Transportation Cost and Benefit Analysis – Travel Time Costs

Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org)

5.2 Travel Time

This chapter examines the value of travel time, and travel time savings. Travel time is one of the
largest costs of transportation, and travel time savings are often the primary justification for
transportation infrastructure improvements. Various studies have developed estimates of travel
time values for different user types and travel conditions.

Definitions
Travel Time costs refers to the value of time spent in travel. It includes costs to businesses
of time by their employees, vehicles and goods, and costs to consumers of personal
(unpaid) time spent on travel, including time spent parking and walking to and from a
vehicle. Travel Time Savings are the benefits that result from reduced travel time.

Discussion
Travel time is one of the largest transport costs and travel time savings are often the
greatest potential benefit of transport improvements.1 Travel time costs and the benefits
of travel time savings vary widely depending on factors such as type of trip, traveler and
travel condition. Although some travel time has zero or negative costs (people want to
spend time traveling), most travel time represents a cost.2 For example, one day a person
may choose to spend their free time enjoying a pleasant stroll or drive, but the next day
they may be willing to pay for a faster commute. Amenities such as portable telephones
and entertainment systems may reduce travel time costs under some conditions, but there
is little indication that a significant portion of travelers prefer to extend their daily travel
time (even with a telephone) rather than arrive more quickly at their destination. Under
some circumstances, travel time costs can be very high, for example, when traveling to an
emergency, rushing to catch an flight or delivering urgently-needed products. Travelers
sometimes place a high value on travel time reliability.3

Travel time costs incorporate various “quality of service” attributes, such as comfort,
safety and prestige. Per-minute travel time costs tend to be higher when drivers face
congestion, and for passengers who feel uncomfortable. For example, ten minutes spent
on a comfortable padded seat imposes less cost than the same ten minutes spent driving
on a congested road or standing on a crowded bus. Travel time may be relatively low for
some parts of a trip, but higher for others. For example, walking to a bus stop, waiting for
a bus, riding on an uncrowded bus, and riding on a crowded bus each can be considered
to have a different cost per minute.

1 Ian Heggie and Simon Thomas, “Economic Considerations,” Transportation and Traffic Engineering
Handbook, 2nd Edition, Institute of Transportation Engineers/Prentice-Hall (www.ite.org), 1982.
2 Patricia Mokhtarian and Ilan Salomon, “How Derived is the Demand for Travel? Some Conceptual and
Measurement Consideration” Transportation Research A, Vol. 35, No. 8
(www.elsevier.com/locate/tra), September 2001, pp. 695-719.
3 Henry X. Liu, Will Recker and Anthony Chen, “Uncovering the Contribution of Travel Time Reliability
to Dynamic Route Choice,” Transportation Research A, Vol. 38, No. 6 (www.elsevier.com/locate/tra), July
2004, pp. 435-453.

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Various studies have investigated the value businesses and consumers place on travel
time and travel time savings, based on economic costs and willingness to pay for faster
travel options.4 Below are some factors affecting travel time costs values.
• Commercial vehicle costs include drivers’ wages and overhead costs, vehicle costs, costs for
the value of freight (particularly perishables).
• Personal travel time is usually estimated at one-quarter to one-half of prevailing wage rates.
Per-minute time costs tend to increase for longer commutes (more than about 20 minutes).5
• Travel time costs tend to be higher for driving under congested conditions, and for
passengers under uncomfortable conditions.
• Travel time costs tend to be particularly high for unexpected delays.6
• Some travel time has a low cost or positive value because people enjoy the experience, for
example, for a pleasant drive or recreational train trip.
• Under pleasant conditions, walking and cycling can have positive value, but under
unpleasant or insecure conditions (for example, walking along a busy highway or waiting for
a bus in an area that seems dirty and unsafe), time spent walking, cycling and waiting for
transit has costs two or three times higher than time spent traveling.7
• Travel time costs tend to increase with income, and tend to be lower for children and people
who are retired or unemployed (or, put differently, people with full-time jobs tend to have
more demands on their time, and so tend to be willing to pay more for travel time savings.)
• Preferences vary. Some people place a higher cost on time spent driving and a low cost on
time spent as a transit passenger, while others have the opposite preferences.8
• Over the short-run, travel time savings can be calculated using consumer surplus (i.e., the
rule-of-half), but over the long run, increased travel speeds will tend to change land use and
travel patterns, resulting in a different set of consumer and economic impacts.9

