm) / (Combined Resin Volume, ft3)

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range, and an appropriate bed depth that does not provide too large a pressure drop
is selected. In general, the pressure drop of vessels designs with bed depths of over 9
feet should be carefully checked to ensure that they are within the acceptable range.
Vessel diameters are available in six-inch increments. The vessel area, linear flow
rate, and depth are calculated as follows:
Combined Bed Depth, ft = (Combined Resin Volume, ft3) / (Area, ft2)
Strong Resin Bed Depth, ft = (Strong Resin Volume, ft3) / (Area, ft2)
diameter.
The percent overrun can be modified to effect an increase in the volume and depth
of the strong resin bed if necessary.
parameters.
Side Shell Height, ft = (1 + % Freeboard / 100) x (Combined Resin Bed Depth, ft)
calculated using the backwash temperature table. Backwash must take place for
enough time to produce at least 1 vessel volume of water.

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The chemical displacement flow rate is equal to the flow rate of chemical dilution
water.
Chemical is displaced for 1 bed volume; therefore, the time required is:
Displacement Time, min = 1 x (Combined Resin Volume, ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3)


• (1.5 gpm/ft3) x (Combined Resin Volume, ft3)
• (6 gpm/ft2) x (area, ft2)
ft3 of resin for cation resin:
Fast Rinse Time, min = 42.5 gal/ft3 x (Combined Resin Volume, ft3)
(Rinse Flow, gpm)

(Rinse Flow, gpm)
5.7.3.2.3 Example Calculations
For the purposes of this example, IXCALC has determined that 100 ft3 of weak cation
resin and 60 ft3 of strong cation resin are required for a 500-gpm exchanger.
Therefore, the volumetric flow rate is:
Volumetric Flow Rate = 500 gpm/160 ft3 = 3.1 gpm/ ft3

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This is below the maximum of 5 gpm/ ft3. Linear velocity may be from 6 to 20
gpm/ft2. For a diameter of 6 feet, the area and velocity are calculated as follows:
Area = 3.14 x 62 / 4 = 28.3 ft2
Linear Flow Rate = 500 gpm / 28.3 ft2 = 17.7 gpm/ft2
The resin depths are calculated from the volumes and the vessel cross sectional area.
Strong Resin Bed Depth = 60 ft3 / 28.3 ft2 = 2.1 ft
Combined Bed Depth = 160 ft3 / 28.3 ft2 = 5.7 ft
For a minimum freeboard of 75%, the side shell height is:
Side Shell Height = (5.7 ft x 12 inches/ft) x (1 +75% / 100) = 120 inches
For a maximum backwash temperature of 86°F, the backwash flow and time are:
Backwash Flow = 28.3 ft2 x 5 gpm/ft2 = 141.5 gpm
Vessel Volume = 28.3 ft2 x 120 inches / 12 inches/ft = 283 ft3
Backwash Time = (1 x 283 ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3) / (141.5 gpm) = 15 minutes
The fast and service rinse flow rates are the maximum of the following three values:
• 500 gpm
• 1.5 gpm/ft3 x 160 ft3 = 240 gpm
• 6 gpm/ft2 x 28.3ft2 = 170 gpm
The rinse flow is 500 gpm. The rinse times are as follows:
Fast Rinse Time, min = (42.5 gal/ft3 x 160 ft3) /500 gpm = 13.6 minutes
Service Rinse Time = (1 x 7.48 gal/ft3 x 160 ft3) /500 gpm = 2.4 minutes

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Outlet Retaining
Plate and Strainers
Upper Resin Bed

Service
Inlet Service Outlet
Interface Retaining
Plate and Strainers
5-163 Interface
Collector
Lower
Resin Bed
Inlet Retaining
Plate and Strainers
Figure 5.8-1: Sandwich Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit

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5.8 Sandwich Packed Bed Exchangers
Sandwich packed bed exchangers are essentially two packed bed exchanger units in
one vessel. The vessel is divided in the middle by an interface retaining plate that
separates the upper resin bed from the lower resin bed. The two separated resin
beds can be weak and strong of the same type or strong cation and strong anion.
This design combines the operational efficiency of a packed bed design for two resins
with the footprint, or floor space, and capital cost of a single vessel. Section 5.4
discusses single resin packed bed exchangers in detail.
Figure 5.8-1, on the opposite page, identifies the major components of a sandwich
packed bed exchanger.
Chemical regeneration equipment is required to provide diluted chemical to

require other ancillary equipment. See Section 9.4, Chemical Regeneration
Equipment, for further information.
If the service flow will be interrupted on a regular basis, it is necessary to provide

recirculation pumps to maintain a minimum flow through the ion exchange unit.
The service run length will be reduced if the resin beds are allowed to drop.

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In a packed bed ion exchange unit, process water enters the vessel through the
bottom and passes through the inlet retaining plate strainers. The water then passes
through the lower resin bed, through the interface retaining plate, and through the
upper resin bed. Treated water is collected by the outlet retaining plate strainers and
exits the vessel through the service outlet valve.
When the rein bed is regenerated, no backwash cycle is performed in the vessel.
Backwashing is done infrequently in an external resin maintenance tank, shown in
Figure 5.8-2. Because a backwash is not performed regularly, it is important to have
good filtration, when required, before the process water enters the ion exchange
units. When a backwash is required, a portion of the resin is manually transferred to
the resin maintenance tank.
Backwash
Overflow Weir
Backwash
Distributor
Figure 5.8-2: Sandwich Packed Bed Exchanger - Resin Maintenance Tank

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Figure 5.8-3: P&ID of Sandwich Packed Bed Exchange Unit

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The performance of the sandwich packed bed ion exchange unit depends on the ion
exchange resins loaded and regenerant chemical used. The following resin
combinations can be used in sandwich packed bed units:
Lower Chamber Upper Chamber
Weak acid cation resin (acrylic gel) Strong acid cation resin
(styrenic gel or macroreticular)
Weak base anion resin (acrylic gel, Strong base anion resin (acrylic or
Styrenic macroreticular or acrylic gel S/W) sytrenic, gel or macroreticular)
Strong acid cation resin (styrenic gel or Strong base anion resin (acrylic or
macroreticular) sytrenic, gel or macroreticular)
The P&ID in Figure 5.8-3 identifies the process components in a sandwich packed
bed exchanger.
The following are the specific steps in the operation of a packed bed cation/anion
sandwich vessel:
• Service
• Recycle
• Regenerant introduction step 1
• Regenerant introduction step 2
• Displacement
• Fast rinse
• Service rinse
A summary of the valve positions for each of these steps is provided on the following
page in Table 5.8-1.

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Step
Valve Regenerant Regenerant Fast Service
Service Recycle Preheat Displace
Step 1 Step 2 Rinse Rinse
Service Inlet Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open
Service
Outlet
Recycle Inlet1 Closed Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Recycle
Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Outlet1
Backwash
Inlet
Backwash
Outlet
Chemical
Closed Closed Open Open Open Open Closed Closed
Inlet
Chemical
Closed Closed Open Open Open Open Closed Closed
Block1
Chemical
Open Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open
Bleed1
Chemical
Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open Closed Closed
Outlet
Strong
Chemical Closed Closed Open Open Closed Closed Closed Closed
Outlet
Weak Acid
Closed Closed Closed Closed Open2 Closed Closed Closed
Dilution Inlet2
Rinse Outlet Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Open
1
Chamical block, chemical bleed, and recycle valves are optional
2
The weak acid dilution inlet valve is only present on cation vessels
Table 5.8-1: Valve Table for Sandwich Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit

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Service
are closed with the exception of the service inlet valve, the service outlet valve, and
the chemical bleed valve (if installed), as listed in Table 5.8-1. Figure 5.8-4 shows
the flow path of feedwater through the vessel during the service cycle.
Service
Inlet
Service
Outlet
Figure 5.8-4: Sandwich Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit - Service

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Dilution Waste and
Regenerant Inlet
To Waste
Figure 5.8-5: Sandwich Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit – Anion Bed Preheat &
Regenerant Chemical Introduction, Step 1

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Recycle
Recycle mode is used only when the service flow is stopped, to keep the resin beds
from dropping onto the inlet and interface retaining plates. An interruption in flow
to a packed bed exchanger invariable causes some mixing of resin and often results
in a decrease in product water quality and service run length.
All valves are closed with the exception of the recycle inlet and outlet valves and the
chemical bleed valve, where installed. The recycle pump must be started and the
recycle valves opened in sequence to ensure non-stop flow to the bed.
A bed preheat is used to warm a strong anion resin bed before regenerant caustic is
added. It increases the efficiency of silica removal. The bed preheat step is not used
for cation resin.
During the anion bed preheat, the regenerant inlet and the strong regenerant outlet
valves are open. The chemical block valve, if present, is open. The flow path of the
hot dilution water is shown on the opposite page in Figure 5.8-5. The dilution water
pump is turned on or the appropriate valves are opened, depending on the dilution
water source arrangement, and hot dilution water is pumped through the bed.
The first step of the regenerant chemical introduction applies regenerant to the
strong resin bed, as shown in Figure 5.8-5. The valves remain in the same position
as for the preheat step. Adequate dilution water flow rates ensure proper
distribution over the bed, while also providing a regenerant strength that is neither
too high nor too low.
During this first step the regenerant inlet and strong regenerant outlet valves are
open. The chemical block valve, if present, is open. Pumps and valves on the
regeneration system must also be actuated. A stoichiometric amount of regenerant
is introduced to provide most of the regeneration of the strong resin.

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Regenerant
Inlet
Regenerant
Outlet to
Waste
Figure 5.8-6: Anion Sandwich Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit - Regenerant Chemical
Introduction

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The second step of the regenerant chemical introduction applies regenerant to the
weak resin and strong resin beds. The second regenerant introduction step is
different for anion and cation exchangers.
For anion exchangers the regenerant inlet and outlet valves are open, allowing
regenerant chemical to flow through the tank, as shown on the opposite page in
Figure 5.8-6. Caustic flows counter-currently through both the strong and weak
resin beds and out to waste.
For cation exchangers using sulfuric acid as the regenerant, it is necessary to reduce
the concentration of acid by adding dilution water. The weak acid dilution inlet valve
is open, allowing regular strength acid to flow through the strong resin bed and very
dilute acid to flow through the weak resin bed.
Slow Rinse (Displace)
After the regenerant chemical has been introduced, a slow rinse is performed with
dilution water from the regeneration system. This rinses away any regenerant
chemical remaining in the vessel. The regenerant inlet, chemical block, and outlet
valves are open.

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Fast Rinse
The service inlet valve and the rinse outlet valve are open. The rinse water flow path
is shown in Figure 5.8-7. The fast rinse step usually continues until a minimum
Service
Inlet
Rinse
Outlet
Figure 5.8-7: Sandwich Packed Bed Exchanger - Rinse

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Service Rinse
If the ion exchange unit sits idle for a time before it is required for service, a service
rinse is performed to remove ions released from the resin during no flow situations.
This procedure is the same as for the fast rinse step, but it is much shorter.
Figure 5.8-8, below, illustrates a sandwich packed bed exchanger. The vessel is
similar to a regular packed bed unit, with inlet and outlet retaining plates and
strainers. Note the addition of an interface retaining plate and strainers and an
interface collector located just below the interface retaining plate. Four manways are
required, one for each resin chamber and one each for the top and bottom head
cavities. Valve options include regenerant block and bleed, manual regenerant
isolation, and recycle inlet and outlet.
Outlet Retaining
Plate and Strainers
Upper Resin Bed