4 Mark Wardman summarizes 105 such studies in, “The Value of Travel Time: A Review of British
Evidence,” Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, Vol. 32, No. 3, Sept. 1998, pp. 285-316. Also see
Hague Consulting Group and Accent Marketing, Value of Travel Time on UK Roads, DETR, 1994; J.
McEvoy, A. Prince, and L. Ferreira, “Generalized Cost Parameters for Travel Demand Forecasting in
Queensland, Road & Transport Research, Vol. 4, No. 2, June 1995, pp. 76-86.
5 Michael Welch and Huw Williams, “The Sensitivity of Transport Investment Benefits to the Evaluation of
Small Travel-Time Savings,” Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, Vol. 31, No. 3, Sept. 1997, pp.
231-254.
6Kenneth Small, Robert Noland, Xuehao Chu and David Lewis, Valuation of Travel-Time Savings and
Predictability in Congested Conditions for Highway User-Cost Estimation, NCHRP 431, Transportation
Research Board (www.trb.org) 1999; Lisa A. Schweitzer, David J. Forkenbrock, H. Michael Zhang and
Michael R. Crum, Highway Performance and Time-Sensitive Industries, Public Policy Center, University of
Iowa (www.uiowa.edu/~ppc), 1998.
7 Rachel Goodman, “A Traveller In Time: Understanding Deterrents to Walking to Work”, World
Transport Policy and Practice, Vol. 7, No. 4 (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp), 2001, pp. 50-54.
Kenneth Small, Urban Transportation Economics, Harwood (Chur), 1992, p. 45.
8 Raymond Novaco and Cheryl Collier, Commuting Stress, Ridesharing, and Gender: Analysis from the
1993 State of the Commute Study in Southern California, UCTC #208 (www.its.berkeley.edu), 1994.
9 David M. Newbery, “Spatial General Equilibrium and Cost-Benefit Analysis,” Cost-Benefit Analysis:
Environmental and Ecological Perspectives, Transaction Pub. (www.transactionpub.com), 2002, pp. 1-18.

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Even using lower range estimates, the value of vehicle occupants’ time significantly
exceeds vehicle operating expenses. For example, an automobile averaging 30 mph has
vehicle operating costs of about 10¢ per mile, but time costs of 20¢ per mile if valued at a
typical rate of $6.00 per hour, and more if there are additional passengers. Average travel
times, distances and speeds vary between modes, as shown in tables 5.2-1 and 5.2-2.

Table 5.2-1 Commute Trip Time, Length and Speed by Mode10

Automobile Transit Walking All
Commute Travel Time (min.) 19.0 49.9 9.6 19.7
Commute Trip Length (miles) 11.0 12.6 0.5 10.7
Commute Average Speed (mph) 34.7 15.2 3.1 32.3
Average travel time, distance and speed vary by mode.

Table 5.2-2 Average Public Transit Trip Characteristics11

Commuter Streetcar/ Subway/ All
Bus Train Trolley Elevated Transit
Trip Distance (miles) 11.7 24.3 3.6 10.0 12.4
Travel Time (minutes) 37.5 50.0 26.2 38.6 38.8
Travel Speed (mph) 18.7 29.2 8.3 15.5 19.2
Waiting Time (minutes) 10.8 9.1 6.3 7.4 9.8
Total Time (minutes) 48.3 59.1 32.4 46.0 48.7
Overall Speed (mph) 14.6 24.7 6.7 13.0 15.3

These factors have implications for valuing modal shifts. Transit, ridesharing, bicycling,
and walking often require more travel time than driving. Under favorable conditions this
time can be charged at a lower rate than driving alone because bus and carpool passengers
can relax or perform productive work, and bicyclists and walkers benefit from exercise.
However, these modes incur higher time costs when conditions are unpleasant, for
example, if buses are crowded and riders must wait or stand in uncomfortable conditions.