Service
Inlet Service Outlet
Interface Retaining
Plate and Strainers
Interface
Collector
Lower Resin Bed
Inlet Retaining
Plate and Strainers
Figure 5.8-8: Sandwich Packed Bed Ion Exchange Unit

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5.8.3.1 Application
Sandwich packed bed exchangers are used as working demineralizers.
5.8.3.2 Design
The process design parameters for each of the sandwich packed bed exchangers is
provided here. This section is a reference resource for the designer. A sample set of
sizing calculations is provided at the end of the section.
Design parameters for sandwich packed bed cation units
software.
4) The minimum weak resin bed depth is 24 inches.
it is largest) for both resin chambers.
8. The vessel freeboard is 6 to 9 inches above the expanded bed (resin in the form
where it is largest) for the lower resin chamber if sulfuric acid is the regenerant to
allow for the acid dilution header.

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strengths. Base total dosage on strong acid cation resin
requirements. Inject a stoichiometric quantity of acid to
strong acid cation resin only.
Chemical Injection Step 2 Inject the rest of the acid to both resins. If sulfuric acid
is used, dilute the acid to 0.8% before it reaches the
weak resin.
Chemical Displacement The displacement flow rate is the same as for chemical
dilution water.
Flow until 1.2 resin bed volumes have been displaced (9
gal/ft3).
Note: The minimum strong resin contact time for

sulfuric acid is 30 minutes. Contact time is equal to the
sum of the chemical injection and the displacement
steps.
Fast Rinse Choose the greatest of the following two values:

Service flow
Volume = 41 gal/ft3 of the resin with the largest volume
(not combined resin volume).
rinse.

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Design parameters for sandwich packed bed anion units
use.
If silica is greater than 30% of the feed anions, the software calculated values
must not be used without the manufacturer’s explicit approval.
4) The minimum weak resin bed depth is 24 inches.
it is largest) for both resin chambers.

Preheat The preheat flow rate is the same as for the chemical
dilution water.
Flow until 1 bed volume (7.5 gal/ft3) has been displaced.

strengths. Base total dosage on strong base anion resin
requirements. Inject a stoichiometric quantity of caustic
to strong base anion resin only.
Chemical Injection Step 2 Inject the rest of the caustic into both resins.

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Chemical Displacement The chemical displacement flow rate is the same as for
chemical dilution water.
For styrenic resins, flow until 2.5 resin bed volumes
(18.75 gal/ft3) have been displaced.
For acrylic resins, flow until 3 resin bed volumes (22.5
gal/ft3) have been displaced.
Fast Rinse Flow rate is the greatest of the following two values:
Service flow
Volume = 56.25 gal/ft3 of weak resin.
rinse flow rate.
Volume = 7.5 to 22.5 gal/ft3 of resin, as required
to reach desired water quality.
The Rohm & Haas IXCALC software is used to calculate the volumes of resin
dosage. IXCALC provides the following outputs:
• Resin volumes (both weak and strong)

foot of resin) for both resins for dissolved minerals based on the input influent water
analysis, effluent leakage, and weak resin regenerant dosage (% of stoichiometric).
Higher regenerant dosages increase the resin capacity; lower dosages reduce it. The
weak resin dose determines the dose that the strong resin receives. Changing the
percent overrun of the weak resin can modify this. The percent overrun indicates
how far beyond the exhaustion point of the weak resin the system can run before
exhausting the strong resin. This essentially changes the ratio of weak to strong resin
in the vessel.