It is appropriate to assume that travelers who voluntarily choose a slower mode have not
increased their travel time cost.12 For example, if facility improvements or positive TDM
incentives induce people to walk or bicycle rather than drive for some trips, the extra time
required should not be considered an increased cost, since the travelers would not have
made the switch if they didn’t enjoy an overall gain. This assumption cannot be made if
negative incentives (such as uncompensated price increases or mandates) are used to
induce shifts to more time consuming modes.

10 Alan Pisarski, Travel Behavior Issues in the 90’s, USDOT (Washington DC), July 1992, p. 70.
11 Public Transit in America: Findings from the 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey, Center
For Urban Transportation Research (www.cutr.eng.usf.edu), 1998, Table 4-13.
12 Kenneth Small, “Project Evaluation,” Transportation Policy and Economics, Brookings Institute
(www.brookings.edu), 1998, also available at www.uctc.net.

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Estimates
Note: all monetary units are in U.S. dollars unless indicated otherwise.

• Apogee Research estimated travel time costs per passenger mile for urban peak and
urban off-peak travel at high, medium and low densities in two cities.13 Time values
were based on 50% of average local wages for commuting and 25% for other travel.

Table 5.2-3 Travel Time Costs in Two Cities (¢ per passenger mile)
Express- Non- Comm. Rail
way Expwy Rail Transit Bus Bicycle Walk
Boston Peak Off-P Peak Off-P Peak Off-P Peak Off-P Peak Off-P Peak Off-P Peak Off-P
High 24.3 9.6 40.4 23.9 28.9 22.7 40.1 28.6 50.5 39.8 60.6 47.8 243 159
Medium 15.2 8.0 24.3 15.9 19.8 14.0 28.1 25.3 50.5 39.8 60.6 47.8 202 159
Low 11.0 8.0 20.2 13.6 19.0 13.3 n/a n/a 50.5 39.8 60.6 47.8 202 159
Portland, MA
High 11.1 7.8 19.9 13.1 n/a n/a n/a n/a 42.6 33.5 49.8 39.2 166 131
Medium 10.0 7.1 16.6 11.2 n/a n/a n/a n/a 42.6 33.5 49.8 39.2 166 131
Low 7.7 6.0 12.4 9.8 n/a n/a n/a n/a 30.2 23.8 49.8 39.2 166 131

• A study by Booz Allen Hamilton used stated preference survey data to estimate own
and cross-elasticities for various costs (fares, travel time, waiting time, transit service
frequency, parking fees) modes (automobile, transit, taxi) and trip types (peak, off-
peak, work, education, other) in the Canberra, Australia region.14 They developed
generalized costs and travel time cost values, including estimates of the relative cost
of walking and waiting time for transit users. The travel time cost values from a
similar study in Brisbane, Australia are summarized in Table 5.2-4.

Table 5.2-4 Travel Time Costs in Brisbane, Australia (2003 Aus. Dollars)15
SHORT (UNDER 30 MINUTES) MEDIUM (30 – 45 MINUTES)
MODE PEAK OFF-PEAK PEAK OFF-PEAK
CBD NON CBD CBD NON CBD CBD NON CBD CBD NON CBD
Bus 9.20 7.70 7.50 5.90 9.20 8.70 7.60 7.50
Rail 9.30 6.90 6.90 6.00 8.80 7.70 7.90 6.70
Ferry 10.70 - 8.30 - - - - -
Car 10.60 9.00 8.30 7.10 10.10 8.00 9.00 6.40

• Delucchi estimates that carpools increase average trip distances by 10%, vanpools by
15%, buses from 4% for walking and 15% for auto access, and rail from 5% for
walking and 20% for auto access.16

13 The Costs of Transportation: Final Report, Conservation Law Foundation (Boston), 1994, p. 119-120.
14 Booz Allen Hamilton, ACT Transport Demand Elasticities Study, Canberra Department of Urban
Services (www.actpla.act.gov.au/plandev/transport/ACTElasticityStudy_FinalReport.pdf), April 2003.
15 N.J. Douglas, L.J. Franzmann, and T. W. Frost, The Estimation of Demand Parameters for Primary
Public Transport Service in Brisbane Attributes, Australian Transport Research Forum, Oct. 2003,
Wellington NZ (www.Douglaseconomics.co.nz), 2003.