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The concentration of minerals in the water to be removed is converted to kilograins
as CaCO3 per 1000 gallons of water. Based on the resin capacity (kgr/ft3), the mineral
content (kgr/1000 gal), the flow rate (gpm) and the service cycle time, IXCALC
calculates the volumes of the resins as shown below.
The following calculations are for a sandwich packed bed cation unit.
Concentration of cations exchanged by the weak resin (WEC):
WEC, gpg = {Ca ion, ppm as CaCO3 + Mg ion, ppm as CaCO3} / 17.12 ppm/gpg
Concentration of cations exchanged by the strong resin (SEC):
SEC, gpg = {Na ion, ppm as CaCO3 + K ion, ppm as CaCO3} / 17.12 ppm/gpg
Weak resin, strong resin, and combined resin volumes:
Weak Resin Volume, ft3 =

(Flow Rate, gpm) x (Service Cycle, hr) x (60 min/hr) x (WEC, gpg) / 1000 gr/kgr
(1+ % Overrun/100) x (Weak Capacity, kgr/ft3)
Strong Resin Volume, ft3 =

(Flow Rate, gpm) x (Service Cycle, hr) x (60 min/hr) x (SEC, gpg / 1000 gr/kgr)
(Strong Capacity, kgr/ft3)
Combined Resin volume = Weak Resin Volume + Strong Resin Volume
If the percent overrun is above zero (i.e., if there is overrun) then the strong resin
volume is increased to account for the ions that pass through the weak bed after it is
exhausted.
For the calculated resin volumes and weak resin regenerant percentage of
stoichiometric, the amount of regenerant is calculated as follows:
(Resin Volume, ft3) x (Resin Capacity, kgr/ft3) x (% of stoichiometric/100)
7 kgr/lb
Note that there are 7,000 grains, or 7 kilograins, per pound.

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design of the cation unit. First, the vessel diameter and resin bed depths must be
determined. These values must produce linear and volumetric flow rates that are
within the ranges set by the process design parameters. Volumetric flow rate is
determined as follows:
Volumetric Flow Rate, gpm/ft3 = (Flow, gpm) / (Combined Resin Volume, ft3)
range, and an appropriate bed depth is selected, one that does not provide too large
a pressure drop. In general, the pressure drop of vessels designed with bed depths
over 9 feet should be carefully checked to assure that they are within the acceptable
range. Vessel diameters are available in six-inch increments. The vessel area, linear
flow rate, and depth are calculated as follows:
Weak Bed Depth, ft = (Weak Resin Volume, ft3) / (Area, ft2)
Strong Resin Bed Depth, ft = (Strong Resin Volume, ft3) / (Area, ft2)
diameter.
The percentage overrun can be modified to effect an increase in the volume and
depth of the strong resin bed if necessary.
parameters.

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minimum freeboard is 2 inches in each chamber (increase to 6 inches for sulfuric acid
regeneration).
Side Shell Height, ft =

((2 inches + (2 or 6) inches) / 12 inches/ft) + (Strong Resin Bed Depth, ft) +
(Weak Resin Bed Depth, ft)
Chemical displacement flow is at the same rate as for chemical dilution water flow.
Chemical is displaced for 1.2 bed volumes, therefore the time required is:
Displacement Time, min =

1.2 x (Combined Resin Volume, ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3)

• (1.5 gpm/ft3) x (Combined Resin Volume, ft3)
of weak resin for cation resin:
Fast Rinse Time, min = 41 gal/ft3 x (Weak Resin Volume, ft3)

(Rinse Flow, gpm)
Service Rinse Time, min = 1 x (Combined Resin Volume, ft3) x (7.48 gal/ft3)
(Rinse Flow, gpm)

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For the purposes of this example, IXCALC has determined that 100 ft3 of weak cation
resin and 60 ft3 of strong cation resin are required for a 500-gpm exchanger.
Therefore, the volumetric flow rate is:
Volumetric Flow Rate = 500 gpm/160 ft3 = 3.1 gpm/ ft3
This is below the maximum of 5 gpm/ft3. Linear velocity may be from 8 to 25