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• A study by I.T. Transport investigates the value of travel time in developing countries,
for use in transport planning, based on surveys in rural Bangladesh that asked people
how much they were willing to pay for a reduction in travel time, for various travelers
and travel conditions. Table 5.2-5 summarizes the results in Taka (US$0.017). The
researchers were able to make generalized conclusions about the value people place
on travel time, and the use of quantification techniques, in developing countries.

Table 5.2-5 Travel Time Costs in Rural Bangladesh (Taka per hour)17
Average Men Women
In-vehicle Time 3.50 4.75 2.25
Walking Time 3.91 5.16 2.66
Additional Values
Uncomfortable travel conditions (add) 2.29
Market day (add) 1.47
Salaried or trader (add) 14.72
Travelling with a load (add) 0.48
Poor traveler (total travel time value) 0.31

• Based on an extensive review of international studies, World Bank economist

Kenneth Gwilliam concludes that work travel time should be valued at wages and
benefits, and that a default value for non-work (including commuting) travel time
should be 30% of household income per hour, unless better local data are available.18

• John Kain estimates that carpoolers incur an additional time cost of 8 minutes per trip
for two riders, 10 minutes for three riders, and 12 minutes for four riders, plus one
additional mile per passenger.19

• Buses are estimated to average 5.2 mph overall in central business districts, 10 mph in
cities, and 14.3 mph in suburban areas, including passenger stops.20

16 Mark Delucchi, Emissions of Criteria Pollutants, Toxic Air Pollutants, and Greenhouse Gases, from the
Use of Alternative Transportation Modes and Fuels, UC Transport. Center (Berkeley), No. 344, Table 42.
17 I.T. Transport, The Value of Time in Least Developed Countries, Department for International
Development, UK under its Knowledge and Research (KaR) Programme (www.transport-
links.org/transport_links), 2002.
18 Kenneth Gwilliam, The Value of Time in Economic Evaluation of Transport Projects; Lessons from
Recent Research, World Bank (Washington DC), January 1997.
19 John Kain, “Impacts of Congestion Pricing on Transit and Carpool Demand and Supply,” in Curbing
Gridlock, TRB, National Academy Press (www.trb.org), 1994, p. 516.
20 Herbert Levinson, “Analyzing Transit Time Performance,” 1983, cited in Characteristics of Urban
Transportation Systems, Federal Transit Administration (www.fta.dot.gov), September 1992, Table 3-1.

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• An extensive review of travel time values for the U.K. Department of Transport
estimates that personal (i.e., not including business travel) travel time savings average
6.6 pence per minute for commuting and 5.9 pence per minute for other trips, with
various possible modifications to reflect different travel conditions and user types.21

• Highway construction traffic delays can impose significant travel time costs and
spillover effects on other roadways.22 For some projects, such delays can offset a
significant portion of projected travel time savings.

• The National Highway Institute uses the following average speeds by mode.

Table 5.2-6 Average Travel Speeds by Mode23

Mode Minutes Per Mile Miles Per Hour
Automobile 1.9 32
Line Haul Rail 2.0 30
Light Rail 2.5 24
Auto Access 3.0 20
Line Haul Bus 4.0 15
Bicycle 5.0 12
Feeder Bus 6.0 10
Walk 20 3

• Pratt estimates that ridesharing (car- and vanpooling) typically adds 10-12 minutes in
additional travel time compared with driving alone (page 5-5).24 He also summarizes
information from various studies on the relative value of time spent by transit riders
on riding, walking and waiting (Table 10-12).

• Travel time costs tend to be significantly higher under congested and unpredictable
travel conditions. The tables below summarize the implied cost values. The
researchers suggest that travel time costs under congested conditions be calculated at
2.5 times that of overall travel time savings.

21 P. Mackie, et al., Values of Travel Time Savings in the UK, Institute for Transport Studies, University of
Leeds (www.its.leeds.ac.uk/working/downloads/VOTSummary.pdf), 2003.
22 Barbara McCann, et al., Road Work Ahead; Is Construction Worth the Wait, Surface Transportation
Policy Project (www.transact.org), 1999.
23 NHI, Estimating the Impacts of Urban Transportation Alternatives, Participant’s Notebook, National
Highway Institute, Federal Highway Admin. (Washington DC), Course #15257, Dec. 1995, p VI-16.
24 Richard H. Pratt, Traveler Response to Transportation System Changes, Interim Handbook, TCRP Web
Document 12 (www4.nationalacademies.org/trb/crp.nsf/all+projects/tcrp+b-12), DOT-FH-11-9579, 1999.

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Table 5.2-7 Cost of Shifting From Uncongested to Congested Travel25

Total Travel Time (Minutes) Cost Increment ($/Min.)
10 $0.79
15 0.52
26 0.30
30 0.26
45 0.17
60 0.13
This table shows willingness to pay for reduced congestion delay for various trip lengths.

Table 5.2-8 Estimated Values of Reliability

Trip Type and Income $/Min. of Standard Deviation
Work trip, higher income (>$45k/yr) $0.26
Work trip, lower income (<$45k/yr) 0.22
Non-work trip, higher income (>$45k/yr) 0.21
Non-work trip, lower income (<$45k/yr) 0.17
This table shows average willingness to pay for more reliable arrival time, based on the
standard deviation of trip (a measure of variation).

• The U.S. DOT uses the following travel time values for evaluating transportation
projects (1997 U.S. dollars): in-vehicle time, $8.90/person-hour; out-of-vehicle time
(e.g. waiting for a bus), $17.00/person-hour; commercial truck, $16.50/person-hour.26

Table 5.2-9 Recommended Travel Time Savings Values (Percent of Wage Rates)27
Surface Modes Air Travel Truck Drivers
Local Travel
Personal 50% (35-60%) - -
Business 100% (80-120%) - 100%
Intercity Travel
Personal 70% (60-90%) 70% (60-90%) -
Business 100% (80-120%) 100% (80-120%) 100%
Applies to all in-vehicle time. Walk access and waiting time should be valued at 100% of wage rates.
Values in parentheses indicate plausible ranges for use in sensitivity analysis.

25 Kenneth Small, et al, Valuation of Travel-Time Savings and Predictability in Congested Conditions for
Highway User-Cost Estimation, NCHRP 431, TRB (www.trb.org) 1999.
26 USDOT, Departmental Guidance on the Evaluation of Travel Time in Economic Analysis, memo,
USDOT (http://ostpxweb.dot.gov/policy/safety/VOT_Guidance_Revision_1.pdf), April 9, 1997; used in
STEAM software (www.ota.fhwa.dot.gov/steam).
27 Ibid.

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• TransFund New Zealand uses standard travel time values summarized in the table below.
Their project evaluation manual has detailed instructions for applying these values.

Table 5.2-10 Base Values for Vehicle Occupant Time (1998 NZ Dollars Per Hour)28
Mode Work Travel Non-Work Congestion
Purpose Travel Purpose Premium
Car, Motorcycle Driver $21.30 $7.00 $3.50
Car, Motorcycle Passenger $21.30 $5.25 $2.60
Light Commercial Driver $19.25 $7.00 $3.50
Light Commercial Passenger $19.25 $5.25 $2.60
Medium Commercial Driver $15.80 $7.00 $3.50
Medium Commercial Passenger $15.80 $5.25 $2.60
Heavy Commercial Driver $15.80 $7.00 $3.50
Heavy Commercial Passenger $15.80 $5.25 $2.60
Seated Bus Passenger $21.30 $5.25 $2.60
Standing Bus Passenger $21.30 $10.55 $2.60
Pedestrian and Cyclist $21.30 $10.55 NA
“Work” travel involves travel while paid. “Non-work” travel is all personal travel, including
commuting. “Congestion Premium” is an additional cost for travel in congested conditions.

• Table 5.2-11 indicates values of travel time recommended by the U.S. Department of
Transportation.