gpm/ft2. For a diameter of 5.5 feet, the area and velocity are:
Area = 3.14 x 5.52 / 4 = 23.7 ft2
Linear Flow Rate = 500 gpm / 23.7 ft2 = 21 gpm/ft2
The resin depths are calculated from the volumes and the vessel cross sectional area.
Strong Resin Bed Depth = 60 ft3 / 23.7 ft2 = 2.5 ft
Combined Bed Depth = 100 ft3 / 23.7 ft2 = 4.2 ft
For sulfuric acid regeneration, the side shell height is:
Side Shell Height = (2 +6)/12 + 2.5 + 4.2 = 7.4 feet = 88 inches
The fast and service rinse flow rates are the maximum of the following values:
• 500 gpm
• 1.5 gpm/ft3 x 160 ft3 = 240 gpm
The rinse flow is 500 gpm. The rinse times are:
Fast Rinse Time, min = 41 gal/ft3 x 100 ft3 /500 gpm = 8.2 minutes
Service Rinse Time = 1 x 7.48 gal/ft3 x 160 ft3 /500 gpm = 2.4 minutes

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Mod03-Lec04 Ion Exchange

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ION EXCHANGE

34a_m5_r0 5-1 Ion Exchange

5.2 Co-Current Ion Exchange Units ............................................................................ 49

5.3 Split-Flow Counter-Current Ion Exchange Units .............................................. 70

5.4 Packed Bed Ion Exchange Units ............................................................................ 91

34a_m5_r0 5-2 Ion Exchange

5.6 Cation Polisher ....................................................................................................... 132

5.7 Counter-Current Layered Bed Ion Exchange Unit ........................................... 141

5.8 Sandwich Packed Bed Exchangers ..................................................................... 160

34a_m5_r0 5-3 Ion Exchange

Figure 5.1-2: Ion Exchange Unit

34a_m5_r0 5-4a Ion Exchange

Figure 5.1-1: Ion Exchange Resin

34a_m5_r0 5-4 Ion Exchange

5.1.1 Development and History of Ion Exchange

A naturally occurring zeolite called greensand later replaced synthetic aluminosilicate

34a_m5_r0 5-5 Ion Exchange

Adapted from Applebaum

courtesy of Rohm & Haas

Figure 5.1-3: Ion Exchange Resin Bead Structure

34a_m5_r0 5-6a Ion Exchange

Adapted from Applebaum

34a_m5_r0 5-6 Ion Exchange

Adapted from Applebaum

Figure 5.1-5: Ion Exchange, Before and After

34a_m5_r0 5-7a Ion Exchange

5.1.2.2 Functional Groups

34a_m5_r0 5-7 Ion Exchange

34a_m5_r0 5-8a Ion Exchange

Strong Functional Groups (SAC, SBA) Complete Dissociation

Weak Functional Groups (WAC) Partial Dissociation

Undisocciated Functional Dissociated Functional

Figure 5.1-6: Dissociation Equations

34a_m5_r0 5-8 Ion Exchange

Resin Type Mobile Ion Form

SAC Na+ Sodium

SBA Cl- Chloride

WBA None Free Base

Table 5.1-1: Resin Forms

34a_m5_r0 5-9 Ion Exchange

34a_m5_r0 5-10 Ion Exchange

“Cluster” Zone “Free Water”

Figure 5.1-8: Hydrated Sodium Ion

34a_m5_r0 5-11 Ion Exchange

For ion exchange to occur, the process Hydration Numbers

34a_m5_r0 5-12 Ion Exchange

Fixed Ion Fixed Ion

Process Water Copolymer

Figure 5.1-9: Functional Group Ion Exchange

34a_m5_r0 5-13a Ion Exchange

The above discussion

34a_m5_r0 5-13 Ion Exchange

+1 Ion and Process

Figure 5.1-11: Early in the Service Cycle

34a_m5_r0 5-14 Ion Exchange

+2 Valence Ions Exchanged

Figure 5.1-12: Later in the Service Cycle

34a_m5_r0 5-15 Ion Exchange

Figure 5.1-13: End of the Service Cycle

34a_m5_r0 5-16 Ion Exchange

34a_m5_r0 5-17 Ion Exchange

courtesy of Rohm & Haas

34a_m5_r0 5-18 Ion Exchange

The DVB-S resin beads have