Table 5.2-11 Recommended Value of Travel Time29

Time Component Reference Value
In-Vehicle Personal (local) Of wages 50%
In-Vehicle Personal (Intercity) Of wages 70%
In-Vehicle Business Of total compensation 100%
Excess (waiting, walking, or transfer time) Personal Of wages 100%
Excess (waiting, walking, or transfer time) Business Of total compensation 100%
This table illustrates the values of travel time recommended by the U.S. Department of
Transportation. Values are calculated relative to wages for personal travel, and relative to total
compensation, averaging 120% of wages, for business travel.

28TransFund, Project Evaluation Manual, TransFund New Zealand (www.transfund.govt.nz), 1998.

29ECONorthwest and PBQD, Estimating the Benefits and Costs of Public Transit Projects, TCRP Report
78, (http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/tcrp/tcrp78/index.htm), TRB (www.trb.org), 2002.

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• The COBA model (the standard Cost Benefit Analysis framework for evaluating
transport improvements in the UK) uses the travel time values in Table 5.2-12.

Table 5.2-12 Travel Time Values Used by U.K. COBA Model30

Vehicle Occupancy Time Mode Per Occupant* Per Vehicle*
Car (working) 1.00 driver Working 1,289.8 1,407.6
0.11 passenger Working 1,070.6
Car (non-working) 1.00 driver Non-Working 315.0 548.1
0.74 passenger Non-Working
Average Car 1.00 driver 14.6% work 673.6
0.65 passenger
Light Goods Vehicle (working) 1.00 driver Working 1,003.1 1,424.4
0.42 passenger Working 1,003.1
Light Goods Vehicle (non-work) 1.00 driver Non-Working 315.0 504.0
0.60 passenger Non-Working 315.0
Average Light Goods Vehicle 1.00 driver 72% work 1,166.7
0.47 passenger
Other Goods Vehicle (truck) 1.00 driver Working 945.0 945.0
Public Service Vehicle (bus) 1.00 driver Working 983.1
12.1 passenger Non-Working 315.0
0.1 passenger Working 1,064.4 4,901.0
Average Vehicle 784.4
* 1994 U.K. Pence per hour.

• Travel time values used by BC transportation agencies are shown in Table 5.2-13.

Table 5.2-13 Travel Time Values Used by B.C. Ministry of Transportation31

Commercial vehicle driver
Personal vehicle driver
Adult car or bus passenger
Child passenger under 16 years
Travel Time Values
Wage rate plus fringe benefits
50% of current average wage
35% of current average wage
25% of current average wage

Congestion increases driver’s travel time costs by the following amounts according to roadway
Level of Service (LOS) ratings:
LOS D: multiply by 1.33 LOS E: multiply by 1.67 LOS F: multiply by 2.0
This summarizes the travel time cost scheduled developed for use in British Columbia.

Variability
Travel time costs vary depending on user, trip purpose and travel conditions.

30 R. Vickerman, “Evaluation Methodologies for Transport Projects in the United Kingdom,” Transport
Policy, Vol. 7, No. 1, January 2000, pp. 7-12.
31 William Waters, The Value of Time Savings for The Economic Evaluation of Highway Investments in
British Columbia, BC Ministry of Transportation and Highways (www.th.gov.bc.ca/bchighways), 1992.

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Equity and Efficiency Issues

Travel time is an internal cost. The main equity issue occurs if people who are
transportation disadvantaged bear excessive travel time costs compared with those who
are more advantaged. Travel time costs can be considered inefficient if users impose
delay on other travelers (see the Congestion Cost chapter).

Conclusions
The travel time cost schedule in Table 5.2-10 is used because it is current and
comprehensive. Drivers’ time is valued at $6.00 per hour (50% of $12.00 average wage)
and passengers’ at $4.20 per hour (35% of $12.00). These values are used for automobile
(car, van and light truck) modes and motorcycles. Urban Peak speeds are estimated to
average 30 mph with a 16.5% congestion cost premium (assuming that half of these trips
experience LOS D). Urban Off-Peak and Rural travel costs assume speeds averaging 35
and 40 mph respectively and no congestion premium.

Rideshare passengers are assumed to increase trip times by 20%. Diesel Bus and Electric
Bus/Trolley costs are estimated to average 12 mph under Urban Peak, 15 mph under
Urban Off-Peak, and 18 mph under rural travel conditions, based on average bus speeds
in Table 5.2-2. A travel time rate of $4.20 per hour is used for vehicle passengers, and no
congestion premium is charged. Unpleasant conditions, such as overcrowded buses would
significantly increase this cost. Walking and bicycling travel time is charged at $3.00 per
hour, which is half of the standard rate for SOV drivers, due to enjoyment and health
benefits, although this costs is sensitive to conditions and personal preference. Walking is
assumed to average 3 mph. Bicycling is assumed to average 10 mph, and incurs the
16.5% premium for Urban Peak travel. Telework incurs no time cost.

Estimate User Travel Time Costs (1996 U.S. Dollars per Passenger Mile)
Vehicle Class Urban Peak Urban Off-Peak Rural Average
Average Car 0.230 0.170 0.150 0.174
Compact Car 0.230 0.170 0.150 0.174
Electric Car 0.230 0.170 0.150 0.174
Van/Light Truck 0.230 0.170 0.150 0.174
Rideshare Passenger 0.180 0.154 0.135 0.152
Diesel Bus 0.350 0.280 0.233 0.275
Electric Bus/Trolley 0.350 0.280 0.233 0.275
Motorcycle 0.230 0.170 0.150 0.174
Bicycle 0.350 0.300 0.300 0.310
Walk 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Telework 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Automobile Cost Range

Travel time cost ranges described by Waters, 1992 are used for minimum and maximum.
Minimum Maximum
$0.11 $0.34

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Information Resources
Information sources on travel time costing are described below.

ASCE, Guide to Transportation Benefit-Cost Analysis, American Society of Civil Engineers

(http://ceenve.calpoly.edu/sullivan/cutep/cutep_bc_outline_main.htm), 2001.

Booz Allen Hamilton, ACT Transport Demand Elasticities Study, Canberra Department of Urban
Services (www.actpla.act.gov.au/plandev/transport/ACTElasticityStudy_FinalReport.pdf), April
2003.

Economic Evaluation Branch, Guide to Benefit-Cost Analysis in Transport Canada, Transport Canada
(Ottawa; www.tc.gc.ca/bca/intro_e.htm), September, 1994.

FHWA, Surface Transportation Efficiency Analysis Model (STEAM), Federal Highway

Administration (www.fhwa.dot.gov/steam), 1998.

David Luskin, Facts and Furphies in Benefit-Cost Analysis: Transport, Report 100, Bureau of
Transport Economics (www.bte.gov.au/docs/index.htm), 1999.

P. Mackie, et al., Values of Travel Time Savings in the UK, Institute for Transport Studies,
University of Leeds (www.its.leeds.ac.uk/working/downloads/VOTSummary.pdf), 2003.

Kenneth Small, “Project Evaluation,” in Transportation Policy and Economics, Brookings

(www.brookings.edu), 1999, also available at UCTC (www.uctc.net/papers/379.pdf).

Michael Spackman, Alan Pearman, Larry Phillips, Multi Criteria Analysis: A Manual, DETR
(www.environment.detr.gov.uk/multicriteria), January 2001.

TAC, A Primer on Investment and Economic Development, Transportation Association of Canada

(www.tac-atc.ca/resource/briefs.htm), 1994.

TRACE, Costs Of Private Road Travel And Their Effects On Demand, Including Short And Long
Term Elasticities, CORDIS - Community Research & Development Information Service
(www.cordis.lu/transport/src/trace.htm), 1999.

TRL, The Demand for Public Transit: A Practical Guide, Transportation Research Laboratory,
Report TRL 593 (www.trl.co.uk), 2004. This detailed study includes analysis of travel time
values and the impact of travel speed on transport behavior.

TTI, MicroBENCOST, Texas Transportation Institute (http://tti.tamu.edu), 1997.

VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2002.

Revision: August 23, 2004 TCA0502.PDF

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